Countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America briefly. Development paths for Asia, Africa and Latin America

One of the most significant global processes world history in the second half of the 20th century. was the liberation of the peoples of Asia and Africa from colonial and semi- colonial dependence, the collapse of colonial empires. As a result, several dozen new independent states appeared in the world, whose peoples, instead of being “objects” of history, became its active creators.

Panorama of liberation

The process of liberation of colonial and dependent countries, which lasted several decades, was full of tension and drama. It combined everyday struggles with climactic, turning-point events whose significance went beyond national history. These included, for example, the proclamation of the Republic of India in 1950, the liberation of 17 African states in 1960, the fall of the last colonial empire - the Portuguese - in the mid-1970s (it is noteworthy that the Portuguese were the first to come to Africa as colonialists and the last to leave from her). Masses of people took part in the independence movement, and bright, original leaders emerged. It can be said without exaggeration that the result of these events was a change in the face of the world, the emergence of completely new phenomena and processes in it.

The leaders of the liberation struggle in individual countries had different social origins, views and beliefs, and political experience. Some of them, like J. Nehru, for example, became public and political figures according to family tradition, continuing the work of their parents. Others worked their way up from the lower social classes, managing to obtain an education and profession that led them to the liberation movement. For others launching pad served military career. Among the leaders liberation movement Among the peoples of Africa in the 1950-1960s, there were many people who belonged to the scientific and creative intelligentsia. Thus, the first President of the Republic of Ghana, K. Nkrumah, had the title of Master of Pedagogy and Philosophy, the head of the government of Senegal, L. S. Senghor, was a sociologist and one of the outstanding African poets. The first President of the Republic of Angola, A. A. Neto, is also known as a prominent cultural figure, writer and poet.

Paths and models of development

Choosing a path. From the first steps political independence The states of Asia and Africa were faced with questions: which way to go next? How to break out of backwardness and poverty and catch up with advanced countries?

The world of developed countries in those years was split into Western and Eastern (capitalist and socialist) blocks. The liberated countries were offered respectively two paths - capitalist or socialist. Today the conventionality of these definitions has become obvious. But in those years they were considered as fundamental various options development, with particular emphasis on ideological and political confrontation. The choice of liberated countries was often primarily a political orientation towards one or another group of states. Politics in such cases “went ahead” of the economy.

In the countries of South- East Asia, the liberation of which took place at the end of the Second World War and immediately after its completion, the demarcation of currents and groups within the liberation movement, their cooperation with various external forces led to the split of some countries (Vietnam, Korea), the violation of the territorial integrity of others (the separation of Taiwan from China) .

In the late 1950s - 1970s, most of the young states retained the “capitalist orientation” inherited from the former metropolises. These were primarily countries where the industrial structure turned out to be relatively advanced. At the same time, new features emerged in their development - the creation of a significant public sector, state regulation of the economy, the introduction of long-term planning, state economic and social programs.

The “non-capitalist” socialist orientation was adopted by a smaller number of liberated countries. In the 1960s, about 30 states announced such a choice; by the end of the 1980s, there were about ten. Often these were countries with a predominance of pre-industrial, sometimes communal, relations. The transition from communal property to socialized property seemed to them the fastest and most painless way to solve their economic and social problems.

In countries that embarked on this path in the 1960s (Algeria, Syria, etc.), gradual transformations of a general democratic nature were carried out. The forces that came to power most often took revolutionary democratic positions and did not share Marxist ideas. States that chose a “non-capitalist” orientation in the 1970s (Angola, Afghanistan, Ethiopia) were led by politicians who declared that they were “guided by the ideas of scientific socialism.” Accordingly, the tasks they set were more radical in nature. In reality, these countries faced many problems. They were underdeveloped, there was practically no working class here, which, according to ideological concepts, should have become the support of the new system, the peasantry in its modern understanding was not formed, communal-tribal relations played a significant role, ethnic, tribal, and religious contradictions were not overcome. All this created a gap between the slogans put forward and reality.

Among the countries of Asia and Africa, there were also those that chose not one of the two proposed European world, but its own (“third”, “fourth”) path of development. One example of such a choice was demonstrated by Iran, in which the so-called “Islamic state” established itself.

In 1979, as a result of the anti-monarchist revolution in the country, the Shah's regime was overthrown and the Islamic Republic was proclaimed. According to the constitution, legislative power began to belong to the Majlis (parliament), and executive power to the president and the council of ministers. At the same time, the activities of both the president and the government are controlled by the highest spiritual and political authority - the velay-i-faqih (one of the leaders of the Iranian revolution, Ayatollah R. Khomeini, was one of the leaders of the Iranian revolution until his death). The basis of legislation and the entire internal life of the country is the establishment of the holy book of Muslims - the Koran and the code of everyday norms - Sharia. According to the constitution, the leading role in society belongs to the Muslim clergy.

A special path was chosen in Libya. In September 1969, the performance of an organization of young officers led by M. Gaddafi led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of a republic. In 1977, a decree announced the establishment of a “regime of people’s power”, and a new name for the country was adopted - the Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (jamahir in Arabic means “the masses”). The highest authorities in the country are the General People's Congress and the Supreme people's committee. The post of head of state was taken by M. Gaddafi, whose official title is “Leader of the September 1 Revolution.” He put forward the concept that the path to democracy lies through a “people's revolution”, establishing a regime where power is exercised not by a party, not by a class, not by parliament, but by “the whole people” (through public assemblies and committees).

Evolution or Leap? In the early years of independent India, J. Nehru wrote: “Should we follow the English, French or American path? Do we really have 100-150 years to reach our goal? This is completely unacceptable. In this case, we will simply die."

It is safe to assume that the question is: how, in what way and at the expense of what to overcome backwardness and achieve dynamic development? - the leaders of many liberated countries set themselves. In the variety of answers to it, two approaches can be distinguished. In one the idea prevails evolutionary development, when the new is created in unity with the traditional, it transforms what already exists, in accordance with the spirit of the time, but without destroying the previously established foundations. Thus, J. Nehru noted that the history of India “is a process of continuous adaptation of old ideas to a changing environment, old forms to new ones. In view of this, in Indian history there are no breaks in the development of culture and, despite repeated changes, there is continuity from the ancient times of Mohenjo-Daro to our century.”

Another approach is focused on a breakthrough, a leap in development. It manifested itself in the “Great Leap Forward” of the late 1950s in China, the so-called “leap of the tigers” - the “new industrial countries” of Southeast Asia in the 1970-1980s, and the economic recovery in the same years in a number of oil-producing Arab states . The sources of the “leap” in individual countries were different - investment from outside, profits from the exploitation of natural resources, cheap labor, etc. Its methods also varied (use of advanced technologies, organization of production, labor policy, etc.).

Liberated countries in the modern world

One of the main tasks facing the young states of Asia and Africa in the second half of the 20th century was achieving economic and cultural independence. Related to this is the problem of confronting neocolonialism as a system of unequal economic and political relations imposed by leading industrial powers and transnational capital. Post-colonial exploitation of the countries of Asia and Africa is carried out through the penetration of transnational companies into their economies, economic dictates based on the huge external debt of these countries, and military pressure.

The economic activities of foreign monopolies in Asian and African countries are selective. They open their enterprises in more developed countries, where there are rich natural resources, a cheap labor market, where low pay is combined with the presence of disciplined, easily trained workers. The policy of international monopolies in the countries of Asia and Africa is characterized by the promotion of agrarian and raw material specialization of the economy, the deployment of predominantly lower levels of industrial production (mining and manufacturing industries, the production of semi-finished products, etc.), and the export of environmentally harmful industries from developed countries to these regions.

One of the most pressing problems for countries in Asia and Africa is external debt. In the second half of the 1980s, it accounted for almost 2/5 of their annual gross production of goods and services. These states often use up all the foreign aid they receive to pay interest and other obligations on their external debt.

Gaining independence and the desire for dynamic development led the states of Asia and Africa to actively participate in international political and economic cooperation, in the work of the UN and other organizations. Many of them became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (its first conference was held in Belgrade in 1961), which by the mid-1980s already included 100 states. Supporters of the movement advocated non-participation in military-political blocs, for peace and international security, and the restructuring of international relations on the basis of equality and justice.

In 1963, the Organization of African Unity was created, which advocated strengthening national sovereignty, political and economic cooperation of African countries, against all types of colonialism and neo-colonialism, racism and apartheid (by the end of the 20th century it included more than 50 states). In 2001 it was replaced by the African Union. A number of international organizations, including the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and regional associations, also protect the economic interests of the countries of Asia and Africa.

The above review describes the main processes, trends and problems of development of Asian and African countries in the second half of the 20th century. Next, situations in individual states and groups of countries are considered.

Japan

From defeat to leadership, the “Japanese miracle.” This can be called the path traveled by Japan in the second half of the 20th century. A country that was defeated in the war, lost all previously conquered territories, and was subjected to atomic bombing, over several decades it has become one of the leading states in the industrial world.

What was the basis for this success? Historians believe that the main role in it was played by the technology that appeared in Japan since the end of the 19th century. ability to modernize, while rapid, dynamic development was carried out on the basis of traditional relations for a given society. The post-war economy of Japan was distinguished by such features as high growth rates of industrial production, widespread use latest technologies, expansion externally economic ties. In the difficult post-war years, the country put forward the slogan “Export first!” The products of Japanese industry have become the standard of quality. Japanese goods began to penetrate world markets. Country's share in exports Western world increased during 1950-1979. from 1.3 to 8.5%. In the 1970s, Japanese monopolies greatly expanded capital exports, and in the 1980s, Japan supplanted the United States as the world's largest banking country.

Figures and facts

From the late 1950s to the late 1970s, Japanese automobile production increased 100-fold. In 1979, 10 million cars were produced, almost as many as in the United States. In the early 1980s, more cars were produced than in the United States, and half of Japanese cars were exported.

In the 1960s, Japanese industry overtook the United States in the number of radios produced, and in the 1970s - in the production of televisions. At the same time, Japan was ahead of Germany in watch production.

Explaining the reasons for such a successful development of the country, experts talk not only about the rapid renewal of capital, the use of the latest world scientific discoveries and inventions, Japan’s insignificant military expenditures, etc. The importance of traditional labor culture is especially emphasized - hard work, discipline, and the desire for general success. In medium and small enterprises in Japan, employee relations are built like in a large family - with the younger ones subordinating to the elders, and the elders caring for the younger ones. Thus, the human factor plays no less important role than economic and technological factors.

Japan's scientific, technological and economic achievements were also facilitated by a consistent policy of supporting the medium and higher education. At the end of the 1980s, 93% of Japanese children received a complete 12-year secondary education, and more than a third continued their studies at universities and colleges.

In the political sphere, the embodiment of the traditional foundations of Japanese society is the monarchical form of the state that has survived to this day. The emperor is not involved in the day-to-day management of the country; he acts as a “symbol of the state and the unity of the nation,” the supreme custodian of the state religion of Shinto, personifying the unified spiritual basis of Japanese society.

In the post-war years, a system of multi-party parliamentary democracy developed in Japan. For almost 40 years, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), essentially a conservative party, was in power. The opposition on the left was the Socialist Party and the Communists. During the crisis of the 1970s, the position of the LDP weakened, and it lost its majority in parliament several times. In 1993-1996. For the first time in the post-war years, coalition governments were in power, including those led by the socialist T. Murayama. At the beginning of the 21st century. The LDP regained its parliamentary majority.

Japan's foreign policy in the post-war decades was determined by decisions to demilitarize the country. Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution of 1947 contained the “three non-nuclear principles”: not to have, not to produce and not to import nuclear weapons. Instead of an army, “self-defense forces” were created. However, in the 1970-1980s, the country's military spending began to increase, and Japanese troops began to take part in international maneuvers. Japan's military potential has increased.

Development Paths for East, Southeast and South Asian Countries

This part of Asia was the focus of several historical civilizations, each of which followed its own path of development. Liberation from colonial and semi-colonial dependence gave the peoples of the region the opportunity for self-determination and control over their own destinies. At the same time, they were faced with a choice, which was already mentioned above. Moreover, it was here that the choice was accompanied by the split of previously united countries into states with different social systems.

China

After the end of World War II, civil war continued for several years in China between supporters of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CCP). In 1949 it ended with the defeat of the Kuomintang army. Chiang Kai-shek and the remnants of his troops took refuge on the island of Taiwan. Subsequently, an authoritarian regime was established in Taiwan, headed by Chiang Kai-shek and then by his son Jiang Ching-kuo. From 1949 to 1987 there was a state of emergency. The preservation of the Taiwanese regime was facilitated by diplomatic and military support from the United States.

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed. In the first half of the 1950s, the PRC adopted a policy of building socialism along the Soviet model. At the same time, the uniqueness of China was taken into account, the preservation of small private ownership of the means of production was provided for, elements of a mixed economy were allowed, etc. But it was not easy to raise a huge country from ruin and poverty. But Chinese leader Mao Zedong did not have enough patience for a long journey. Already in 1955, the pace of collectivization and industrialization began to “accelerate.” After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin’s personality cult, Mao Zedong, seeking to maintain his power in the party, curtailed contacts with the Soviet party and state leadership.

In May 1958, the “three red banners” policy was proclaimed, which included a “new general line”, a “great leap forward” and “people's communes”. The slogan of the new course was the saying: “Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness!”

Industry received inflated targets. Agricultural collectives united into large “people's communes”, in which everything was socialized, down to household utensils. Each commune included several thousand peasant farms. They had to become self-sufficient, including producing steel, tools, etc. The construction of many blast furnaces began, in which low-quality steel was smelted in an artisanal way. A year later it became clear that the “leap” had failed. The country was left without steel and without food. In the early 1960s, famine struck her.

The next revolutionary campaign covered the political and ideological sphere. In 1966, the “great proletarian cultural revolution” began. One of its mottos was: “Open fire on headquarters!” To fulfill this task, leading party and state bodies were purged, teachers were expelled from higher educational institutions, and representatives of the intelligentsia were sent “for re-education” to the villages. The main driving force of the cultural revolution was student and working youth - the Red Guards ("red guards") and zaofani ("rebels"), equipped with Mao Zedong's quotation books. “The Great Helmsman,” as Mao Zedong was called, said: “We need determined people, young, without much education, with strong positions and political experience, to take matters into their own hands.”

After the death of Mao Zedong (September 1976) power passed to his widow and several associates - the so-called “group of four”. Not wanting to change anything in the country, they tried to rely on the concept of “poor socialism”, but were soon overthrown. The new leaders faced the question of what course to take next.

One of the oldest figures of the Chinese Communist Party played a decisive role in the transition to a new policy Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997).

Having joined the party in 1924, he went through a long path full of trials. He was deprived of party posts three times, including during the years of the “great cultural revolution,” when his entire family was persecuted. Deng Xiaoping used his return to power in 1977 to make a turnaround in the country's development. At the same time, he maintained the belief that economic development will be successful if it is guided by a strong party.

Since 1979, under the slogan of “socialist modernization”, economic and social reforms. In rural areas, “yard contracting” was introduced (peasants could rent land for 15 years), it was allowed to purchase equipment, and use hired labor. In industry, the independence of enterprises in planning, organizing production and marketing products expanded. There was a transition to a multi-structure economy. Along with state property, joint-stock and private property was legalized. An open door policy in foreign economic relations was proclaimed: foreign investment in the Chinese economy was allowed, free economic zones were created.

The reforms brought both clearly positive results and some problems. In the first half of the 1980s, there was a significant increase in industrial and agricultural production (in 1984, for example, the increase in production was 14.2%). For the first time in many decades, a country with a billion people solved the food problem and even began to export food. People's well-being has improved. At the same time, after the abolition of centralized public administration, the number of intermediary administrative companies increased, and corruption developed among government officials.

The political and ideological foundations of society underwent almost no changes during the reforms. The CPC followed the teachings of Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong (although the party charter included a clause about the inadmissibility of the cult of personality). In 1987, the Party Congress set the goal of moving “along the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

Keeping it the same political system caused criticism from some social forces. In the spring and summer of 1989, Tiananmen Square took place in Beijing. student performances with demands for democratic changes: the abolition of the CPC monopoly on power, the introduction of a multi-party system, respect for human rights, etc.

Troops were sent against the demonstrators using weapons. Many of those gathered were killed or wounded. The events sparked international protest. But within the country, their consequence was only the resignation of individual party leaders. The next congress of the CPC in 1992 confirmed the task of strengthening the “democratic dictatorship of the people” and the leading role of the party.

In 1997, China returned Hong Kong (loaned to Great Britain at the end of the 19th century). Since the late 1970s, negotiations have periodically resumed regarding the reunification of Taiwan (which separated in 1949) with China. During the post-war decades, significant advances in industrial development were achieved here (more on this below). In relation to these territories, the “patriarch of Chinese reforms” Deng Xiaoping put forward the proposition: “One state, two systems.” The line towards the diversity of forms of economic life was continued.

Vietnam and Korea

The fates of Vietnam and Korea developed in a special way, divided after the war into states with different social order. In both countries, communist-led liberation forces proclaimed democratic republics in 1945. But the new government established itself only on part of the territory of each country. The southern and central regions of Vietnam were occupied by French troops (until Japanese occupation Vietnam was the possession of France, and the former owners wanted their property back). The war of resistance to the colonialists lasted until 1954. As a result of the Geneva Agreement, the country was divided into two parts along the 17th parallel.

Socialist construction began in North Vietnam, with assistance provided by the Soviet Union and other states of the “eastern” bloc. The Vietnamese Workers' Party, led by Ho Chi Minh, also set the goal of achieving the unification of the country. At this time, the Republic of Vietnam with its capital in Saigon, supported by the United States, arose south of the 17th parallel. In 1964, the United States directly intervened in the confrontation between North and South by sending troops to Vietnam.

The Vietnam War ended in 1973 with the defeat of the Saigon regime and US troops. In 1976, the country was unified and it was proclaimed Socialist Republic Vietnam. The socio-economic system of the South began to be rebuilt along the lines of the North. But the difficulties of post-war reconstruction and changes in the international situation sharply raised the question of the course of the country as a whole. In the 1980s, Vietnam began to undergo economic transformations similar to those that had previously unfolded in China.

In Korea, which in 1945 was liberated from the Japanese occupiers by Soviet troops from the north and occupied by the Americans from the south, a demarcation line was established along the 38th parallel. Two states emerged in the two zones of occupation - the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. (Remember when and where else a similar situation took place.)

unfolded between them in 1950-1953. the war, in which foreign powers also participated, did not give an advantage to either side. Each state continued to go its own way. This concerned primarily the economic system. IN North Korea A nationalized, centralized economy was established. In South Korea, a market economy developed on the basis of private ownership of the means of production (however, state regulation of the economy played a significant role here).

Significant differences characterize the socio-political systems of the two states. In North Korea, the Juche doctrine, developed by its long-time leader Kim Il Sung, was being implemented. In it, in particular, it is proclaimed: “Man is the master of everything,” “Man decides everything.” There were similar declarations in the system of democratic values ​​promoted in South Korean society. However, power in the two countries took different forms. In the DPRK it was the sole power of the “leader” - the president of the country and General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea Kim Il Sung, which passed after his death to his son Kim Jong Il. For several decades, South Korea had a military regime that relied on a one-party system and brutally dealt with any manifestations of opposition. It was not until 1987 that the first multi-party elections were held. In 1993 he became president civil politician- one of the leaders of the opposition - Kim Yong Sam.

South Korea, along with Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore, became one of the newly industrialized countries. They made their presence known in the 1970s, when they literally burst into world markets with a wide range of their products - from computers and marine vessels to clothing and shoes. The Western press dubbed them “young tigers” or “dragons.”

Their path was in many ways similar to what had been done previously in Japan. The economic policy of these states is characterized by the following features: the use of state regulation of the economy; encouraging domestic capital accumulation; introduction of the latest technologies by studying world innovations, acquiring licenses, improving the organization of production; phased industrialization; full stimulation of product exports.

In the 1980s, several other states in this region followed a similar path - Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand.

India

Nehru course. On August 15, 1947, the flag of independent India was hoisted over the Red Fort in Delhi. In this regard, the famous figure of the liberation movement J. Nehru said: “We have completely suffered for our freedom, our hearts still hold the pain of this suffering. Nevertheless, the past is over, and now all our thoughts are directed only to the future. But the future will not be easy... Serving India means serving millions of suffering and unfortunate people. It means striving to end centuries of poverty, disease and unequal opportunity... We must build a new and magnificent home for free India - a home in which all her children can live.”

Jawaharlal Nehru became the first and permanent head of the government of India for 17 years (until his death in 1964). His work was continued by his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi, who headed the country's government in the 1960-1980s. The backbone of their policy was the massive and influential Indian National Congress party, which was in power for almost the entire period from the beginning of the country's independence, with breaks in 1977-1979 and 1989-1991.

The main activities of the government of J. Nehru were: reorganization of the country's states along national-ethnic lines; agrarian reform, as a result of which large-scale landownership was limited, part of the land was transferred to land-poor peasants; the creation of a public sector in industry and the introduction of planning in the economy; the beginning of industrialization. In domestic policy, emphasis was placed on a combination of the principles of democracy and centralism. An expression of independent India's foreign policy was its participation in the organization of the Non-Aligned Movement. I. Gandhi, continuing her father’s course, sought to strengthen the economic position of the state; in 1969, the nationalization of large banks was carried out. R. Gandhi considered the main objectives of his policy to be ensuring national unity and territorial integrity of the country, raising the living standards of the least affluent segments of the population, and modernizing production.

In the 1980s, nationalist and separatist movements began to intensify in India. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, the struggle of Sikhs for autonomy and then for separation from India, and protests by Tamil separatists in the south of the country led to numerous casualties. I. Gandhi (1984) and R. Gandhi (killed in 1991 while traveling around the country during the election campaign) died at the hands of terrorists.

Afghan experiment

Historical reference

Development of Afghanistan until 1978: figures and facts

The main branch of the economy was agriculture. It provided 60% of the gross national product (GNP). Landowners, who made up 2% of the rural population, owned 30% of cultivable land, while about 1/3 of peasant farms had no land at all. Rent with payment to the landowner of up to half of the harvest was common. More than half of the land suitable for crops was not cultivated. At the same time, the country imported a significant part of the grain and other food consumed. Industry accounted for only 3.3% of GNP. There were just over 200 industrial enterprises in the country (mainly processing agricultural raw materials), where a total of 44 thousand people worked. Another 67 thousand people were employed in construction.

About 2.5 million people in Afghanistan led a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle ( total number The country's population at that time was about 16.5 million people). The Pashtuns, who made up more than half of the population, lived in conditions of tribal relations.

In this country, the leaders of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which came to power after the April uprising of 1978, proclaimed the tasks of “establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat” and (in the next five years) “transition to socialism.” This course received the support of Soviet leaders, as it fit into the then dominant concept of socialist orientation.

The rivalry between party groups led to a political coup at the end of 1979. The leader of the PDPA, head of the Revolutionary Council N. Taraki, was overthrown by his comrade-in-arms X. Amin and then killed. The Soviet leadership decided to intervene in the course of events. In December 1979, Amin died during the storming of the presidential palace by Soviet special forces. Soviet military units entered Afghanistan. B. Karmal became the head of the party and state. The course towards “building socialism” continued.

Soon after the establishment of power by the PDPA in Afghanistan, a number of decrees were issued regulating agrarian relations: first, a decree on reducing the debt of landless and land-poor peasants, eliminating usury, then on carrying out agrarian reform. The latter provided for the confiscation of large land holdings without compensation and the confiscation of part of the land from the middle peasants. Landless peasants received land, but without the right to sell it, rent it out, or split it up upon inheritance. Hired work was prohibited. The practical implementation of these and other decrees met first with hidden and then with obvious resistance from the peasantry. Many peasants sided with the anti-government Islamic opposition.

Opposition forces began an open struggle against the authorities. Armed detachments of Mujahideen (fighters for the faith) were created. More than 100 camps and training centers were organized on the territory of Pakistan and Iran, where military formations were trained with the help of Western instructors. The outbreak of a civil war, in which Soviet troops took part on the side of the government, led to the death of hundreds of thousands of people and the destruction of cities and villages. Finding itself unable to deal with the opposition, the government took a number of steps towards reconciliation. In 1987, Najibullah became the new president of the country. In 1988, a series of agreements on a political settlement in Afghanistan were concluded with the participation of Pakistan, the USSR and the USA. In accordance with them, all Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989 (in the same year The Supreme Council The USSR condemned the decision taken in 1979 to send troops to Afghanistan).

Despite the agreements, the authorities' attempts to achieve national reconciliation failed. In 1992, armed mujahideen units captured Kabul. Power passed to the Jihad Council (“jihad” is the struggle for faith; the Jihad Council is a coalition of Islamic parties). The country was declared an Islamic state. The head of the Islamic Society of Afghanistan, B. Rabbani, began to serve as the country's president. At the same time, the struggle for power continued in the center and locally between the commanders of military formations belonging to different parties and national groups - G. Hekmatyar (a representative of the large ethnic group of Pashtuns, he also headed the Islamic Party of Afghanistan), A. Sh. Masud ( Tajik by nationality), R. Dostum (representing the Uzbek population of the north of the country).

In 1995, the Islamic movement Taliban joined the fight. Its organizers are Taliban (which means “students”) - former students of religious schools who were trained in opposition military camps.

In September 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul and then most of the country.

Following the reprisal against political opponents, they demanded that the population strictly adhere to Sharia law. Women were prohibited from working outside the home and appearing on the street without a burqa, and girls were prohibited from attending school. It was also forbidden to watch TV shows, movies, listen to music on the radio, etc. Deviation from the prescribed rules was punishable by medieval Islamic laws.

One of the journalists called the events in Afghanistan “a war without end and winners.” In the fall of 2001, after the Taliban government refused to extradite William bin Laden, who organized terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, to the United States of America, a military operation was carried out in Afghanistan to overthrow the government. Along with American troops, armed anti-Taliban opposition forces took part in it. The Taliban left Kabul. In December 2001, a new interim administration of Afghanistan was formed. In 2004, a new president of the country was elected. However, civil strife continues.

Countries of the Arab world. Middle East conflict

A wave of liberation revolutions took place in Arab countries in the 1950s and 1960s. In some cases, this was the overthrow of monarchical regimes, for example in Egypt in 1952, Iraq in 1958. Patriotic army officers played a significant role in these revolutions, which had the nature of a coup. In other cases, revolutions crowned many years of liberation struggle against colonial rule. This happened in Algeria, where the struggle for independence since 1954 grew into popular uprising, covered all segments of the population, and the Front became the organizing force national liberation. The proclamation of the Algerian People's Democratic Republic in 1962 meant the victory of the revolution.

The general results of these events were the establishment of parliamentary republics in most Arab countries, the implementation of democratic socio-economic reforms, including agrarian reforms, and the nationalization of part of industry. The positions of foreign capital were limited. The diversity of interests of individual social groups - entrepreneurs and intellectuals, Islamic clergy, artisans and traders, workers and peasants - made the political development of these countries very contradictory and changeable. In addition to internal disagreements, there was also the influence of external forces and the desire of the leading world powers to strengthen their positions in this strategically important region. It is not surprising that in a relatively short period of time by historical standards (30-40 years), in many countries political regimes and policies changed two or three times.

This is how it was in Egypt, where the tenure of three leaders - G. A. Nasser (1954-1970), A. Sadat (1970-1981) and M. X. Mubarak (1981-2011) - was accompanied by significant changes in domestic and foreign policy. In the first years of Nasser's presidency, banks, large industries, and transport were nationalized, a public sector in the economy was created, and agrarian reform was carried out. In the 1960s, the transition to general economic planning began, and political rights population, equality of women was established. The “socialist perspective” for Egypt’s development was discussed. But, according to the plans of the Egyptian leaders, this “socialism” was supposed to have a “national character”, differ from communism (class struggle and the idea of ​​the dictatorship of the proletariat were rejected), and follow the principles and norms of Islam. Political parties were dissolved and the Arab Socialist Union was created - a special organization that combined the features of a party and a broad social movement that united representatives of different social strata. Since the mid-1960s, economic cooperation with the USSR has expanded. One of its most striking manifestations was the construction of the Aswan Dam and hydroelectric power station on the Nile.

A. Sadat, who led the country after the sudden death of Nasser, sharply changed course. A policy of curtailing the public sector, encouraging private entrepreneurship, and “infitah” (“open doors” for foreign capital) began to be pursued. For 1974-1984 the share of the private sector in industrial production increased from 10 to 23%. Part of the land that had been taken from them was returned to the landowners. The Arab Socialist Union was dissolved, and a multi-party system was restored, although real power was consolidated with one party. In foreign policy there has been a rapprochement with the United States. Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel (1979) led to Egypt's isolation in the Arab world.

M. X. Mubarak's policy was measured and balanced. Strengthening the position of the national economy was combined with the encouragement of foreign investment (primarily in the manufacturing sector). In an effort to achieve internal stability, the president has tightened control over the activities of the opposition, especially extremist Muslim organizations. Flexible foreign policy in the 1980s and 1990s, he allowed Egypt to regain its place as a leader in the Arab world. However, at the beginning of the 21st century. Dissatisfaction with the situation in the country and the rule of Mubarak began to grow among Egyptians.

The post-war history of Iraq also provides an example of the variability of political development. After the overthrow of the monarchy (1958), power passed several times from military regimes to the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (short name - PASV, in Arabic - “Baath”). This party united wide sections of the population - from the intelligentsia and military to peasants, small artisans, workers - and existed simultaneously in a number of Arab countries. In 1979, S. Hussein came to power in the Baath Party and in the state, concentrating in his hands the posts of president, head of government, and supreme commander in chief armed forces. Saddam Hussein's dictatorial domestic policy was combined with aggressive actions against neighboring states. In the 1980s, Iraq waged a war against Iran, and in 1990 it carried out a military invasion of Kuwait. In 2003, the Saddam Hussein regime was overthrown as a result of a military operation by US and British troops.

IN Algeria For several decades, the policy has been to “build socialism within the framework of national values ​​and Islam.” Banks, large-scale industry, transport, and power plants passed into the hands of the state. At the same time, the positions of medium and small private capital have been preserved. A significant part of the land was nationalized and transferred to peasant cooperatives. The inefficiency of the state economy was partly compensated for by oil revenues. But in the 1980s, the situation in the country worsened, and food problems arose. This caused protests and speeches by opposition forces. In November 1988, the ruling National Liberation Front party was transformed into public organization with the same name. In accordance with the new constitution, the creation began political parties of various persuasions - from socialist and democratic to fundamentalist (who advocated a return to the “original norms of Islam”). In 1990-1991 The fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front party won the majority of votes in local and then parliamentary elections. To prevent her coming to power, the country's leadership canceled the next round of voting. In subsequent years, the situation in the country remained tense.

In the first decades of the 21st century. internal contradictions in the Arab world led to a new series of turning points. Thus, at the beginning of 2011, political crises occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, ending with the resignations of the presidents who led these countries for several decades. And opposition protests against the rule of M. Gaddafi in Libya turned into armed confrontation. In March of this year, an international military operation began in Libya with missile attacks on the country's capital.

On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly decided to partition Palestine, freed from British rule, and form on its territory two independent states - Jewish and Arab.

On May 14, 1948, the Jewish State of Israel was proclaimed. The Arabs of Palestine, with the support of a number of Arab countries, immediately declared war on the new state. Arab-Israeli War 1948-1949 ended in defeat for the Arab forces. Israel captured part of the territory intended for a Palestinian Arab state. About 900 thousand Arabs were forced to leave their land and move to other countries. The first clash was followed by a series of wars between Israel and Arab countries(see map).

Dates and events

• May 1948- July 1949 - the first Arab-Israeli war (troops from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, etc. participated in the attack on Israel). October 1956 - Israeli participation, together with Great Britain and France, in aggression against Egypt.
• June 1967- "Six Day War". Israel's seizure of territories that belonged to Syria, Egypt, and Jordan.
• May - June 1970, September 1972 - the invasion of Israeli troops into Lebanese territory, where units of the Palestinian resistance movement were hiding, repulsed by Lebanese and Syrian troops.
• October 1973- Arab-Israeli war over Arab territories previously captured by Israel.
• June 1982- the invasion of Israeli troops into Lebanon, the capture of the western part of the country's capital, Beirut.

In the early 1980s, Israel came under control of an area 7.5 times larger than that allocated to the Jewish state in 1947. Jewish settlements began to be founded on the occupied lands. In response, in 1987, the “intifada” began - the Arab uprising. In 1988, the Palestinian National Council, convened in Algiers, announced the creation of an Arab State of Palestine. The difficulty of the situation was that each side justified its claims to the territory of Palestine by the so-called “historical right”, declaring that at one time in the past it all belonged to this territory.

The first attempt to stop the conflict was an agreement signed by the leaders of Israel and Egypt M. Begin and A. Sadat through US mediation in 1979 at Camp David.

It was negatively received both in the Arab world and by extremist forces in Israel. Subsequently, one of the reasons for the murder of A. Sadat by Islamic militants was that he “betrayed the Arab cause” by signing these agreements.

Only in the mid-1990s did negotiations between Israeli Prime Ministers I. Rabin and Sh. Peres, on the one hand, and the head of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Ya. Arafat, on the other hand, lead to the conclusion of agreements on a Middle East settlement. However, the negotiation process is constantly under threat of disruption due to terrorist attacks by Islamic militants and opposition to the negotiations from part of Israeli society.

Countries of Tropical and Southern Africa

Most of the peoples of tropical and southern Africa gained independence in the 1960s and 1970s. Their subsequent development is characterized especially frequent change political regimes and governments. Military men and supporters of Marxism replaced each other in power, republics became empires, one-party or multi-party systems were introduced, etc. The political confrontation was aggravated by the rivalry of tribal groups and the actions of separatists. How this happened in specific circumstances can be seen in the example of Angola.

Since the mid-1950s, three currents have emerged in the Angolan national liberation movement.

The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) is a mass revolutionary democratic organization that advocated the declaration of Angola as an independent state, the establishment of a democratic regime, and a general amnesty. The organization saw the path to liberation in armed struggle. By 1973, MPLA units controlled a third of the country's territory.

Union of the Population of the North of Angola, later renamed the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). This organization, formed along national-ethnic and religious lines, conducted its own course.

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), created in 1966 based on the peoples of the south of the country. UNITA opposed the MPLA, while enjoying the support of South Africa.

After the Portuguese government concluded an agreement with all three organizations in 1975 on the procedure for Angola's transition to independence, a struggle for power developed between them. The advantage was on the side of the MPLA, which formed a government that adhered to a socialist orientation and received the support of the USSR. The armed units of UNITA and FNLA began to fight against the government, relying on the help of the United States and South Africa. Cuban units took part in the war on the side of government forces. Only in 1989 was a truce reached in hostilities. The Cuban military contingent left Angola. But the task of a political settlement remained relevant.

Special political system existed until the end of the 1980s in Republic of South Africa. It is a multiracial state in which, along with the indigenous African population, live the descendants of white European settlers and immigrants from Asia.

Historical reference

In 1948, the Nationalist Party (the party of the white minority that ruled the country) came to power in the country. She proclaimed the policy of anapmxeuda (in Afrikaans this word means “separation, separate existence, in modern literature the term apartheid is used). In 1950, the country adopted:

• the law on settlement by groups (the government received the right to declare any part of the country as a settlement area for any one ethnic group); on the basis of this law, the eviction of Africans from big cities began in the mid-1950s;
• the law on population registration (every resident from the age of 16 was required to constantly carry with him an identity card indicating his ethnic group: white, colored, black, Asian);
• the law on the suppression of communism, according to which any doctrine or plan was considered communist, “the purpose of which is to carry out any changes within the country in the field of political, industrial, social, economic by organizing unrest and disorder, by illegal or similar actions, as well as by threats actions and allowing these threats...”

In 1959, a law was passed to develop “Bantu self-government” (Bantu are the indigenous people of South Africa). It was based on the idea of ​​“national fatherlands” (bantustans), where Africans were supposed to live. Outside the Bantustans they were deprived of all rights.

Racial composition of the population of South Africa (1976)

The total population is 31.3 million people, including: blacks - 22.8; white - 4.8; colored - 2.8; immigrants from Asia (Indians) - 0.9 million people.

South Africa, which has the richest natural resources - deposits of gold, diamonds, coal and rare metals - in the post-war period it became an industrialized state. But the policy of apartheid, merciless oppression and exploitation of the black and colored population caused condemnation from the international community and the introduction of economic sanctions against South Africa. In the country itself, a powerful liberation movement of the black population arose, in which several organizations emerged. The most influential were the African National Congress (founded at the beginning of the 20th century) and the Inkatha organization (which included representatives of the Zulu people). In 1983, it was possible to create the United Democratic Front of all forces opposing the apartheid regime.

F. de Klerk, who headed the Nationalist Party in 1989 and became the president of the country, played a major role in the weakening and then abolition of the apartheid system and the democratization of political life. On his initiative, racial restrictions were lifted and negotiations began with the leaders of the black movement. Reaching an agreement was not an easy task, not only because of differences between the government and the ANC, but also because of clashes between ANC and Inkatha supporters. It was about overcoming both racial and tribal hatred.

References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.

1. Decay colonial system started with:

2. Third World countries from the mid-1950s to the early 1990s. called:

3. Among the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America socialist states were:

a) Mongolian People's Republic; d) Türkiye;

b) Afghanistan; e) Cambodia;

c) People's Republic of China; e) Cuba.

4. By the beginning of the 21st century. among Latin American states industrial countries become:

a) Argentina; b) Venezuela; c) Peru; d) Chile; e) Brazil; e) Mexico.

5. During the years of the Cultural Revolution in China:

a) mass terror was carried out in the country;

b) a massive “cleansing” was carried out in the ranks of the CCP;

c) illiteracy was eliminated;

d) the network of secondary specialized and higher educational institutions was expanded;

e) universal primary education was introduced;

e) detachments of Red Guards and Zaofan were created.

6. The Treaty of San Francisco provided:

a) establishment of diplomatic relations with the USSR;

b) restoration of Japanese sovereignty;

c) Japan's refusal to wage war and use force in solving international problems;

d) withdrawal of American troops from Japanese territory;

e) Japan's renunciation of claims to southern Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Taiwan;

f) Japanese recognition of Korean independence.

7. Egyptian socialism, according to G. A. Nasser:

a) recognizes the socialist nature of Islam;

b) establishes the dictatorship of the proletariat;

c) denies the dictatorship of the proletariat;

d) sees the final goal in the accomplishment of a world socialist revolution;

e) establishes a dictatorship of the peasantry;

f) establishes “democracy of the whole people.”

8.

1. Chile A. Pol Pot

2. China B. H. Mubarak

3. Egypt V. F. Castro

4. Cuba G. Pinochet

5. Cambodia D. Jiang Zemin

9. Match the dates and events:

1. 1949 A. Signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty with Japan

2. 1951 B. Cuban revolution, during which the dictatorship of F. Batista was overthrown

3. 1953 – 1959 B. China's Great Leap Forward Policy

4. 1958 – 1960 D. Proclamation of the formation of the People's Republic of China

5. 2001 D. Signing of the Declaration of Establishment Shanghai organization

cooperation.

Countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America

1. "The Year of Africa" ​​is called:

a) 1945; b) 1950; c) 1960; d) 1990

2. Countries of the “second world” from the mid-1950s to the early 1990s. called:

a) Western countries; c) capitalist states;

b) socialist states; d) developing countries.

3. Among the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the following developed along the capitalist path:

a) Taiwan; G) South Africa;

b) Türkiye; e) People's Republic of China;

c) Democratic People's Republic of Korea; e) Japan.

4. Dictatorships were established in Latin American states:

a) Mexico; b) Argentina; c) Brazil; d) Panama; e) Nicaragua; e) Paraguay.

5. During the Great Leap Forward in China:

a) a “battle for steel” was declared;

b) democratic reforms were carried out;

c) a “battle for success” was declared;

d) a “people’s war against nature” was declared;

e) village cooperation was carried out;

f) people's communes were created.

6. Japan's economic recovery was facilitated by:

a) massive purchase of foreign patents and licenses, modern Western technologies;

b) aid received under the Marshall Plan;

c) protectionism in the trade sphere;

d) rich mineral deposits;

e) creation of a strong banking system;

f) the hard work of the Japanese and paternalistic labor relations.

7. The Nehru Course in India provided for:

a) priority development of the public sector of the economy;

b) priority development of the private sector of the economy;

c) democratization of the political system;

d) wide social support population;

e) carrying out anti-feudal, anti-imperialist activities;

f) a peaceful foreign policy.

8. Match the state and the name of the statesman:

1. Iran A. Hugo Chavez

2. Venezuela B. Akihito

3. Korean People's Democratic Republic V. R. T. Erdogan

4. Japan G. M. Ahmadinejad

5. Türkiye D. Kim Jong-un.

9. Match the dates and events:

1. 1947 A. Student rallies in the central square of Beijing Tiananmen

2. 1961 B. “Islamic revolution” in Iran led by Ayatollah R. Khomeini

3. 1966 – 1976 B. Declaration of Independence of India and Pakistan

4. 1978 – 1979 D. Creation of the international organization “Non-Aligned Movement”

5. 1989 D. “Cultural Revolution” in China.

Answers

1. A. 2. G. 3. A, B, D, E. 4. AND WHERE. 5. A, B, E.

6. B, G, D, E. 7. A, B, E.

8. 1 – G; 2 – D; 3 – B; 4 – B; 5 – A.

9. 1 – G; 2 – A; 3 – B; 4 – B; 5 – D.

1. IN. 2. B. 3. A, B, D, E. 4. B, C, D, E. 5. A, B, D, E.

6. A, B, D, E. 7. A, B, D, E.

8. 1 – G; 2 – A; 3 – D; 4 – B; 5 – V.

9. 1 – B; 2 – G; 3 – D; 4 – B; 5 – A.

Worksheet on the topic: “Development paths of Asia, Africa, and Latin America”

Complete the table "Consequences of Colonialism"

Anti-colonial movements in the countries of the East

nization and at the beginning XX mentality...":

a) there was China;

b) there was Japan;

c) there was Türkiye.

conquest?

poverty;

ties and communication networks.

3. Which Asian countries were at the beginning? XX centuries have become an arena of rise revolutionary movement?

a) Japan, Korea, Philippines;

b) China, Türkiye, Iran;

a) 1900

b) 1913

c) 1911-1913

XX win centuries

a) in Argentina;

b) in Brazil;

c) in Mexico.

3.1.Features of development of Latin American countries

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.2. What changes in the nature of Latin America's development were evidenced by events in Brazil and Mexico?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Which ending of the following phrase would you choose: "The only Asian country that managed to solve the problems of modernization nization and at the beginning XX century to turn into a country with a developed industry mentality...":

a) there was China;

b) there was Japan;

c) there was Türkiye.

2. Which of the following did not apply to the results of the colonial conquest?

a) the emergence of a layer of comprador bourgeoisie and officialspoverty;

b) an increase in the standard of living of the population of the colonial possessions;

c) destruction of traditional ways of life, creation of production centersties and communication networks.

3. Which Asian countries were at the beginning? XX centuries have become an arena of rise revolutionary movement?

a) Japan, Korea, Philippines;

b) China, Türkiye, Iran;

c) India, Afghanistan, Indonesia.

4.China was declared a republic as a result of the revolution:

a) 1900

b) 1913

c) 1911-1913

5.In which of the Latin American countries at the beginning XX win centuries was a revolutionary movement that combined the struggle for democracy with Styanskaya war for the seizure of landowners' lands?

a) in Argentina;

b) in Brazil;

c) in Mexico.

By the beginning of the 20th century. most countries in Asia and Africa still retained their national and cultural identity and were in varying degrees of dependence on the leading European countries. A feature of eastern civilizations (with the exception of Japan) was their agrarian-traditional character. However, new trends of the 20th century. gradually penetrated into these countries. National liberation movements took new forms. The countries of Latin America, although they achieved independence, were greatly influenced by Europe and the United States.

Territorial redistribution of the world. After the First World War, the territorial redistribution of the world took place. Defeated Germany lost its colonial possessions.

In 1918, the great powers declaratively proclaimed the right of peoples to self-determination. To implement it, it was created mandate system of colony administration. It was proposed by England and France in order to legitimize the German colonies they had captured in Africa, Asia, the Pacific Ocean and possessions Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.

Mandate, given by the League of Nations, allowed “advanced nations” to carry out a “sacred mission,” that is, to patronize peoples who are “not yet able to govern themselves” and their own territories. This formulation reflected the ideology of “white” colonialism, which was adhered to by the leaders of European states. The mandates to govern were mainly given to Great Britain and France, the traditional colonial powers. Ultimately, the position of the colonies changed little after the First World War. Colonial countries imposed a development model on the subject peoples that copied European models and violated local historical traditions, which caused natural pushback and resistance.

National liberation movement for independence and modernization. National liberation movement -- this is the struggle of oppressed peoples for national independence, economic independence, spiritual liberation and social progress. It was led by nationally and patriotically minded bourgeoisie, officers, intelligentsia, clergy, and leaders of clans and religious clans. The social base of the anti-colonial struggle was the peasantry, workers, artisans, traders, small entrepreneurs, and office workers. As a rule, all these social groups moved towards achieving their goals under the banner of the ideology of nationalism. In this case, nationalism was a progressive phenomenon, since this ideology united the nation in the struggle against foreign domination. Religion played a major role in national liberation movements (Islam in the Near and Middle East, Hinduism in India, etc.). The methods of struggle depended on the specific historical situation, the ratio political forces, the degree of consolidation of patriotic circles of society, other factors and usually included demonstrations, rallies, uprisings, acts of civil disobedience, etc.

National liberation movements not only took different forms, but also had a number of regional characteristics.

China. China was formally an independent state, but Western countries, Russia and Japan, were constantly fighting for influence in this country. The progress of modernization here was extremely complicated by the internal political struggle after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. The main obstacle to the progressive development of China was the military-feudal cliques, which actually split the country into a number of separate independent regions.

National Party (KMT), created by Sun Yat-sen back in 1912, its goal was to establish national sovereignty, unify the country, eliminate the remnants of feudalism and overcome centuries-old backwardness. After 1917, Sun Yat-sen developed a new content of the “three people's principles” (nationalism, democracy and people's welfare), which should lead to the victory of the national revolution and the establishment of a democratic republic and a society of “state socialism”. The beginning of China's active struggle for national independence is considered "May 4th movement" 1919, when Beijing students protested against the transfer of Shandong to Japan.

The Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CCP, founded in 1921), in alliance with the USSR, managed to create a National Revolutionary Army and a base for military operations in southern China. National Revolution against military-feudal cliques began with patriotic "May 30 movements" 1925 It ended in the summer 1928 successful completion of the Northern Expedition of the National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek and the unification of the country under the rule of the Kuomintang. But the split between the Communists and the Kuomintang led to a long and brutal civil war. The CPC fought to transform the national democratic revolution into a socialist one, and the Kuomintang fought for the bourgeois-democratic path of development of the country. Until 1949, the official leader of China was Chiang Kai-shek.

The split in the Chinese revolutionary camp was exploited by Japan, whose aggressive policy posed a serious danger to all of China. In the mid-1930s, Chiang Kai-shek was forced to turn to the USSR with a request for help, and then he and his supporters united with the CPC to jointly fight against Japanese aggression.

India. India was Britain's largest colony. The national liberation movement here was led by a political party Indian National Congress (INC), whose ideologist and spiritual leader was Mahatma Gandhi. The system of political, philosophical and moral-ethical views he created - Gandhism-- grew out of the peasant specifics of India and the characteristics of Hinduism.

Gandhism became the official ideology of the INC. The essence of Gandhism was the welfare society and nonviolent resistance ( satyagraha) as a means of achieving this society.

Gandhi rejected the class struggle because he considered it a factor dividing society.

Satyagraha included boycotts of imported goods, schools, judicial and government institutions; the closure of shops owned by colonial authorities; holding religious rallies and demonstrations to protest against the actions of the British administration. Even in cases where British troops opened fire on demonstrators or protesters, Gandhi insisted on observing the principle of non-violence. These forms of struggle played a significant role in achieving Indian independence after World War II.

Türkiye. As a result of defeat in the First World War, Turkey was on the verge of losing its sovereignty and territorial integrity. A number of regions of the country were occupied by foreign troops. IN August 1920 Entente leaders imposed the Treaty of Sèvres on the Sultan, under the terms of which Turkey was essentially divided between England, France, Italy and Greece. Under these conditions, the liberation struggle Turkish people V 1918--1923 headed by general M. Kemal.

At the cost of great sacrifices, they managed to defeat the “caliphate army” and the interventionist troops. IN 1922 Great national assembly Turkey passed a law abolishing the sultanate. IN 1923 a new one was created political organization --Republican People's Party (CHP). In the same year, Türkiye was proclaimed a republic. These acts completed the process of breaking the old political system and creating a Turkish national state, called Kemalist revolution.

In the second half of the 1920s - 1930s. In Turkey, modernization was carried out in various spheres of cultural, socio-economic and political life. Also in 1924 The caliphate was abolished, the Ministry of Religious Affairs was abolished, madrassas (religious educational institutions) were closed, and legal proceedings were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy. New things were introduced Administrative division into vilayets (provinces) subordinate directly to the center. These reforms laid the foundation for the first republican constitution in 1924, which formalized the dominance of the national bourgeoisie and landowners. A one-party CHP regime was established in the country. In 1925-1928 new criminal and civil codes, following the European model, were adopted. Polygamy was prohibited, the European calendar, European clothing and a new Latin alphabet were introduced instead of the old Arabic. In 1934, a law introducing surnames was passed. M. Kemal adopted the surname Ataturk, What does "father of the Turks" mean? The main content of economic policy was statism. During the reforms, the ideology finally took shape Kemalism- one of the currents of Turkish bourgeois nationalism. The key element of Kemalism was the principle laïcité, or a secular state.

With the outbreak of World War II, Turkey declared its neutrality, then it maneuvered between the warring powers of the “Axis Berlin - Rome - Tokyo” and the member states of the anti-Hitler coalition. It was not until February 1945 that the country declared war on Germany and Japan.

Iran. A feature of the national liberation movement in Iran was the struggle of all patriotic forces against the influence of Great Britain and Russia (USSR) in the country. After the occupation of Iranian territory by British troops (1918), armed resistance to the interventionists began. To power in 1925 came Reza Shah, founder of the new Shah dynasty Pahlavi. After the establishment of the personal dictatorship of the Shah, reforms began in the country aimed at modernizing the state and consolidating the nation. But the constant struggle between supporters of the monarchy and the Iranian bourgeoisie led to the strengthening of the influence of more developed countries in Iran.

Africa. On the African continent, the national liberation movement acquired its most active forms in Egypt and Morocco. Major uprisings in 1919 and 1921 under the leadership of the liberal Wafd party forced Great Britain to sign 1922 a declaration granting Egypt “independence,” but the British retained their influence in this country for a long time. In Morocco, in the Rif mountainous area, in 1921--1926 The Rif tribes, having proclaimed a republic, put up stubborn resistance to France and Spain.

In general, the liberation movement in the period between the two wars was an important political factor. The countries of Asia and Africa rose more and more decisively in the struggle to achieve true independence.

Features of the development of Japan. Amid the difficult situation in most Asian countries, Japan was a positive exception. Already at the turn of the XIX--XX centuries. it experienced accelerated rates of economic development. This country, which followed the path of relative Europeanization, avoided the colonial fate of most Asian countries. At the beginning of the 20th century. Japanese civilization even tried to become a new geopolitical center and intensified colonial expansion under the slogan of “Greater Asia.” Its aggression was mainly directed at Korea, China, and the island of Taiwan. In the 1930s The ruling elite declared a course towards creating a “new political and economic structure.” This meant further modernization of the country, strengthening military-state control over the Japanese economy, as well as the spread of totalitarian tendencies in political life. Japan's rapprochement with Nazi Germany and fascist Italy began.

Latin America. In the first half of the 20th century. The development of the Latin American economy was of a pronounced raw material export nature. Argentina and Uruguay exported meat and grain. The countries of the tropical zone of Central America and the Caribbean, Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil exported fruits, coffee and sugar. Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Chile supplied mineral raw materials (silver, oil, strategic metals, tin, copper, etc.) to the world market. The raw material specialization of the economy forced Latin American countries to import industrial products and advanced technologies from Europe and the United States.

World economic crisis led to a sharp reduction in demand for agricultural and raw materials, a drop in national production, an increase in unemployment and a decrease in the living standards of the population. Social contradictions have intensified in Latin American countries. Revolutions took place in Brazil and Cuba, and in Nicaragua guerrilla warfare. In order to overcome the crisis, the ruling circles of Latin American countries have intensified the policy of state regulation. At the same time American President F. D. Roosevelt proclaimed the “good neighbor” policy towards Latin America, which meant the United States renounced intervention in the countries of the region.

Questions and tasks

• 1 What held back and what contributed to the modernization of socio-political and economic systems Eastern society in the interwar period?
• 2 How was the problem of colonies resolved at the Paris Peace Conference?
• 3 Define the concepts: mandate, mandate system of colonial administration. Did the mandate system solve the problem of colonies? What grounds did D. Lloyd George have for characterizing her? in the following way: “Mandates are just a disguise for annexations”?
• 4 Fill out the table “National liberation movement in the countries of the East in the interwar period.” What is the basis of the commonality of the national liberation movement in the countries of the East? What factors accounted for its differences?

5 Name the political figures of the Eastern countries who led the national liberation movement in their countries. By using additional literature draw up a political portrait of one of them (your choice).

At the end of the 1920s. In Japan, the “Tanaka memorandum” became known, the original of which has not been discovered to this day, and therefore many researchers consider it to be fake. Analyze a passage from this document and express your opinion regarding its authenticity: “For the sake of self-defense and the protection of others, Japan will not be able to eliminate the difficulties in East Asia unless it pursues the policy of 'blood and iron'... In order to conquer China, we must first conquer Manchuria and Mongolia. In order to conquer the world, we must first conquer China. If we manage to conquer China, all the other countries of Asia Minor, India, as well as the countries of the southern seas will fear us and capitulate to us."

7. Determine the features of the socio-economic development of Latin American countries in the interwar period.

We invite you to discuss

Think about why Japan became the only one of the Eastern countries where the fascistization of society occurred.

Plan:

1. Features of the Third World countries.
2. Asian countries at the turn of the century.
3. African countries at the turn of the century.
4. Latin American countries at the turn of the century.

Main feature historical process is its unevenness, that is, different states are not at the same level of development. The countries of the “first modernization echelon” are distinguished - these are the most developed Western countries, which include the countries of Western Europe (Germany, England, France) and the USA. The countries of the “second modernization echelon” are the countries of Eastern Europe: Poland, Ukraine, Russia. And, finally, underdeveloped countries are countries of the “third modernization echelon”. Most African countries belong to them.

It should be noted that the countries in the region under consideration are also unevenly developed. For example, we can distinguish the following group of countries: 1) “small medium tigers” - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand; 2) “dragons” - Japan, China, Brazil, India - countries with dynamic economic development; 3) backward countries are the countries of Tropical Africa.

Let's reveal features of the countries in the regions under consideration: 1) uneven development; 2) belong to eastern types society, where: a) traditions are strong; b) weak internal integration; c) civil society is in its infancy; d) colonial past; e) modernization processes are of a “catch-up” nature and are carried out “from above,” that is, by the state; f) most states belong to the countries of the third “modernization echelon”, that is, they are backward and belong to the “global village”. The "world city" is Western countries; g) the large role of religion, which often performs the functions of ideology; 3) archaic social structure, which is a mixture of traditional, agrarian and modern societies. In this case, clans play a big role, that is, tribal remnants are still alive. At the same time, clans are mixed with the administrative apparatus, and national wealth is concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite. In the social structure of eastern societies in some countries there is a class of feudal lords; 4) big role of ideologies, which act as an integrative factor: a) in Malaysia - the ideology of Rukunnegara - A. Ghazali: a nation is an association of people devoted to the state, and the state must protect common interests; b) in Japan - the idea of ​​a welfare society; c) in South Korea - Jucheson - reliance on own strength; d) in Iran – as a result of the Islamic revolution of 1979 – the ideology of “velayat-s-faqih” (Khomeini): the rule of a wise Muslim lawyer. Goal: to create an Islamic state; e) in Israel - Zionism: world Jewry is a single people who must be reunited in the Promised Land. Jews are the yeast of progress. It is necessary to realize the triumph of the Torah; e) in Libya – the ideology of the “Jamahiriyya” - Muammar Gaddafi. He united “genuine revolutionary Islam” and Arab nationalism. He advocated “direct democracy”, in which the people themselves, without intermediaries, that is, without political parties or parliament, would govern the state. Gaddafi did not like communism, since it subordinates the individual to the state. He also did not support capitalism, which he interpreted as the exploitation of man by man. Gaddafi believed that the principles social justice laid down in the Koran. He wanted to combine nationalism and religion.

The integrative function of ideology and religion was expressed in an attempt to mobilize: a) pan-Islamism - the idea of ​​​​creating a single Islamic state (Iran); b) Pan-Turkism - the idea of ​​​​creating a unified Turan; c) pan-Asianism – Asianization of Asia (Japan); d) pan-Arabism - the unification of Arabs into a single state (Egypt, Syria, Iran).

We have already said that Religion plays a big role in the region under consideration. Let us develop this thesis further: 1) Islam plays a big role. But there is no unity among Muslims in terms of interpretation of modern events. Two currents in Islam can be distinguished: a) Muslims are reformers. They argue that there is no contradiction between religion and science. God created man, the world, nature, and including science. Hassan Hanafi argues that God is an aspect of human existence. God is progress, he believes; b) guardians - “Muslim Brotherhood” - Hasan al-Banna: The Koran and progress are incompatible, Muslims will rule the world; 2) Hinduism - India - Mahatma Gandhi: in every person there is a particle of the Supreme Spirit, everyone is equal before God, who is identified with moral ideals, with the truth. The only way– this is self-improvement, non-violence; 3) in Buddhism – the Sardovaya Shramadana movement: it is necessary to sharpen society on the principles of equality, love, spiritual awakening of the individual as a condition for the spiritual awakening of the world; 4) Confucianism - China - reliance on traditions.

Thus, the peculiarity of the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America is that they belong to the eastern types of society, where traditions and the associated religion play an important role, which performs not only integrating, but also ideological functions. Ideology, in turn, in a situation where there are no sufficiently strong economic ties, unites society around certain values ​​and traditions.

Türkiye – it is a moderately developed country from an economic point of view. In 1982, Turkey adopted a Constitution that introduced strict restrictions on left-wing parties. It also mandated the introduction of an Islamic course in Turkish schools. Islamic parties and organizations began to form. The most popular of them is the Hezbollah party - the party of Allah. 30% of the Turkish economy is under the rule of “Islamic capital”. In January 2000, the activities of the Hezbollah party were banned, and its leader Hussein Velioglu was killed by Turkish intelligence services.

The collapse of the USSR in 1991 contributed to the growth of imperial ambitions in Turkey. Turkish Prime Minister Ozal put forward the idea of ​​​​creating “Great Turkestan from the Mediterranean Sea to the Chinese Wall.” Türkiye maintains close relations with the former republics of the USSR: Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan.

In 2013, there was unrest in Turkey. Young people took to the streets to express their disagreement with the Islamization of the country. The government declared unrest. There were clashes between demonstrators and Turkish law enforcement agencies.

Lebanon is a poor country. The situation in Lebanon is difficult. In 1995, the total debt of this country increased 10 times and amounted to 11.6 trillion Lebanese pounds. The inflation rate is high – 25-30%.

Japan is a developed country not only on an Asian scale, but also on a global scale. In the 70s, rising oil prices had a negative impact on the Japanese economy; industries such as mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, and petrochemicals were especially affected. Initially, Japan reduced the import of oil; the Japanese saved in every possible way on household needs. In this situation, the Japanese have prioritized the development of resource-saving and high technology: electronics, communications. As a result, Japan reached new level development.

In the 80s of the twentieth century, Japan became dynamically developing country. Japan ranks first in the world in terms of gold and currency reserves. Per capita income in Japan is 18 thousand dollars per year. For comparison: in the USA – 15.5 thousand dollars per year. In terms of labor productivity, Japan has overtaken the countries of Western Europe. Currently, Japan produces 90% of the world's video camera production and two-thirds of its robots. A technological disaster at a nuclear power plant had a negative impact on the Japanese economy.

Japan, deprived of resources, created a miracle in the breakthrough. Therefore, the powerful development of the Japanese economy in a situation of severe resource shortage began to be called the Japanese economic miracle. In this situation, it is interesting to compare modern Japan with modern Russia: the availability of resources does not guarantee high economic growth, but, on the contrary, gives rise to laziness of thinking.

Another country that, like Japan, is classified as a “dragon” country is China. During the 80-90s of the twentieth century in China, under the leadership communist party serious, radical reforms were carried out that transformed the appearance of the country. Most of the cooperatives were dissolved, and each peasant household received a plot of land on a long-term lease. The food problem has been solved. Industrial enterprises provided independence, market relations developed. Private enterprises appeared. Foreign capital was increasingly penetrating into China.

Currently, China occupies a leading position in the world economy. China in the second half of the 90s. In terms of GDP production, it ranked fourth in the world. By the end of the twentieth century, the volume of industrial production increased fivefold, Chinese goods began a victorious campaign in the form of expansion abroad. Even in the US, Chinese goods are replacing local ones. Most products are made in China. Many well-known companies have their production in China: Samsung, Nokia. Chinese goods have flooded the world market. “There is melancholy in my soul, China is everywhere,” sings Y. Shevchuk.

The standard of living in China has generally improved. China has come to be called the “workshop of the twenty-first century.” China's successful economic development continues to this day. The achievement of the Chinese economy was evidenced by the launch in 2003 of the first Chinese spacecraft with an astronaut on board and the development of plans for a flight to the Moon. China is striving, and successfully, to acquire the status of a space power.

Today, the Chinese economy ranks second in the world in terms of leading indicators. According to experts, by the middle of the twenty-first century, China will overtake the United States in terms of economic growth. The Chinese clearly demonstrated their achievements during Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008.

Political power in China remained unchanged. An attempt by some students and intellectuals to launch a liberalization campaign was harshly suppressed during the Tananmen Square protests in Beijing in 1989. The leading force in China remains the CPC, which declares “to build socialism with Chinese characteristics.”

In foreign policy, China has achieved many successes: Hong Kong and Mokao were annexed. Since the mid-80s of the twentieth century, relations with the USSR have normalized. Friendly relations also developed with Russia: the demarcation of the Chinese-Russian border was carried out. The issue of the disputed territories was closed. The PRC also actively cooperates with post-Soviet states.

However, China cannot be called a prosperous country in social terms: per capita income is low. It is 560 dollars per year. Remains unresolved and demographic problem, despite the slogan “one family, one child” proclaimed by the Chinese government.

In the twenty-first century it has loudly declared itself India. In 1984, Prime Minister I. Gandhi was assassinated by terrorists. After her death, Gandhi's son R. Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India. In 1991, he was killed by terrorists. These murders were directly related to the intensification of separatist movements: Sikhs, Tamils.

In the 90s of the twentieth century, India declared a course towards moving from a command economy to a market economy. The path to a market economy was difficult and thorny. The country went through the devaluation of the Indian national currency, the ruppi. Foreign investments were provided with " green light", privatization was carried out, reduction was carried out state apparatus, government intervention in the economy has been reduced. These reforms took place from 1992 to 1997. At the turn of the century, India shows good economic growth. However, like China, India cannot be called a socially developed country. It is still a country of contrasts.

For political development Pakistan instability was typical. The army played a major role in the country, often carrying out armed coups. In foreign policy, Pakistan followed a pro-American course. The country's economy developed relatively successfully. The international weight of Pakistan has grown: nuclear weapons have been created. However, the vast majority of the population, as in India, continues to live in poverty. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, speeches by adherents of strengthening the role of Islam in the life of society became more frequent.

In 1979 V Iran The "Islamic revolution" took place. The Shah was overthrown and the Islamic Republic of Iran was proclaimed. In December 1979, the country's constitution was adopted, which specifically stipulated that supreme authority in the country belongs to the clergy in the person of Ayatollah Khomeini. After Khomeini's death, power should be transferred to his successor. Civil political power should be exercised by the president, parliament (Majlis) and prime minister.

The internal political life of the country after the revolution is characterized by the dominance of the clergy, who were able to form the largest faction in parliament, concentrate executive power, education, punitive authorities in their hands, and deal with the opposition. Islamic ethics is being implanted in Iran, and the thesis about the Koran as the constitution of all humanity is being put forward.

Subsequently, Iran became a regional leader. Iran's foreign policy is characterized by an anti-American, anti-Western orientation. The main foreign policy principle of Iran is: “Neither West, nor East, but Islam.” Iran, to this day, considers it its duty to export Islamic revolutions. To do this, he supports radical Islamist organizations.

In Iraq in the 60-90s there was an authoritarian left-wing regime. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became President of the Republic. During his reign, Iraq pursued an aggressive foreign policy: a war with Iran in 1980-1989, the capture of Kuwait in 1990. In 1991, a coalition of countries led by the United States attacked Iraq and expelled its troops from Kuwait. At the initiative of the United States, economic sanctions were introduced against Iraq, which led to the death of millions of Iraqis. In 2003, the United States and Great Britain, under the false pretexts of Hussein's support for terrorists and Iraq's development of nuclear weapons, occupied the country. Hussein was captured, declared an international criminal and hanged. The outbreak of war against the occupiers, ethnic and religious clashes turned Iraq into a source of instability throughout the region. The situation did not improve after the entry of American troops.

The fate of the countries of East Asia turned out differently . In the last quarter of the twentieth century they made a giant leap in their development. Malaysia, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Having combined advanced Western technologies with the preservation of the foundations of traditional society, they have become economically developed states. These countries are often called “young tigers”. However, the 1997 crisis in the financial markets revealed the instability of the economies of these countries.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, they are trying to follow the path of economic modernization Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand. Serious successes in the twenty-first century were achieved by Vietnam and Laos, which remained committed to the socialist path of development while introducing market mechanisms in the economy.

There was also a special path of development Muslim countries Asia. The development of the richest oil and gas fields in the Persian Gulf region has prevailed Saudi Arabia and states in the east of the Arabian Peninsula into prosperous countries. Saudi Arabia claims a leadership position not only in this region, but also in the Arab world. They support the export of Islam and provided support to the Syrian opposition in 2013. The norms of the Koran have the force of law. So, for example, in Saudi Arabia Women are legally prohibited from driving.

Thus, Asian countries are unevenly developed. We can single out such world leaders or “tigers” as Japan, China, and India. However, only Japan can be called a prosperous social country. China and India have low living standards. These facts are interpreted ambiguously by researchers and experts. Some say that the future lies with dynamically developing Asia. Others, noting the many problems that Asian countries have, are skeptical about the possible global leadership of Asian countries.

Africa in the twenty-first century remains the most backward region of the Earth. In most African states, an unprofessional and ineffective bureaucratic apparatus has emerged, completely riddled with corruption and clannishness. The economy is performing poorly. But there is scope for the shadow economy: the production and distribution of drugs, illegal gold and diamond mining, human trafficking, and piracy.

Colonialism had not only negative consequences for African countries. Colonialism muted many of the bitter ethnic divisions. With the departure of the colonial regimes, these conflicts intensified. Interethnic strife has become commonplace. In an effort to escape poverty, hunger, and genocide, Africans left for Western European countries.

In 1971, the UN identified the states of the world that are in dire need of assistance - the least developed countries. These include 21 states. Among them: Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Chad, Togo, Tanzania, Somalia. At the beginning of the 80s, there were already 30 such countries. As of 2000, their number increased to 48. Such countries are characterized by low, even negative growth rates. In the structure of the economy - the agricultural sector - up to 80-90%, which is not able to meet the internal needs of countries for food and raw materials.

Least developed countries are characterized by extremely weak development of market elements. This is due to the routine state of agriculture, underdeveloped industry, and low purchasing demand of the population. The economies of these countries are characterized by the underdevelopment of production and auxiliary infrastructure, transport networks, electricity, communications systems, and banking.

The most developed country Africa - South AR. In the 70s large industrial centers South Africa was engulfed in strikes. Protest against racial discrimination, which was expressed in the apartheid policy, was supported by all categories of the colored population and some groups of the white population, especially students. Apartheid was condemned by the world public. Nelson Mandela - leader of the African National Congress (ANC) long years led underground activities, and together with other leaders of the anti-racist movement, arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment, became a symbol of the liberation movement of South Africa.

Apartheid was declared the state policy of South Africa in 1948. Apartheid is the separation of races. The purpose of apartheid was to prevent the mixing of races. At the same time, apartheid supporters used the ideas of Calvinism. They used Calvin's ideas about predestination and argued that each race had its own destiny, a special path of development and life. Therefore, laughter is not pleasing to God. In fact, apartheid resulted in a policy of racial discrimination.

In February 1989, the government released ANC leaders. In 1990, I began to negotiate with them. In 1994, general elections were held in South Africa. The ANC won them. N. Mandela was elected President of South Africa.

In 1981, President Arab Republic Egypt after the assassination became Hosni Mubarak. The slogan was proclaimed: “Egypt for all.” The recovery of the economy began, control was established over Muslim extremist organizations. Since 1987, improvements have begun with Arab countries, Egypt's membership in the Arab League has been restored, and relations with the USSR have been improved.

In the 90s, the main direction of socio-economic reforms was the development of market relations and widespread privatization. As a result, in 1998 Egypt's GDP was 70 billion dollars, the private sector accounted for 70%. Egypt's agriculture meets its own needs only 40%. In the spring of 2011, as a result of the Arab Spring, the power of Hosni Mubarak was overthrown. He was accused of corruption and abuse of power. Currently, legal proceedings are being carried out not only against former President Mubarak, but also against current President Morsi, whom the opposition declared deposed. Thus, Egypt is currently experiencing an acute political crisis. How the future political landscape of Egypt will be shaped depends on the alignment of the following forces: the military, liberal-minded youth and the Muslim extremist organization the Muslim Brotherhood.

Compared to other African countries, Egypt does not look like the most backward state. For example, Sudan is still an agricultural country: 80% of the population is employed in agriculture. Approximately similar figures - in Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century. The leading occupation in Sudan is cotton growing. Industry is poorly developed. The share of industrial products in GDP is 7%.

Algeria is not far behind Sudan in terms of economic insolvency. In the early 90s of the twentieth century, Algeria's external debt grew to $27 billion. In 1996, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, according to which Islam was proclaimed the state religion.

Difficult political situation in Libya. In September 1969, Muammar Gaddafi came to power. As a result, the monarchy was overthrown and reforms were carried out, during which the American companies. Gaddafi began to pursue an anti-American policy and support terrorist organizations that fought against American domination. With his pronounced anti-American policy, Gaddafi predetermined his political future. Already in 1986, the United States bombed Libya. It was revenge for the explosion at a German disco that occurred on 04/05/1985. In the twenty-first century, the United States decided to overthrow the Gaddafi regime. The occasion is appropriate: the Arab Spring. In 2011, the Americans overthrew Gaddafi with the help of their French allies. Gaddafi himself was brutally killed.

Let's summarize some results. Africa is one of the most backward regions. Most countries are “stuck” at the stage of feudalism. African societies are mostly agrarian societies, and industry is not developed. African countries are a “global village” where residents engage in agriculture, lead a traditional way of life, honor traditions. Let us note that Africa, due to its backwardness, is a fertile ground for the growth of the popularity of Islam and Islamic extremism.

In the 70-80s of the twentieth century, neoconservative concepts of free market economy . Investments, loans, and credits from abroad were used as the main sources of financial resources. Export-oriented industries developed. Brazil was the first to take this path. Other regimes also took advantage of the “Brazilian model”: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia. This course is characterized by a sharp decline in the living standards of the population. Countries with constitutional regimes (Venezuela, Mexico) followed the path of softer measures.

The economy revived, but the downside of modernization was the rapid growth of external debt, increased inflation, tightening of social policy, and rising unemployment. In general, the socio-economic situation of the Latin American countries remained unstable. An example is the economic collapse in Argentina at the end of the twentieth century.

The real problem of Latin America is the drug business. Drugs were produced in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru, which were then exported to the United States.

The collapse of the USSR and the socialist camp hit the socialist Cuba. Cuba's situation began to deteriorate back in the 80s of the twentieth century, when the USSR was experiencing serious difficulties. In 1990, the architect of Cuban socialism F. Castro put forward the slogan “Socialism or Death.” In conditions of a total shortage of goods, it was introduced card system practically for all products. Maximum savings in all areas and mobilization of labor resources were announced. In the 90s, Cuba set a course towards building socialism with elements of a market economy. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Cuba partially managed to overcome the consequences of the crisis, and the standard of living of the population increased. In 2006, due to illness, F. Castro betrayed power to his brother R. Castro.

At the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first century, the influence of leftist forces increased in Latin American countries. The symbol of the “left turn” was the activities of Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, who won the presidential elections in December 1998. On his initiative, state control over the oil industry was established, extensive social programs were implemented, and test ties were established with Cuba. This policy caused discontent in the United States. In 2002, a military coup was organized in Venezuela, which ended in failure. In 2006, Chavez won the election again. In 2007, he nationalized the oil industry and announced the construction of “socialism of the twenty-first century” in Venezuela. However, Hugo Chavez died in 2013. Nicolas Maduro, his closest ally and assistant, became the president of the country. Maduro won the presidential election. He stated that they would continue Chavez's policies.

In 2005, Chavez's follower, Indian Juan Evo Morales, was elected president of Bolivia.. Morales carried out nationalization gas industry. In 2007, Daniel Ortega, a follower of Chavez, became president of Nicaragua. In 2006, another follower of Chavez, Rafael Correa, was elected president of Ecuador. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, leftist forces, although more moderate, came to power, winning elections in Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.

Thus, Latin American countries have moved from neoconservative politics to a socially oriented economy.

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