He became the founder of a new state, known in history as the Arab Caliphate. This state was absolutely theocratic.
Muhammad and the caliphs who succeeded him came from the Meccan Quraish tribe.
Muhammad (prophet) d. 632
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Muslim community was successively led by elected rulers - caliphs (“successors”). All of them were old companions of Muhammad.
Elected (Righteous) Caliphs, 632-661.
Hasan ibn Ali 661
It is believed that there were four elected caliphs, but in fact there was a fifth - in Kufa, after the murder of Ali, his son Hassan was proclaimed caliph. But the Syrian governor Muawiya opposed him. Realizing that he did not have enough strength to resist, Hasan renounced his rights by concluding an agreement with Muawiya.
Umayyad Dynasty, 661-750.
Muawiyah was the son of Abu Sufiyan, the leader of the Meccan Quraish community, a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad. Abu Sufiyan's eldest son Yazid commanded the Arab forces in Syria. After his death from plague in 639, his brother Muawiyah became Syrian governor.
Muawiyah did not recognize the fourth elected caliph Ali and fought with him. At this time, a conspiracy matured in the caliphate, the participants of which decided to physically eliminate the perpetrators of the split in the Muslim community. The conspirators killed Ali, but only managed to wound Muawiya. Having a battle-hardened army at his disposal, Muawiya quickly seized power, dealing with all opponents.
The dynasty of caliphs founded by him was divided into two branches: Suffianids(the first three caliphs) and Marwanids(other).
Yazid I 680-683
Muawiyah II 683-684
Marwan I 684-685
Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr (anti-caliph, in Mecca) 684-692
al-Walid I 705-715
Yazid II 720-724
Hisham 724-743
al-Walid II 743-744
Yazid III 744
Ibrahim 744
Marwan II 744-750
In the eastern provinces of the caliphate, a powerful movement arose against the Umayyads, in which a variety of forces united for a time. It was headed by Abu Muslim, a skilled organizer and an excellent speaker. The Umayyad troops were defeated, the dynasty was overthrown and almost completely exterminated. Marwan II fled to Egypt but was killed in Gaza. Only one Umayyad prince, Abd ar-Rahman, the grandson of Caliph Hisham, managed to escape. He fled to the Iberian Peninsula, where he founded a state independent of the caliph.
Abbasid Dynasty, 750-1258
The Abbasids traced their origins to the uncle of the prophet al-Abbas (d. 653). Unlike the Alids, they did not have any special rights to supremacy in the Muslim community. Therefore, not very shy about the means in the fight against the Umayyads, the Abbasids tried to attract a variety of forces to their side - the Kharijites, new Muslims, especially in Iran and other eastern provinces of the caliphate. But after coming to power, they quickly tried to get rid of their former allies. By order of the second caliph al-Mansur, Abu Muslim, who ensured their victory, was killed, many other prominent Shiites were executed or expelled, and Alid speeches were mercilessly suppressed.
al-Mahdi 775-785
al-Hadi 785-786
Harun 786-809
al-Amin 809-813
al-Mamun 813-833
Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (in Baghdad) 817-819
al-Mustasim 833-842
al-Wasiq 842-847
al-Mutawakkil 1 847-861
al-Mustansir 861-862
al-Musta'in 862-866
al-Mutazz 866-869
al-Muhtadi 869-870
al-Mutamid 870-892
al-Mu'tadid 892-902
al-Muqtafi 902-908
al-Muqtadir 908-932
al-Qahir 932-934
al-Radi 934-940
al-Muttaqi 940-944
al-Mustaqfi 944-946
al-Muti 946-976
at-Tai 976-991
al-Qadir 991-1031
al-Qaim 1031-1075
al-Muqtadi 1075-1094
al-Mustazhir 1094-1118
al-Mustarshid 1118-1135
ar-Rashid 1135-1136
al-Muqtafi 1136-1160
al-Mustanjid 1160-1170
al-Mustadi 1170-1180
an-Nasir 1180-1225
Az-Zahir 1225-1226
al-Mustansir 1226-1242
al-Mustasim 1242-1258
The power of the caliphs gradually weakened, and the outskirts were separated from the state. In 945, the Daylemite Buyids captured the capital of the caliphate, Baghdad, and turned the caliphs into their puppets, leaving them only with spiritual leadership.
In 1055, Baghdad was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. Political power passed to their sultans. At the end of the 12th century, the Seljuk state collapsed, and the caliphs gradually regained their power. But in 1258, the caliphate was destroyed by the Mongol Khan Hulagu, who ordered the execution of Caliph al-Mustasim. As a result, the devout Sunnis lost their spiritual leader. At the same time, among the fugitives from Baghdad, one appeared in Cairo who called himself the uncle of the last caliph. Although his origins were in doubt, the Mamluks who ruled Egypt found it advantageous to believe him. He was proclaimed caliph, and after his quick death his brother became caliph. Neither they nor their descendants had any real power. The Mamluk sultans kept caliphs at their court as the main clerics. The caliphs strengthened the power of the sultans with their authority.
Abbasid caliphs in Cairo, 1261-1517.
al-Mustansir 1261
al-Hakim I 1261-1302
al-Mustaqfi I 1302-1340
al-Wasiq I 1340-1341
al-Hakim II 1341-1352
al-Mu'tadid I 1352-1362
al-Mutawakkil I 1362-1377
al-Mutasim 1377
al-Mutawakkil I (secondary) 1377-1383
al-Wasiq II 1383-1386
al-Mu'tasim (secondary) 1386-1389
al-Mutawakkil I (for the third time) 1389-1406
al-Musta'in 1406-1414
al-Mu'tadid II 1414-1441
al-Mustaqfi II 1441-1451
al-Qaim 1451-1455
al-Mustanjid 1455-1479
al-Mutawakkil II 1479-1497
al-Mustamsiq 1497-1508
al-Mutawakkil III 1508-1516
al-Mustamsiq (secondary) 1516-1517
al-Mutawakkil III (secondary) 1517
In 1517, Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered Egypt. The last Mamluk sultan was executed on his orders. The Abbasid caliph Mutawakkil III lived further at the court of Selim I, who assumed the title of Caliph of the Faithful.
The Arab Caliphate arose in the 7th century. in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system among the Arabs who inhabited this territory - settled farmers and nomads and their unification under the banner of the religion of Islam.
Before the formation of the Arab Caliphate, the vast majority of the population of Arabia were nomadic pastoralists who were at the stage of tribal relations. They inhabited vast areas of the Arabian steppes and semi-deserts, known as “Badawi”. This word passed into European languages in the form of the Arabic plural - Bedouin. The Bedouins were engaged in cattle breeding, mainly camel breeding.
Each tribe (depending on its size and the size of the territory it occupied) consisted of a large or small number of clans and clans.
At the head of each tribe was its leader - the seyid (lord); in a time closer to us, they began to call him a sheikh.
Individual clans and large groups of nomads also had their own sayyids. In peacetime, the seiyid was in charge of migrations, chose a place for the camp, was a representative of his tribe and negotiated on its behalf with other tribes. If the tribe did not have a judge, he would deal with disputes and litigation among his fellow tribesmen, and in special cases he could perform the duties of a minister of religious worship. In raids and war, the Sayyid commanded the armed detachment of his tribe; then he was called rais (leader).
Each tribe, or even a large clan, was a completely independent organization, independent of anyone.
The main reason for the emergence of the Arab state was class stratification. In addition, the economic crisis associated with overpopulation and the need to increase the area of pastures was of no small importance. The Arabs needed new territories and sought to invade Iran and Byzantium. The crisis contributed to the unification of Arab tribes into alliances and the creation of a single Arab state throughout Arabia.
The desire for unification found its ideological expression in the teachings of the Hanifs, who preached faith in one god - Allah, and in Islam (“submission”) - a Mohammedan religious teaching, the founder of which is considered to be Muhammad, who lived from approximately 570 to 632.
Islam originated in Central Arabia. Its main center is Mecca, where the founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born and lived. The city of Mecca stood in the way of large trade caravans that were heading from Yemen and Ethiopia to Mesopotamia and Palestine. This point, which grew into a city large by Arabian standards, acquired ever-increasing religious significance in ancient times.
Muhammad belonged to the Hayshim family, which did not possess wealth and did not enjoy influence. Consequently, he and his inner circle could well be imbued with the interests and needs of the middle and small Meccan trading people.
The activities of the first Muslims in Mecca ended in complete failure. Having received no support either from the population of the city or from the Bedouins from the surrounding areas, the first Muslims decided to move to Yathrib Medina. There the Meccan settlers began to be called Muhajirs. They had to commit a formal act of voluntary dissolution of family ties with their fellow tribesmen.
Further, a special organization was formed in Medina - the ummah (community of believers). The Muslim Ummah, which united fellow believers, was a theocratic organization. The believers who entered it were convinced that they were ruled by Allah through his messenger. A few years later, the entire Arab population of Medina had already become part of the Muslim community, and the Jewish tribes were evicted and partially exterminated. As a religious teacher who constantly communicated with Allah, Muhammad served as the ruler of Medina, judge and military leader.
On January 13, 624, the first battle of Muslims led by Muhammad with the Meccans took place. The battle lasted only a few hours. The Muslims were victorious and captured rich booty. Muhammad acted wisely with the prisoners: he released the captive women and children. Muhammad's generosity did its job. A recent opponent, Malik Ibn Auf, who commanded a Bedouin tribe in a battle with Muhammad, himself converted to Islam. The Bedouin tribes under his control followed his example. So Muhammad expanded his influence step by step.
After this, Muhammad decided to push back the Jews. The latter could not withstand the siege and, starved to death, surrendered. They had to leave Arabia and settle in Syria. Over time, other tribes of Central Arabia surrendered to Muhammad, and he became the most powerful ruler in the region.
Muhammad died in Medina in 632. The death of Muhammad raised the question of his successor as the supreme head of the Muslims. By this time, Muhammad's closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among them they began to choose individual Muslim leaders.
Abu Bekr, Muhammad's closest ally, was proclaimed the head of the community. In accordance with the gradually developing Islamic law, the appointment of Abu Bekr as heir was made through elections and legitimized by an oath taken by shaking hands, with those present giving a solemn ceremony
a promise for those who were absent. Abu Bekr took the title of caliph, which means “deputy”, “successor”.
The caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) were called “righteous.” Their accession to the throne was still elective. During their reign, numerous territories in Asia and Africa were conquered, which were part of the Byzantine Empire and the Iranian kingdom. As a result of these conquests, the vast state of the Arab Caliphate was formed.
Arab Empire
The history of the Arab Caliphate can be represented by the following main periods: period - the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of the state (VI-VII centuries); The period is Damascus, or the period of Umayyad rule, during which the heyday of the state falls. The Caliphate becomes a feudal state (661-750); The period is Baghdad, or the period of Abbasid rule. The creation of a vast Arab empire, its further feudalization and the collapse of the state (750-1258) are associated with it.
The collapse of the Caliphate began in the 8th century. In 756, the Emirate of Cordoba in Spain separated from it, which in 929 became an independent caliphate. Later, Tunisia and Morocco, and then other parts of the empire, seceded from the Caliphate. In the middle of the 9th century. Egypt separated. The power of the caliph was preserved by the middle of the 10th century. only in Arabia and part of Mesopotamia adjacent to Baghdad.
In 1055, after the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad, the Arab Caliphate lost its independence.
In 1257-1258 As a result of the invasion of Genghis Khan, the remnants of the once powerful state - the Arab Caliphate - were destroyed.
1. List the main provisions of the Muslim faith.
The creed of Islam is based on the “five pillars”. All Muslims must believe in one God - Allah and in the prophetic mission of Muhammad; daily prayer five times a day and weekly prayer in the mosque on Fridays are obligatory for them; Every Muslim must fast during the holy month of Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj. These duties are complemented by another duty - if necessary, to participate in the holy war for faith - jihad.
2. What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?
The reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs were: rivalry and mutual weakening of Byzantium and Iran, religious militancy of the Arabs, and the weakness of the barbarian states in North Africa.
3. How were the relations between the Muslim conquerors and people belonging to other religions?
The Muslim conquerors did not. At first, the Arabs did not force Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians (followers of the ancient religion of Iran) to convert to Islam; they were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, paying a special poll tax. But Muslims were extremely intolerant of pagans. People who converted to Islam were exempt from taxes.
4. Why, despite the unrest and splits, did the Islamic state manage to maintain unity for a long time?
Because the ruler - the caliph had not only secular, but also spiritual power over all Muslims, which ensured unity.
5. What were the reasons for the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate?
The reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate were the revolts of the nobility, the lack of ability to control a vast state, the emergence of independent rulers who did not obey the caliph, and the deprivation of the caliph of secular power.
6. Using a map, list the states of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the territories of which became part of the Arab Caliphate.
Sassanid State (Persia), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Khorezm, Kerman, Sistan, Tokharistan, Syria, Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Kingdom of the Visigoths (Spain).
7. They say that Islam is the only world religion that arose “in the full light of history.” How do you understand these words?
These words can be understood to mean that Islam arose in an era that is well covered by historical sources and described by medieval historians. Therefore, historians have a very good idea of the conditions in which the new religion arose.
8. The author of the work “Kabus-Name” (11th century) talks about wisdom and knowledge: “Do not consider an ignorant person a man, but do not consider a wise person, but devoid of virtue, a sage, do not consider a cautious person, but devoid of knowledge, as an ascetic, but with the ignorant. Don’t mess around, especially with those ignoramuses who consider themselves wise and are satisfied with their ignorance. Communicate only with wise people, for from communicating with good people they gain good fame. Do not be ungrateful for communicating with the good and do good deeds and do not forget the one who needs you, do not push away, for through this pushing away suffering and need will increase. Try to be kind and humane, avoid unpraiseworthy morals and do not be wasteful, for the fruit of wastefulness is care, and the fruit of care is need, and the fruit of need is humiliation. Try to be praised by the wise, and be careful that the ignorant do not praise you, for the one whom the mob praises is condemned by the nobles, as I heard... They say that once Iflatun (as the Muslims called the ancient Greek philosopher Plato) was sitting with the nobles of that city. A man came to bow to him, sat down and made various speeches. In the middle of the speeches he said: “O sage, today I saw such and such, and he spoke about you and glorified and glorified you: Iflatun, "They say he is a very great sage, and there has never been and never will be anyone like him. I wanted to convey his praises to you."
The sage Iflatun, hearing these words, bowed his head and began to sob, and was very sad. This man asked: “O sage, what offense have I caused you to make you so sad?” The sage Iflatun replied: “You have not offended me, O Khoja, but can there be a greater disaster than that an ignoramus praises me and my deeds seem worthy of approval to him? I don’t know what kind of stupid thing I did that pleased him and gave him pleasure, so he praised me, otherwise I would have repented of this act. My sadness is because I am still ignorant, for those whom the ignorant praise are themselves ignorant.”
What should a person’s social circle be, according to the author?
Why should such communication be beneficial?
Why was Plato upset?
What does the mention of his name in the story indicate?
You should communicate only with reasonable people
Such communication is beneficial because... from communicating with good people they gain good fame
Plato was upset that he was praised by an ignorant person, which means that Plato himself was compared to an ignorant person, because... “those whom the ignorant praise are themselves ignorant”
This indicates that the Arabs not only knew ancient philosophy, but largely preserved it in the early Middle Ages.
Historical background
The initial core of the caliphate was the Muslim community created by the prophet Muhammad at the beginning of the 7th century in Hijaz (Western Arabia) - the umma. As a result of the Muslim conquests, a huge state was created, which included the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, most of Transcaucasia (in particular the Armenian Highlands, the Caspian territories, the Colchis Lowland, as well as the regions of Tbilisi), Central Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Sindh.
From the founding of the caliphate () to the Abbasid dynasty ()
This period includes the era of the first 4 caliphs who “walked the right path” (al-Rashidin) - Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar (634-644), Uthman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) and the dominance of the Umayyads (661-750).
Arab conquests
In terms of size, their empire, which was formed in less than a hundred years, surpassed the Roman one, and this turned out to be all the more amazing because at first, after the death of Muhammad, one could fear that even the small successes of Islam that it had achieved in Arabia would collapse. Muhammad, dying, did not leave an heir, and after his death (632) a dispute arose between the Meccans and Medinans over the issue of his successor. During the discussions, Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph. Meanwhile, with the news of Muhammad's death, almost all of Arabia, except Mecca, Medina and Taif, immediately abandoned Islam. With the help of the believing Medinans and Meccans, Abu Bakr managed to return vast but divided Arabia back to Islam; What helped him most in this was the so-called Saifullah “sword of Allah” - the experienced commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, who only 9 years ago defeated the prophet at Mount Departure; Khalid defeated the 40,000-strong army of followers of the false prophet Musailima in the so-called. “death fence” at Aqrab (633). Immediately after the Arab uprising was pacified, Abu Bakr, continuing the policy of Muhammad, led them to war against the Byzantine and Iranian possessions.
The boundaries of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the escaped Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman I laid the first foundation in Spain () for the independent Emirate of Cordoba, which since 929 has been officially titled “caliphate” (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the great-grandson of Caliph Ali and therefore equally hostile to both the Abbasids and the Umayyads, founded the Alid Idrisid dynasty (-) in Morocco, whose capital was the city of Toudgah; the rest of the northern coast of Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost to the Abbasid caliphate when the governor of Aghlab, appointed by Harun al-Rashid, became the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty in Kairouan (-). The Abbasids did not consider it necessary to resume their foreign policy of conquest against Christian or other countries, and although from time to time military clashes arose both on the eastern and northern borders (like Mamun’s two unsuccessful campaigns against Constantinople), however, in general, the caliphate lived peacefully.
Such a feature of the first Abbasids is noted as their despotic, heartless and, moreover, often insidious cruelty. Sometimes, as the founder of the dynasty, it was an open source of caliphic pride (the nickname “Bloodbringer” was chosen by Abul Abbas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the cunning al-Mansur, who loved to dress up before the people in the hypocritical clothes of piety and justice, preferred to act with treachery where possible and executed dangerous people on the sly, first lulling their caution with oaths of promises and favors. Among al-Mahdi and Harun ar-Rashid, cruelty was obscured by their generosity, however, the treacherous and ferocious overthrow of the vizier family of the Barmakids, which was extremely useful for the state, but imposed a certain bridle on the ruler, constitutes for Harun one of the most disgusting acts of eastern despotism. It should be added that under the Abbasids, a system of torture was introduced into legal proceedings. Even the tolerant philosopher Mamun and his two successors are not free from the reproach of tyranny and cruelty towards people unpleasant to them. Kremer finds (“Culturgesch. d. Or.”, II, 61; cf. Müller: “Ist. Isl.”, II, 170) that the very first Abbasids showed signs of hereditary Caesarian madness, which became even more intensified in their descendants.
In justification, one could only say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy in which the countries of Islam found themselves during the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, agitated by the adherents of the overthrown Umayyads, bypassed Alids, predatory Kharijites and various Persian sectarians of radical persuasions who never ceased to rebel on the northern outskirts of the state, the , terrorist measures were perhaps a simple necessity. Apparently, Abul Abbas understood the meaning of his nickname “Bloodbringer.” Thanks to the formidable centralization that the heartless man, but the brilliant politician al-Mansur, managed to introduce, the subjects were able to enjoy internal peace, and public finances were managed in a brilliant manner. Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the caliphate dates back to the same cruel and treacherous Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”), who, despite his notorious stinginess, treated science with encouragement (meaning, first of all, practical, medical goals) . But, on the other hand, it remains undeniable that the flourishing of the caliphate would hardly have been possible if Saffah, Mansur and their successors had ruled the state directly, and not through the talented vizier family of the Persian Barmakids. Until this family was overthrown by () the unreasonable Harun al-Rashid, burdened by its tutelage, some of its members were first ministers or close advisers to the caliph in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were in important government positions in the provinces (like Fadl ), and all together managed, on the one hand, to maintain for 50 years the necessary balance between the Persians and Arabs, which gave the caliphate its political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the ancient Sasanian life, with its social structure, with its culture, with its mental movement.
"Golden Age" of Arab culture
This culture is usually called Arabic, because the Arabic language became the organ of mental life for all the peoples of the caliphate, and therefore they say: "Arabic art", "Arab science”, etc.; but in essence these were most of all the remnants of the Sassanian and generally Old Persian culture (which, as is known, also absorbed much from India, Assyria, Babylon and, indirectly, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the caliphate, we observe the development of the remnants of Byzantine culture, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - Roman and Roman-Spanish culture - and the homogeneity in them is imperceptible, if we exclude the link that connects them - the Arabic language. It cannot be said that the foreign culture inherited by the caliphate rose qualitatively under the Arabs: Iranian-Muslim architectural buildings are inferior to the old Parsi ones, and similarly, Muslim products made of silk and wool, household utensils and jewelry, despite their charm, are inferior to ancient products.
But during the Muslim, Abbasid period, in a vast united and ordered state with carefully arranged communication routes, the demand for Iranian-made items increased, and the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with neighbors made it possible to develop remarkable foreign barter trade: with China through Turkestan and - by sea - through the Indian archipelago, with the Volga Bulgars and Russia through the Khazar kingdom, with the Spanish emirate, with all of Southern Europe (with the possible exception of Byzantium), with the eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, ivory and blacks were exported), etc. The main port of the caliphate was Basra. The merchant and the industrialist are the main characters of Arabian tales; various high-ranking officials, military leaders, scientists, etc. were not ashamed to add to their titles the nickname Attar (“mosque maker”), Heyyat (“tailor”), Jawhariy (“jeweler”), etc. However, the nature of Muslim-Iranian industry is not so much the satisfaction of practical needs as of luxury. The main items of production are silk fabrics (muslin-muslin, satin, moiré, brocade), weapons (sabers, daggers, chain mail), embroidery on canvas and leather, gimp work, carpets, shawls, embossed, engraved, carved ivory and metals. mosaic works, earthenware and glass products; less often, purely practical products - materials made of paper, cloth and camel wool.
The well-being of the agricultural class (for reasons, however, of taxation, and not of democracy) was increased by the restoration of irrigation canals and dams, which were neglected under the last Sassanids. But even according to the consciousness of the Arab writers themselves, the caliphs failed to bring the people's taxability to such a height as was achieved by the tax system of Khosrow I Anushirvan, although the caliphs ordered specifically for this purpose to translate the Sasanian cadastral books into Arabic.
The Persian spirit also takes over Arabic poetry, which now, instead of Bedouin songs, produces the refined works of the Basri Abu Nuwas (“Arab Heine”) and other court poets Harun al-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockelmann: “Gesch. d. arab. Litt.”, I, 134) correct historiography emerges, and after the “Life of the Apostle”, compiled by Ibn Ishak for Mansur, a number of secular historians also appear. From Persian, Ibn al-Muqaffa (about 750) translated the Sasanian “Book of Kings”, the Pahlavi treatment of Indian parables about “Kalila and Dimna” and various Greek-Syro-Persian philosophical works, with which Basra, Kufa, and then and Baghdad. The same task is performed by people of a language closer to the Arabs, former Persian subjects, Christian Aramaicians of Jondishapur, Harran, etc. Moreover, Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”) also takes care of the translation of Greek medical works into Arabic, as well as mathematical and philosophical works. . Harun gives the manuscripts brought from the Asia Minor campaigns for translation to the Jondishapur doctor John ibn Masaveyh (who even practiced vivisection and was then the life physician of Mamun and his two successors), and Mamun established, especially for abstract philosophical purposes, a special translation board in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greco-Syro-Persian philosophy, commentary work on the interpretation of the Koran turns into scientific Arabic philology (Basrian Khalil, Basrian Persian Sibawayhi; Mamun's teacher, Kufi Kisaiy) and the creation of Arabic grammar, philological collection of works of pre-Islamic and Umayyad folk literature (Muallaqat, Hamasa, Khozailite poems, etc.).
The century of the first Abbasids is also known as a period of highest tension in the religious thought of Islam, as a period of strong sectarian movement: the Persians, who were now converting to Islam en masse, took Muslim theology almost completely into their own hands and aroused a lively dogmatic struggle, among which were heretical sects that had emerged even during The Umayyads received their development, and orthodox theology and jurisprudence was defined in the form of 4 schools, or interpretations: under Mansur - the more progressive Abu Hanifa in Baghdad and the conservative Malik in Medina, under Harun - the relatively progressive al-Shafi'i, under Mamun - ibn Hanbal. The government's attitude towards these orthodoxies was not always the same. Under Mansur, a supporter of the Mu'tazilites, Malik was flogged to the point of mutilation. Then, during the next 4 reigns, orthodoxy prevailed, but when Mamun and his two successors elevated (from 827) Mu'tazilism to the level of state religion, followers of orthodox beliefs were subjected to official persecution for “anthropomorphism”, “polytheism”, etc., and under al-Mu'tasim was flogged and tortured by the holy Imam ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the caliphs could patronize the Mu'tazilite sect without fear, because its rationalistic teaching about the free will of man and the creation of the Koran and its inclination towards philosophy could not seem politically dangerous. To sects of a political nature, such as the Kharijites, Mazdakites, extreme Shiites, who sometimes raised very dangerous uprisings (the false prophet of the Persian Mokanna in Khorasan under al-Mahdi, 779, the brave Babek in Azerbaijan under Mamun and al-Mutasim, etc. ), the attitude of the caliphs was repressive and merciless even during the times of the highest power of the caliphate.
Collapse of the Caliphate
Loss of political power of the caliphs
Witnesses to the gradual collapse of X. were the caliphs: the already mentioned Mutawakkil (847-861), the Arab Nero, much praised by the faithful; his son Muntasir (861-862), who ascended the throne, killing his father with the help of the Turkic guard, Mustain (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Muhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muqtafi I (902-908), Muqtadir (908-932), Al-Qahir (932-934), Al-Radi (934-940), Muttaqi (940-944), Mustakfi (944-946). In their person, the caliph from the ruler of a vast empire turned into the prince of a small Baghdad region, warring and making peace with his sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker neighbors. Within the state, in their capital Baghdad, the caliphs became dependent on the willful Praetorian Turkic Guard, which Mutasim considered it necessary to form (833). Under the Abbasids, the national consciousness of the Persians came to life (Goldzier: “Muh. Stud.”, I, 101-208). Harun's reckless extermination of the Barmakids, who knew how to unite the Persian element with the Arab, led to discord between the two nationalities. Under Mamun, the strong political separatism of Persia was expressed in the founding of the Tahirid dynasty in Khurasan (821-873), which turned out to be the first symptom of the coming apostasy of Iran. After the Tahirids (821-873), independent dynasties were formed: the Saffarids (867-903; see), the Samanids (875-999; see), the Ghaznavids (962-1186; see) - and Persia slipped out of the hands of the caliphs. In the West, Egypt, along with Syria, seceded under the rule of the Tulunids (868-905); however, after the fall of the Tulunids, Syria and Egypt were again governed by Abbasid governors for 30 years; but in 935 Ikhshid founded his dynasty (935-969), and since then not a single region west of the Euphrates (Mecca and Medina also belonged to the Ikhshids) was subject to the temporal power of the Baghdad caliphs, although their rights as spiritual rulers were recognized everywhere (except , of course, Spain and Morocco); A coin was minted with their name and a public prayer (khutbah) was read.
Persecution of free thought
Feeling their weakening, the caliphs (the first - Al-Mutawakkil, 847) decided that they should gain new support for themselves - in the orthodox clergy, and for this - to renounce Mu'tazili freethinking. Thus, since the time of Mutawakkil, along with the progressive weakening of the power of the caliphs, there has been a strengthening of orthodoxy, persecution of heresies, free-thinking and heterodoxy (Christians, Jews, etc.), religious persecution of philosophy, natural and even exact sciences. A new powerful school of theologians, founded by Abul-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936), who left Mu'tazilism, conducts scientific polemics with philosophy and secular science and wins victory in public opinion. However, the caliphs, with their increasingly declining political power, were not able to actually kill the mental movement, and the most famous Arab philosophers (Basri encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and other scientists lived under the patronage of vassal sovereigns precisely at that time the era (-c.) when officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogmatics and in the opinion of the masses, philosophy and non-scholastic sciences were recognized as impiety; and literature, towards the end of the said era, produced the greatest free-thinking Arab poet, Maarri (973-1057); at the same time, Sufism, which was very well grafted onto Islam, turned into complete freethinking among many of its Persian representatives.
Cairo Caliphate
The last caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty
The Abbasid Caliph, that is, essentially a petty Baghdad prince with a title, was a toy in the hands of his Turkic military leaders and Mesopotamian emirs: under Al-Radi (934-941), a special position of majordomo (“emir-al-umara”) was established. Meanwhile, next door, in western Persia, the Shiite dynasty of the Buyids, which broke away from the Samanids in 930, advanced (see). In 945, the Buyids captured Baghdad and ruled it for more than a hundred years, with the title of sultans, and at that time the nominal caliphs there were: Mustakfi (944-946), Al-Muti (946-974), Al-Tai (974-991 ), Al-Qadir (991-1031) and Al-Qaim (1031-1075). Although, for political purposes, to counterbalance the Fatimids, the Shiite Buyid sultans called themselves vassals, “emirs of al-Umar” of the Sunni Baghdad Caliphate, but, in essence, they treated the caliphs as captives, with complete disrespect and contempt, patronized philosophers and freethinkers sectarians, and in Baghdad itself Shiism made progress.
Seljuk invasion
A ray of hope for deliverance from the oppressors flashed to the caliphs in the person of the new conqueror, the Turkic Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030), who, having created his own huge sultanate instead of the Samanid state that he had overthrown, showed himself to be an ardent Sunni and introduced orthodoxy everywhere; however, he only took away Media and some other possessions from the small Buyids, and avoided clashes with the main Buyids. Culturally, Mahmud’s campaigns turned out to be very disastrous for the countries he conquered, and in 1036 a terrible misfortune struck all of Muslim Asia: the Seljuk Turks began their devastating conquests and dealt the first mortal blow to the Asian-Muslim civilization, already shaken by the Ghaznavid Turks . But things got better for the caliphs: in 1055, the Seljuk leader Toghrul Beg entered Baghdad, freed the caliph from the power of the Buyid heretics and instead of them became the sultan; in 1058 he solemnly accepted investiture from Al-Qaim and surrounded him with outward signs of respect. Al-Qa'im (d. 1075), Muhtadi II (1075-1094) and Al-Mustazhir (1094-1118) lived in material comfort and respect as representatives of the Muslim church, and Al-Mustarshid (1118-1135) Seljukid Mas'ud granted independent secular governance to Baghdad and most of Iraq, which remained to his successors: Ar-Rashid (1135-1136), Al-Muqtafi (1136-1160), Al-Mustanjid (1160-1170) and Al-Mustadi (1170 -1180).
The end of X. Fatimid, so hated by the Abbasids, was put by the faithful Sunni Saladin (1169-1193). The Egyptian-Syrian Ayyubid dynasty (1169-1250) founded by him revered the name of the Baghdad caliph.
Mongol invasion
Taking advantage of the weakness of the collapsed Seljuk dynasty, the energetic Caliph An-Nasir (1180-1225) decided to expand the boundaries of his small Baghdad X. and ventured into a fight with the powerful Khorezmshah Muhammad ibn Tekesh, who advanced instead of the Seljuks. Ibn Tekesh ordered a meeting of theologians to transfer X. from the Abbas clan to the Ali clan and sent troops to Baghdad (1217-1219), and An-Nasir sent an embassy to the Mongols of Genghis Khan, inviting them to invade Khorezm. Neither An-Nasir (d. 1225) nor the caliph Az-Zahir (1220-1226) saw the end of the catastrophe they brought about, which destroyed the Islamic countries of Asia both culturally, materially, and mentally. The last Baghdad caliphs turned out to be Al-Mustansir (1226-1242) and the completely insignificant and mediocre Al-Mustasim (1242-1258), who in 1258 surrendered the capital to the Mongols to Hulagu and 10 days later was executed along with most of the members of his dynasty. One of them fled to Egypt, and there the Mamluk Sultan Baybars (-), in order to have spiritual support for his sultanate, elevated him to the rank of “caliph” under the name Mustansir (). The descendants of this Abbasid remained nominal caliphs under the Sultans of Cairo until the power of the Mamluks was overthrown by the Ottoman conqueror Selim I (1517). In order to have all the official data of spiritual leadership over the entire Islamic world, Selim I forced the last of these caliphs and the last in the Abbasid family, Motawakkil III, to solemnly renounce his caliphic rights and title in favor of
The emergence of the caliphate is closely related to the emergence of such a world religion as Islam, which appeared in the 7th century. At the origins of the creation of such a state as the Arab Caliphate is the Prophet Muhammad, who, professing monotheism, declared himself a prophet and in the city of Hajiz created a community of fellow believers.
Gradually expanding his sphere of influence, Muhammad was able to lay the foundation of such a powerful state as the Arab Caliphate. Acquiring more and more coreligionists every year, Muslims were able to conquer a number of states, which formed such a powerful Asian state, which was the Arab Caliphate.
Why was the empire called the caliphate?
The formation of the caliphate began at an accelerated pace after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The word “Caliphate” itself has several meanings:
- This is the name of the state headed by the caliph, that is, the patrimony of the caliph;
- A religious and political organization in which all power belongs to the caliph.
The Arab Caliphate existed from 632 to 1258, during its existence it achieved enormous successes both in the art of war and in culture and science. The history of the caliphate has 3 main periods:
- Began in 632. This period is characterized by the predominance of the so-called “pure Arab spirit” and the righteousness of the reign of 4 caliphs. At that time, the Arabs valued valor, honor and glory most of all. The map of the caliphate expanded significantly during this period as many lands were conquered;
- Period of the Umayyad dynasty. Also characterized by numerous military campaigns;
- The accession, rise and fall of the Abbasid dynasty.
Here is a list of historical caliphates that had real power:
- Arab Caliphate, which lasted until 1258;
- Righteous Caliphate. Lasted from 630 to 661;
- Umayyad Caliphate. Its existence lasted from 661 to 750;
- Cordoba Caliphate. This empire was located on the territory of the modern states of Spain and Portugal. The Cordoba Caliphate was formed in 929 and lasted until 1031;
- The Abbasid Caliphate was established in 750 and lasted until 1258. Over the years, this caliphate twice fell under the rule of conquerors.
Although in essence all these caliphates except Cordoba are the same Arab caliphate, nevertheless, it is customary to distinguish them separately.
The era of the reign of elected caliphs
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the country began to be torn apart by disputes, the essence of which boiled down to who would become the new caliph of the mighty empire. In the end, the closest person from Muhammad's entourage was chosen - Abu Bakr al-Saddik. Being a zealous Muslim, he began his reign by declaring war on all infidels who, after the death of Muhammad, went over to the false prophet Musailima. Some time later, Caliph Aba Bakr al-Saddik defeated an army of forty thousand infidels at the Battle of Arqab, conquering vast new territories for his empire. Successive elected caliphs continued to expand the boundaries of their empire until the last of them, Ali ibn Abu Talib, fell prey to the Kharijites, who were apostates from the main branch of Islam.
The next caliph, Mu'awiya I, seized power by force and appointed his son as his successor, initiating a hereditary monarchy.
Development of the Arab Empire before the Battle of Poitiers
Caliph Mu'awiya I, who appointed his son as successor, ruthlessly dealt with all opponents of Islam. His son Yazid I further expanded the borders of the empire, but was condemned by the people for the murder of the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. His son lasted in power for no more than a year, after which a representative of the Marwanid subdynasty became caliph.
During this period, the Arab Empire captured vast territories in India, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and even part of France ended up in the hands of the Arabs. In Europe, the great Frankish commander Charles Martel managed to stop the conquerors only in the 8th century. His troops were able to defeat vastly superior enemy forces at the Battle of Poitiers.
The political system of the empire during this period is characterized by the emergence of a warrior caste. Although the Arabs lived in the occupied territories, their life was not much different from life in a military camp - they had to expect an enemy attack at any moment. The next caliph, Umar I, contributed a lot to this. It was he who made the warriors of Islam into a real militant church. Anyone who did not convert to Islam was subject to immediate destruction.
Towards the end of this period, the number of military campaigns decreased. The role of professional warriors decreased, and they gradually began to turn into landowners. Since there used to be a ban on warriors purchasing land, they were forced to spend their entire lives in battles. After the ban was lifted, the number of landowners increased sharply.
Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty and weakening of the caliphate
The Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty is a real “golden age” in the history of the development of the Arab state. Memories of this time are still the pride of all Muslims. In this era, it was not political power that came to dominate, but religious influence.
The Abbasids contributed to the development of the state; during their reign, many world-famous scientists, generals, historians, doctors, poets and traders appeared. Arab chroniclers and merchants traveled all over the world and compiled many maps.
Already in the 9th century, the foundations were laid in the Arab Caliphate for those processes that ultimately led to its destruction. This mistake was made by Caliph Mutasim, who, even before the advent of power, began to prepare, recruiting for himself a personal guard from the Turks. To do this, he first bought up all the Turkic slaves in Baghdad. After coming to power, he continued to allocate his Turkic guard, which over the years became similar to the Roman Praetorian Guard. Gradually, the Turkic guard became so influential that it dictated its terms to the caliphs, who actually lost real power.
During the same period, the Persians, sensing the weakness of the Arab caliphate, began to raise uprisings, which ultimately led to Iran's breakaway from the empire. Centralized power was so weakened that Egypt and Syria also gained independence. Other states that were part of the Arab Caliphate also declared their rights to independence.
Collapse of the caliphate
Since the power of the caliphs was seriously weakened, starting in 847, the rulers tried to enlist the support of the clergy so that they could influence the people. A period of persecution of all branches of science began, not even excluding mathematics. Scientists were declared enemies of Islam and were mercilessly destroyed. Nothing good came of this. The smartest people left the caliphate, and those who remained were unable to somehow influence the situation.
Already at the beginning of the 10th century, the Turkic guard completely seized power in the country, leaving the caliphs only Baghdad and high-profile titles. Soon the Buyid dynasty, noticing the weakening of the caliphate, gathered an army and gained power over the empire for almost 100 years, although the former caliphs were still legally considered the rulers of the country.
In the 11th century, power in the Arab Caliphate was seized by the Seljuk Turks, who practically destroyed Muslim civilization. After 200 years, the territory of the once powerful state was again plundered by new invaders. This time it was the Mongols who finally destroyed the Arab caliphate.
The most famous Arab caliph
The Baghdad Caliph Harun ar Rashid was the most famous caliph in the history of the Arab state. It is believed that it was under him that the Arab caliphate reached the pinnacle of development. The ruler was very favorable to various scientists, poets and writers. However, the ruler, highly developed in the spiritual sphere, was completely unsuitable as a military leader or a tough administrator. Under his rule, the country was left in the hands of officials who were in a hurry to line their own pockets. It is known for sure that Harun ar Rashid served as the prototype of the caliph from the world-famous book of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”.
Despite all the ruler's shortcomings, it was he who was able to collect in his country the achievements of famous world cultures from different eras, uniting them on the basis of the Arabic language. Under Harun ar Rashid, the empire stopped expanding, so trade began to develop rapidly. Since the rich state required many different goods that were not available in the Arab state, trade served as an impetus for the development of navigation. Various crafts and arts began to develop. In those days, Arab craftsmen became famous as the best gunsmiths. The famous Damascus sabers and other richly decorated weapons were worth their weight in gold.
Cordoba Caliphate, its rise and fall
The Cordoba Caliphate was founded by one of the descendants of the Umayyads, who was forced to leave the Arab Caliphate. Abd ar-Rahman I, who lost power, took the title of emir in 756. In an effort to restore his power, he subjugated all the minor rulers in the territory of modern Portugal and Spain. His descendant Abd ar-Rahman III solemnly proclaimed himself caliph in 929. It was during the reign of this caliph and his son that the Cordoba caliphate reached its highest peak.
The caliphate's warriors terrified all of medieval Europe, and the standard of living of the caliphate far exceeded the European standard of living of that time. Europeans often laughed at the caliph’s warriors who observed hygienic procedures, calling them “neat men.”
At the beginning of the 11th century, the Cordoba Caliphate lost its strong centralized power and split into a number of small emirates.
Arab Caliphate today
Today we can observe an attempt to revive the Arab caliphate. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant group, notorious for its terrorist attacks, has long declared to the whole world that it is creating a new caliphate that will surpass in its glory all the achievements of the medieval Arab caliphate. Taking advantage of the constant squabbles of tribes and religious groups, the bandits captured part of the territory of Syria and Iraq. Having announced the creation of the Islamic State, the group proclaimed its leader caliph, and invited all devout Muslims to swear allegiance to the new caliph of all Muslims, Abu Bakr Baghdadi. Loudly declaring its rights with terrorist attacks around the world, the group tried to legitimize the seizure of Iraqi territories on the political map of the world.
However, the extremist group's claims to absolute power not only in the region, but throughout the world, have generated discontent among other gangster and religious groups. For example, the famous Al-Qaeda, after several attempts to direct the development of the newly created caliphate in accordance with its interests, completely renounced the Islamic State.
Even such serious states as the UAE and Saudi Arabia took the statements of the Islamic State as a personal insult. Particularly dissatisfied is the king of Saudi Arabia, who has the title “Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques,” which, according to many Muslims, is almost equivalent to the title of caliph.
Military action against the Islamic State
US troops, dissatisfied with the aggressive actions of the newly created caliphate, have long been at war with the Islamic State. It seemed that America was not interested in ending this conflict. How else can one explain the fact that one of the most powerful world powers could not deal with a bunch of bandits who imagined themselves to be the rulers of the world.
Having intervened in this conflict in 2015, Russia launched a series of strikes against positions and targets of the Islamic State in Syria. By December 2016, Russian aircraft had flown more than 30,000 sorties, destroying more than 62,000 enemy targets. On December 6, 2017, Russian Deputy Defense Minister V. Gerasimov said that the territory of Syria has been completely cleared of Islamic State militants.
The Arab Caliphate made an invaluable contribution to world culture. Until now, people all over the world read the famous poets of that era. The attempt of terrorists to revive the caliphate at the present time, relying on brute force, looks simply ridiculous.