Ethnocultural and socio-political processes of formation and development of the Old Russian state
Problems of ethnogenesis and early history of the Slavs in historical science. East Slavs in the VI–VIII centuries. The first pages of the history of the Slavs are traditionally the most difficult. Historians of the 19th century They called them “Slavic antiquities.” The ancient history of the Slavs, their origin and ancestral home are still not fully understood. The complexity of the problem lies in the lack of reliable historical information. In addition, under their own name (“Sloven”), the Slavs appear only in sources dating back to the 6th century.
The search for “Slavic antiquities” takes us to the 1st millennium BC. e., when the paths of ethnogenesis of numerous peoples intertwined with the destinies of the Slavs. Then, along with other tribes (Germanic, Celtic, Finno-Ugric), the Slavs appeared on the historical arena with their own language and ethnic characteristics. Having separated from the Balto-Slavic community, they formed a single ethnic group, speaking a language that is conventionally called “Proto-Slavic” and is considered the basis of modern Slavic languages.
The term “Slavs” still has no scientific explanation. Many historians and linguists believe that it has a common root with the “word” - these are those who own the word, are able to comprehend the meaning, the essence of things. Other scientists derive this name from the root “glory” - “glorious” peoples, famous, famous for their deeds and achievements.
Subsequently, the formation of the Slavic world coincided with a civilizational break in European history, when antiquity was replaced by the barbaric culture of the young peoples of Europe, and its former geopolitical structure became a thing of the past. In addition, the Slavic ethnic groups were involved in the process of the great migration of peoples, cut by powerful migration flows of nomadic tribes.
While exploring new territories, the Slavs approached the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire, constantly violating its defensive lines. The most ancient names of the Western Slavs - Wends, southern – Sklavinov, eastern – ants- found for the first time in the works of the Roman historians Pliny the Elder and Tacitus.
By the beginning of the 6th century. The Slavs appeared on the Danube, then moved to the Balkans, the Czech Republic and Poland. Moving in the southern, western and eastern directions, the Slavs encountered the local population: in the south with the Illyrian and Thracian tribes, in the west with the Celts and Germans, with the Finno-Ugrians and Balts in the east.
In the 7th century The Slavs inhabited vast areas of Eastern, South-Eastern and Central Europe. The final stage of their movements across Europe (VII century) was characterized by the collapse of the Proto-Slavic unity and the formation eastern, western and southern ethnic groups (they are usually called eastern, western and southern Slavs). The Western Slavs include the Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Kashubians and Lusatians; to the south - Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Slovenes, Montenegrins; To Eastern - Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians.
Reference.Currently, the Slavs are settled over a vast territory of Southern and Eastern Europe and further east, all the way to the Russian Far East. There is also a Slavic minority in the countries of Western Europe, America, Transcaucasia and Central Asia. Total number Slavs – 300–350 million people, of which approximately 116 million people live in Russia.
The territory of settlement of the East Slavic tribes according to chronicle and archaeological sources is as follows. On the banks of the Dnieper, in this southern cradle of the future ancient Russian state, a powerful tribal union formed clearing with the center in Kyiv (“in the field” - fields, steppes). Their northeastern neighbors were northerners, living in the basin of the Desna, Sula and Seima rivers. Chernigov became the center of the Seversk land.
Further, to the north, were Radimichi, occupying the upper tributaries of the Dnieper. The upper reaches of the Dnieper and Western Dvina, as well as partly the Volga, were inhabited Krivichi, one of the largest tribal associations of the Eastern Slavs. Their main city- Smolensk. Branch of the Krivichi, Polotsk residents lived along the Polota River, along the Western Dvina. Polotsk became their main city.
The area of Lake Ilmen and the basin of the Volkhov, Lovat, and Msta rivers was occupied Ilmen Slovenes, the northernmost group of Eastern Slavs. Their oldest tribal center there was a settlement called Staraya Ladoga on the Volkhov.
In the upper reaches of the Oka and its tributaries - Moscow and Ugra - there was a territory Vyatichi,- an eastern Slavic tribe, the name of which the chronicler derives from their legendary ancestor Vyatko. In Polesie, on the banks of the Dnieper, north of the glades, they settled Drevlyans(from “tree” - forest). The main city of the Drevlyans was Iskorosten on the Uzh River.
Between Pripyat and Dvina, in Polesie, the possessions extended Dregovichi(“squabble” – swamp, quagmire). The Dregovichi had their own “reign” with its center in Turov. Along the upper reaches of the Pripyat and Western Bug lived duleby, or Volynians.
Along the middle and lower reaches of the Dniester to the very sea coast lived incriminate And Tivertsy, bordering the lands of Bulgaria. The northeastern spurs of the Carpathians were inhabited White Croats.
The names of the Slavic tribes are mostly associated not with unity of origin, but with the area of settlement, which indicates that among the Slavs territorial ties prevailed over tribal ones. In the listed East Slavic tribes one can see the ethnic ancestors of Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. At the same time, for example, according to scientists, the northerners were the ancestors of both Russians and Ukrainians, and the Krivichi and Radimichi were the ancestors of Russians and Belarusians.
The migration of East Slavic tribes was directed along large rivers and river systems. When the Slavs captured the sources of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina, approached the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen, they had in their hands extremely important communication routes that connected the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian.
The most important of them is « great path from the Varangians to the Greeks." It started from the Gulf of Finland and went along the Neva to Ladoga lake, in the Volkhov and Lovat rivers. From Lovat it led to the Western Dvina, and from there to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. Through the Dnieper, the Slavs reached the Black Sea, to the “Greeks,” i.e., to Byzantium.
Another important route passed along the Volga. From the Dnieper the Slavs went to the Don and reached the Azov and Caspian seas. Foreigners traveled along these same routes to Slavic lands. Trade ties with the Byzantine Empire and the countries of the East undoubtedly contributed to the economic progress of the Eastern Slavs and their ethnic consolidation. On these water trade routes lived the two most developed among the Slavic tribes - Polyana and Slovene.
In economic terms, the lands of the glades developed most rapidly. This was facilitated by fertile black soil, a favorable climate and constant contacts with its southern neighbors - the Greek cities of the Black Sea region and Byzantium.
Slovenia, in its forest, river and lake region, did not know such a development of agriculture as the glades. But the location of their lands on the largest trade routes contributed to the development of navigation, trade and crafts.
Therefore, it was in the lands of the Polyans and Slovenes by the 9th century. there was a formation of two ancient Russian proto-state centers - Kyiv and Novgorod.
Document. From the Byzantine historical work "Strategikon":“The Slavic tribes love freedom and cannot stand slavery. They are especially brave and courageous and capable of all kinds of hardships and hardships. They are excellent warriors, because with them military science becomes a harsh science in every detail. The highest happiness in their eyes is to die in battle..."
Thus, the ancient Russian people, the Russian people are autochthonous, that is, the indigenous, anciently living population of vast territories of the East European Plain. Economic techniques, worldview, language and culture characteristic of the Eastern Slavs, laid the foundations of Russian civilization.
It is necessary to especially emphasize the predominantly peaceful nature of relations with neighboring peoples, trade, economic, cultural, marriage and other ties.
Socio-economic and political changes in the depths of Slavic society at the turn of the 8th–9th centuries. The reasons for the emergence of princely power and its functions. The role of the veche. By the 8th century. The Slavs basically completed the process of decomposition of the tribal layer. The clan community disintegrated and was replaced by the family, which, thanks to the progress of the economy, could provide for itself. Not blood relatives, but neighbors began to live in the community. Family property (common arable land) was divided into separate family holdings. The right of private ownership was born, private property. Along with private holdings, common ones continued to exist - lakes, forest lands, pastures for livestock, etc.
For individual strong families the opportunity arose to develop large tracts of land, obtain more products, create certain surpluses and exchange some of them for necessary items or sell them. Thus, in East Slavic society, a dominant layer arose in the person of princes, warriors, tribal elders, which, accumulating wealth, trading, seizing the best land and slaves, turned into a force standing above society and subjugating the community.
Thus, in the VI–VIII centuries. among the Slavs there was an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of large tribal unions. Feudal relations arose, economic and socio-political prerequisites for the formation of statehood were created, and princely power emerged. To conduct defensive and offensive wars, large Slavic tribes united into military-political alliances.
What were the prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state?
Firstly, this economic prerequisites:
– increased level of development of productive forces;
– economic consolidation based on servicing the Dnieper and Volga trade routes;
– development of crafts, separation of crafts from agriculture; concentration of crafts in cities (cemeteries);
- the predominance of free labor over slave labor.
Secondly, political preconditions:
– formation of Slavic tribal unions;
– the needs of the tribal nobility for an apparatus to protect their privileges and seize new lands;
– threat of attack external enemies.
Third, social prerequisites:
– change of tribal community from neighboring one;
– the emergence of social inequality among people;
- the formation of the Old Russian people.
Fourthly, spiritual prerequisites:
– general pagan religion; similar customs, rituals, language;
– community psychology.
By the beginning of the 9th century. The Eastern Slavs have the above prerequisites government organization basically worked out. As a result of these processes, a state was formed, princely power and a fairly clear hierarchy (multi-level) of East Slavic society developed.
At its top was prince - as a rule, the most successful, brave and courageous warrior who ruled a tribe or union of tribes, led a squad and a general tribal militia.
TO the main functions of princely power It is advisable to include the following. First of all, the prince collected, organized and led the army (squad), was in charge of the foreign policy of the tribal union, and performed religious rituals (he was the initiator and organizer of sacrifices). Subsequently, the prince’s responsibilities included subjugating neighboring tribes and maintaining military-political dominance over them, managing the subject territory, ensuring its security, and collecting tribute.
It's important to note that tribute meant the end of primitive communal relations and was one of the signs of the state. This annual tax in favor of the prince confirmed his right to own land, manage, and judge his subjects. At the same time, tribute meant that the prince took upon himself the responsibility to protect his subjects and the lands under his control.
The princes, from among the elite squads close to them, appointed governors in cities (mayors), military leaders (thousands, governors), collectors of trade taxes (tributaries), judicial officials (virniks, emtsov), tax collectors (mytniks), managers of the princely economy (tiuns) and other officials.
The judicial function of the princes gradually took shape - "prince's court" the legislative function of princely power was formed. The power of the prince gradually acquired a sole character. Thus, the prince gradually concentrated military, judicial, legislative and executive powers in his hands.
The prince, in fulfilling his functions of power, relied, first of all, on the warriors-combatants devoted to him. These people were no longer associated with either agriculture or cattle breeding. Their profession is war. In the case of successful campaigns, their production far exceeded the results of the labor of farmers, hunters and artisans. But they often had to pay for the spoils with injury, or even life. Vigilantes became a privileged part of society. In a certain sense, the princely squad was already state apparatus management.
The tribal nobility also became isolated - the heads of clans, large and strong patriarchal families, who concentrated significant wealth in their hands. They became assistants and advisers to the prince and carried out his instructions. From their number the future were formed boyars
The top of the squad, as well as the local nobility, were part of the main political body - council under the prince, a unicameral estate institution with a deliberative nature. There was no permanent staff; the Council included the prince's vassals - the boyars; in peacetime - the spiritual nobility, and in wartime - the leaders of the allies. The members of the princely council were called “Dumtsy” (the prince thought about business with them), so it had another name - Boyar Duma. The council met as needed. The competence of the council included issues of legislation, government administration, relations with the church, foreign policy.
The council was the main, but not the only political body. The democratic, collective governing body was veche- a national assembly with broad powers. It included " eternal people» – boyars, clergy, merchants, townspeople or residents of rural areas. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, legislation, managed financial and land resources, and authorized collections. Often the veche called upon princes, concluding an agreement with them (“row”) and expelled them if the conditions of the “row” were not met. Rooted in the tribal system, the veche was a manifestation of the political activity of the ancient Russian people.
The main stages of the formation and development of Russian statehood. The process of formation and development of the Old Russian state covers the period from the second half of the 9th century to beginning of XII V. It was during this period that Kievan Rus became one of the largest states of the European Middle Ages.
As part of the first stage, from the middle of the 9th century. Until the end of the 10th century, the formation of East Slavic statehood took place.
A legend has been preserved about how the prince of the Slavic tribe of the Polyans, Kiy, and his brothers Shchek and Khoriv built a city on the high bank of the Dnieper. In honor of his older brother, they named him Kiev. Then Kiy visited Constantinople and was received there by the emperor with great honor. Kiya's descendants became the first princes Kyiv State, thereby laying the traditions of ancient Russian statehood. Then the Varangian warriors became rulers Askold and Dir.
"The Tale of Bygone Years"– Old Russian chronicle beginning of the 12th century, contains a story about the war between various Slavic families in the north of the country. The elders of the tribes of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi, as well as the neighboring Finno-Ugric tribes Chud and Vesi in 862 They decided to stop the civil strife in the traditional way - to invite the Varangian prince Rurik to reign in Novgorod. This year - the starting point of Russian statehood.
Rurik united under his leadership the entire north and north-west of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands. A strong state center was formed, gathering the surrounding lands under a single princely authority.
After the death of Rurik in 879, power passed to his relative Oleg. He had an important historical task - to unite two ancient Russian government centers– Novgorod and Kyiv. Kyiv attracted Oleg primarily because it was located on the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which became, as it were, the core of the Old Russian state, its main street.
Oleg gathered a large army (along with the Varangian squad there were detachments representing all northwestern lands) and in 882, having dealt with Askold and Dir, he captured Kyiv by force. Oleg established himself in Kyiv and made it his capital. According to the chronicle, he declared: “Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities.” This is how it was born Rurik dynasty.
Reference.The last rulers ruling dynasty The Rurikovichs in Rus' were Tsars Fyodor I Ioannovich (1584–1598) and Vasily Shuisky (1606–1610). The Rurikovichs were replaced by the Romanov dynasty (1613–1917).
At Prince Oleg (882–912) the following important state tasks were solved: the lands of a number of East Slavic tribes were annexed, the payment of tribute “polyudya” was introduced, which amounted to one of economic fundamentals states. It was through tribute and war booty that the organs of the government controlled, squad, the prince’s inner circle and his court. By the time of Oleg’s death in 912, under his rule there was a huge power, which went down in history as Kievan Rus, which in its scale was not inferior to the Frankish empire of Charlemagne or Byzantium.
Oleg's successor - Prince Igor (912–945) It was necessary for many years to suppress the separatist aspirations of a number of tribal unions. At that time, the power of the Grand Duke over tribal alliances was still extremely weak. There were no written laws or established taxes. The Grand Duke personally collected tribute from the subject tribes, which his squad protected from external enemies. In 941, Igor went on a campaign against Byzantium for tribute, but luck turned against the Russian army. Now the prince's wealth and power depended on internal tribute. Igor mercilessly robbed the subject tribes, for which he paid with his life as a result of the Drevlyan uprising in 945.
Princess Olga (945–964), brutally avenging the death of her husband , sought to strengthen the grand ducal power with the help of socio-economic innovations. She streamlined the amount of tribute collected (lessons), determined the places of its collection (cemeteries), which became centers of state power in the localities. It essentially replaced tribute with a regularly collected government tax.
With Olga's son Grand Duke Svyatoslav (964–972) The state foundations were strengthened, the country's defense capability increased, and the management system was improved. It was during this period that Western European chronicles began to call Rus' Gardarika (the country of cities), of which there were more than a hundred by European standards.
The glory of Rus' during this period was brought by the military victories of Svyatoslav in the fight against Byzantium and the defeat of the Khazar Kaganate. The entire Black Sea coast from the Danube to the Kerch Strait, with the exception of Crimea (the possessions of Byzantium), began to belong to Rus'. In foreign policy, Svyatoslav achieved such amazing results that, according to a number of historians, he can rightfully be called the Alexander the Great of Eastern Europe.
On second stage(end of the 10th – first half of the 11th centuries) Rus' reached its peak in its development. During 35 years of rule Vladimir (980-1015) The process of territorial expansion continued. The state included the lands of the Vyatichi, Croats, Yatvingians, Tmutarakan, and Cherven cities. Vladimir replaced the tribal princes with his sons, consolidating local power.
Thus, the Russian land became the common ancestral property of all Rurikovichs - from the eldest in the family to the youngest prince. Moreover, it consisted of inheritances of unequal importance. The most important after Kyiv was Novgorod, where the great prince of Kiev, as a rule, sent his eldest son to reign, followed by Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Volyn and other centers of reign.
Reference.In the Old Russian state, the title “Grand Duke” applied only to the Kyiv prince, to whom all Russian princes were subordinate. The next level was occupied by large landowners - boyars and local princes. They paid tribute to the Grand Duke and had the right to collect tribute from their subordinates and lands belonging to them. The same place was occupied by the higher clergy.
At Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1015–1054) the economic power of the country has significantly increased, the international position of the state has especially strengthened, it has become great power. All neighbors took into account the politics of Rus'. Yaroslav completed Rus''s many years of efforts to fight the Pechenegs by inflicting on them in 1036. crushing defeat under the walls of Kyiv. After this, Pecheneg raids on Russian lands stopped. In the east, right up to the lower reaches of the Volga, she now had no rivals. The length of the borders of Rus' was about 7 thousand km, they stretched from the Carpathian Mountains to the Kama River, from Baltic Sea- to Cherny. By the middle of the 11th century. According to modern historians, about 4 million people lived in Rus'.
Yaroslav the Wise put into effect the first written set of laws in Rus' - “Russian Truth”."Russian Truth" regulated legal relations, protecting the life and property of various layers of ancient Russian society. She abolished local, tribal customs (for example, blood feud), introducing uniform standards of punishment for crimes. Their observance was entrusted to the state.
“Russian Truth” established the procedure for inheriting land and property. This secured the existence of land ownership. The truth legally fixed the division of society into free and dependent people. In general, the Code of Laws consolidated the established feudal relations in Rus'. In addition, “Russian Truth” is the most important source on the socio-economic and political history of Kievan Rus of the 11th–12th centuries.
Yaroslav died in 1054 at the 76th year of his life, in an aura of glory, revered by Russian society, loved by numerous children. He bequeathed that henceforth the Grand Duke of Rus' should be eldest in the family. Lineal inheritance from father to son, which was common in Europe, gave way to patriarchal custom. Subsequently, this was one of the reasons for strife in the Rurik family.
Overall formed system of government and social order Old Russian state– Kievan Rus looked like this.
Headed this system Grand Duke. He was the largest owner of land and collected tribute from subordinate princes and other land owners. He paid for his service estates in conditional possession (for the duration of service). Every autumn, the Grand Duke and his retinue traveled to the lands under his control - “by the people” - where he collected tribute (polyudye), handled court cases and resolved other issues. However, the bearer of supreme power was not a specific prince, but princely family. The prince was only a temporary owner of power, which was transferred to the eldest in the family.
In some localities, the Grand Duke transferred to the warriors the right to collect tribute. With the income received from these lands, the warrior (a representative of the princely administration) maintained a house, family, servants, acquired weapons and horses. The right to collect tribute from the population was not inherited, but was only a grant from the prince for military service. This scheme was similar to the one that was practiced in Western Europe.
In the second half of the 11th - first half of the 12th century. in place of previous awards will be formed fiefdom- hereditary land ownership. However, unlike Western Europe, where the traditions of private property, enshrined in Roman legal norms, were strong, patrimonial property in Rus' was, first of all, state property - princely. The owners of estates - boyars, monasteries, church hierarchs - were just hereditary holders of the land.
During the formation of Kievan Rus, the majority of the population consisted of free peasant community members. Free peasants lived on free lands, paid tribute to the feudal lords and worked off their duties. However, as private ownership of land was established, the dependence on the feudal lords of the peasants, who were ruined as a result of crop failure, wars, natural disasters, and other reasons, increased and forced them to voluntarily go into bondage to the feudal lord. Thus, economic coercion was carried out on the peasants.
The dependent population was subject to feudal rent, which existed in Rus' in two forms - corvee and quitrent in kind. Corvee- it's free forced labor a peasant working with his own equipment on the farm of a feudal lord. Natural quitrent– annual collection of food and money from dependent peasants.
In the Old Russian state there were the following main groups of dependent peasants:
– purchase- a peasant who took a kupa (monetary or in-kind debt) from the feudal lord;
– Ryadovich- a peasant who, by virtue of various reasons could not manage the farm on his own and entered into a series (agreement) with the feudal lord. He voluntarily admitted his dependence and received in return a plot of land, tools, grain for crops, etc.;
– outcast– a peasant who has lost contact with the community and is hired by a feudal lord;
– serf- a person who was mainly among the courtyard people and was actually in the position of a slave.
Unlike other countries, both eastern and western, the process of formation of Russian statehood had its own specific features. One of them is the spatial and geopolitical situation - the Russian state occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have clearly defined, natural geographical boundaries within the vast flat space.
During its formation, Rus' acquired the characteristics of both eastern and western state formations. In addition, the need for permanent protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language, etc. to unite, create strong state power and have significant civil uprising.
Main trend third stage development of ancient Russian statehood - second half of the 11th century. – beginning of the 12th century. - This is an attempt to prevent the impending collapse, as well as a desire to stabilize the situation within the state and eliminate separatist tendencies.
These attempts were made Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125). Under him, a new legal code was created - the so-called Long Edition of Russian Pravda. This monument reflected the social changes that took place in Rus' in the second half of the 11th – early 12th centuries. Extensive Truth recorded the existence of patrimonial (boyar) property and made changes to a number of pre-existing laws. However, from the second half of the 12th century. the process of fragmentation and collapse of the unified state intensified.
The ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus - existed for more than three centuries. It played an important role in the history of Europe, blocking the path to the West for numerous hordes of nomads. The Eastern Slavs, united into a single strong state, managed to repel their onslaught and maintain their independence. Kievan Rus became the cradle of the Old Russian people, from which the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples were then formed.
Cities in the political and socio-economic structure of Ancient Rus'. Ways of the emergence of cities in Ancient Rus'. Rural communities included not only unfortified villages, but also fortified settlements - “hails”. These were community shelters, original castle-fortresses, where people could hide behind ramparts and walls. local population during enemy attacks.
The top of the tribal unions and the warriors usually lived in separate villages, around which artisans settled, who produced everything necessary for the squad: weapons, armor, clothes, shoes. The princely settlement was surrounded by a deep moat with water, a high earthen rampart with a log wall. Each city was a military center, with fortified walls and towers. In this way, settlements and cities arose. Some cities grew from fortified places, outposts in border zones, at strategically important points.
The settlement of refuge cities by artisans was the beginning of the emergence of cities as craft and trade centers. Archaeological data suggest that many cities of the Eastern Slavs arose already in the 7th–8th centuries. These include Kyiv, Izborsk, Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Polotsk, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov, Chernigov and some others. Cities gradually became the economic, administrative and cultural centers of the principalities. This process continued in the future. For example, under Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century. Yaroslavl was founded on the Volga, and Yuriev (present-day Estonian Tartu) was founded in the conquered land of Chud (Estonians). The city was named after Yuri, the patron saint of Yaroslav.
The city, as a rule, was built on a hill, at the confluence of rivers (waterways of communication and trade), which also provided defense against enemies. central part city, protected by a rampart, around which a fortress wall was erected, was called Kremlin, Krom or kid. There were palaces of princes, courtyards of boyars, churches, and later monasteries. Behind the moat, under the protection of the fortress walls, there was a trading (market). Adjacent to the Kremlin was the craft part of the city - the posad. Individual areas, inhabited, as a rule, by artisans of a certain specialty, were called settlements.
The development of cities as craft centers testified to economic progress Eastern Slavism. Russian craft of that time was not inferior in its technical and artistic level to the craft of Western Europe. In terms of technology and quality of enamel production and finest casting, Russian artisans were noticeably ahead of their foreign colleagues.
The emergence and growth of crafts naturally led to the development of exchange, which is how merchants appeared in Slavic society. In the cities, trade caravans were formed and sent along trade routes, including the main one - “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” They traded furs and linen, cattle and honey, and captive slaves. The protection of goods along the caravan routes required military force, so military squads were formed in trading cities. At the head of such squads were princes.
Cities were the center of culture. Book copyists, monks, architects, artists, and icon painters lived and worked here. Most of the literate people were also located here. Mostly in the cities, stone construction was carried out, mainly temples. The art of construction has reached the cities high level and the most skilled builders also lived in cities. On the lands adjacent to the cities, three-field farming was introduced, and new crops and livestock breeds were spread.
In Ancient Rus', city self-government operated everywhere in cities. An administration was formed in the cities - the elders of urban communities or “city elders”, which are mentioned in ancient Russian written sources. Before the Mongol invasion, there were up to 300 cities in Ancient Rus'. They were the basis of the strength, power and prestige of Ancient Rus'.
The latest archaeological discoveries in Novgorod and their influence on ideas about the origin of the Old Russian state. It should be noted that from an archaeological point of view, Novgorod is unique. Thanks to the peculiarities of the soil, wooden, bone, leather objects, as well as fabrics and grains are well preserved here like nowhere else. Metal objects are covered with a thin layer of corrosion, protecting them from further destruction.
Such favorable conditions made it possible, for example, to establish that people have lived on the territory of modern Novgorod since ancient times, settling no later than 5 thousand years ago. The remains of a Neolithic site (2nd–3rd millennium BC) and an early Iron Age settlement (1st millennium BC) were discovered. Consequently, Novgorod has a long history of its development.
Main building material There was a tree in Rus'. From the remains of the lower tiers of log houses and street pavements, researchers can calculate the dates of their felling with an accuracy of one year. Carrying out such a dendrochronological analysis made it possible to establish that the formation of the city center began with a fortress (kremlin) of the 8th–9th centuries, built by the Ilmen Slovenes.
Consequently, by the time the Varangian prince Rurik was called to Novgorod, the confederation of tribes of the North-West had already existed for a long time and had a common center - the Kremlin. Here were the veche authorities and the general tribal religious center. Thus, we can conclude that statehood in Rus' was formed long before the calling of Rurik and was preserved in Novgorod for several centuries.
During archaeological studies of layers of the 9th–11th centuries. A significant number of finds of military equipment and clothing, many princely seals, Arab, Byzantine and European coins, and household items of Scandinavian and Baltic origin were discovered. This indicates broad international and foreign economic relations of the Novgorod Republic.
Novgorod was the largest center of handicraft production in northeastern Europe. Archaeologists have discovered about 150 craft workshops from the 11th century. In no other medieval city Nothing similar was found in Rus'. Among them are workshops of tanners, jewelers, foundries, turners, bone cutters, coopers, shoemakers, brewers, weavers, dyers, bread makers, gingerbread makers, etc. Among the products of these workshops are iron, wood and glass products, fabrics, rings, combs , razors, scales, chess pieces, balls for playing lapta, etc. In Novgorod, archaeologists collected the largest collection of medieval musical instruments: harps, whistles, pipes.
In total, during archaeological research in Novgorod, more than 125 thousand finds were collected (this number does not include fragments of ceramic vessels, amounting to hundreds of thousands). It was the excavations that discovered a new, completely unknown historical source. We are talking about the famous birch bark letters, containing a lot of invaluable information about writing, language, life, and economy of the Novgorodians.
In former times, there was an opinion that in Ancient Rus' only princes and priests were literate, and even then not all. However, the discovery of letters on birch bark in 1951 showed that literacy in medieval Novgorod extended to all segments of the population - right down to the serfs, and both men and women could write and read. This indicates the high educational and cultural level of the citizens of the Novgorod Republic for that time.
Today, more than six hundred such documents are known. However, the Novgorod land still conceals a huge number of relics, since, despite more than half a century of research, only a little more than 1% of the territory of the ancient city has been studied so far.
Military organization and military strength of the Old Russian state. The military history of Russia begins from the times of the Old Russian State. From the princely squads who carried out military service in times of peace and war, from the fortified cities and warriors - townspeople and villagers who erected and defended these strongholds and their land, the national military glory originates.
A well-functioning military organization was necessary for Rus' to form a strong central secular and spiritual power, repel attacks from outside and carry out its own military campaigns, create effective system governance in regions - principalities, providing military-political support to neighbors and making agreements with them alliance treaties. In the border regions of ancient Rus', there was construction and improvement of defensive lines in the most dangerous directions, the basis of which were fortified cities and fortress-monasteries. Military activities to protect the state extended to ensuring the security of trade routes and the movement of the population to the sparsely populated lands of the outskirts of the Russian state.
In Rus' IX–XIII centuries. there were many strong opponents. Bordering European countries and restless southern and eastern neighbors tried in every possible way to seize part of Russian territories and extract other military-political or economic benefits.
The southern and southwestern borders of the Russian state were protected from possible encroachments by the Khazar Khaganate, the hordes of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, Byzantium, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Poland by the armed formations of the Kyiv, Vladimir-Volyn and Galician principalities.
The western borders of the Polotsk, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn lands came into contact with Poland, various Baltic tribes, and from the 13th century. - with the Teutonic Order. In the northwestern and northern directions, the entire responsibility for protecting the Russian border lay with the oldest principality in Rus', the Novgorod principality. The aggressive interests of the Scandinavians periodically manifested themselves here, from the end of the 12th century. - Swedish crusading knights, and from 1237 Germans - knights of the Livonian Order.
The eastern borders of Rus' were protected by the Rostov and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Their opponents were Volga Bulgaria and its vassals - the Meri, Meshchera, Cheremis and others tribes.
Military organization Ancient Rus' included:
- princely (boyar) permanent armed detachments - squads;
- people's militia - armed formations of principalities, cities and monasteries. Often the militias of several lands (cities) were brought together by the princes into a single army and acted together;
- hired foreign troops of the Varangians, Polovtsians, Poles, Hungarians, etc., which were periodically used by the Russian princes.
The squads of Russian princes were divided into the senior squad, which consisted of princely men - boyars, and the junior squad - an armed squadron that was constantly with the prince. In a broader sense, the term “druzhina” was used in Rus' to refer to the entire druzhina army. Russian militias were sometimes called squads.
The prince's senior squad was actually the apparatus of military administration of the principality. The prince consulted with the senior squad - the boyar warriors - about war, peace, the protection of the border borders of the principality, trade routes, bridges and caravans, and the organization of military campaigns. The first governor of the senior squad was the eldest among the governors. As a rule, on the battlefield the first governor was the commander of the Great Regiment, while the rights of the commander-in-chief remained with the prince.
A major role in military affairs belonged to governors and mayors. They were engaged in organizing the defense of fiefs and cities, fortifications, had their own squads, were heads of garrisons and served as governors for the prince. The governors and posadniks knew the theater of military operations, knew how to form and lead regiments, prepared them for battle and controlled them, that is, they had knowledge of the art of war. The creation of people's militias depended to a large extent on them.
In the 11th century the Kyiv prince had up to 500–800 warriors. They were armed with swords, spears, sabers. Shields and chain mail protected their bodies, and shishaks (pointed helmets) protected their heads.
Another part of the Russian army was a regiment consisting of warriors- Smerds and artisans. They were divided into tens and hundreds in the regiment, led by tens and sots. The regiment was commanded by a thousand. The warriors were armed with bows and arrows, spears, heavy battle axes and knives. In their left hand, each had a wooden shield covered with metal plates and thick leather.
The army setting out on the campaign was led by the prince, followed by a cavalry squad and a regiment. Following behind was a convoy with heavy weapons and food supplies. When the guards (intelligence) reported that the enemy was close, the warriors dismantled their weapons, put on armor and chain mail and prepared for battle. The battle often began with a duel of heroes.
During the battle, the front (center) of the Russian army was made up of foot soldiers. Their task was to repel the enemy cavalry. The horse squads of the princes were located on the right and left wings (flanks). They launched flank attacks and surrounded the enemy.
When storming enemy fortresses, devices were used to break through walls and gates: rams - huge logs, covered with iron and suspended on chains or placed on wheels, as well as access ladders, vezhi (mobile towers), which protected from arrows.
Thus, the creation and improvement of the military organization of the state, the Russian army, was determined national interests, political goals and military-strategic tasks of Rus'.
Feudalism of Western Europe and the socio-economic system of Ancient Rus': similarities and differences. Features of social political development And social order Old Russian state. It became one of the largest states of the European Middle Ages in the 9th–12th centuries. Kievan Rus. In the literature of recent decades, there is often an opinion that Kievan Rus developed similarly to the Western European model.
Indeed, ancient Russian society was part of contemporary Europe and demonstrated trends characteristic of the formation of the entire European civilization. The Kiev state was built on the basis of the Western institution of vassalage. The head of state was the Grand Duke, who came from the Rurik family. The highest stratum of society consisted of his vassals, obliged military service. At the same time, they acted as overlords on “their” territory: they had less noble vassals, and had the right to leave for another overlord.
At the same time, the emergence and formation of the statehood of Rus' was greatly influenced by the harsh geographical and climatic conditions Northern Eurasia. Poor soils and large forest areas that had to be cleared for arable land made labor difficult and unproductive. A person in the east of Europe received less food for the same work as in the west, and its quality was worse. This led to a gap in the level of development of Rus' and the countries of Western and Central Europe.
The barbarian states of Western Europe were included in the zone of influence ancient civilization, in their formation, inherited many state and legal traditions of antiquity; they were characterized by a socio-economic synthesis of antiquity and barbarism.
Ancient Rus' could not rely on such traditions due to their absence and in the formation of its statehood followed a largely original path. Therefore, here we see a relatively slow rate of maturation of state institutions, their archaism and originality.
Unlike the countries of Western Europe, in the Slavic countries the transition to feudalism was carried out on the basis collapse of tribal relations, and therefore slow. The process of corresponding structuring of society was also longer. And of course, huge Negative influence Rus''s entire life was affected by constant foreign invasions and a grueling, centuries-long struggle with nomads.
The fundamental difference between Ancient Rus' and the countries of Western Europe was that it was dominated by collectivist model of the socio-economic structure of society. The main cell of the social structure was community. It consisted of a territorial community of free peasants, based on collective form property. The community relied on the principles of collectivism and egalitarianism and was the collective owner of land and farmland. The community organized its internal life on the principles of direct democracy (election, collective decision-making). Rural communities united in volosts, representing the lowest administrative-territorial unit of the Old Russian state.
In addition to the rural community, in the cities there were communities of artisans: tanners, blacksmiths, carpenters, etc. The church community united all believers: both the nobility and ordinary farmers. Thus, the collectivist communal mentality played a large role in all spheres of life of ancient Russian society. If a person found himself outside the community, he lost social protection and essentially became an outcast. Thus, the community, based on mutual responsibility, was a closed, multifunctional social system that organized all types of human activity: work, family, religious.
An important factor that determined the unique economic development of Ancient Rus' was the presence, in contrast to Western Europe, of a large amount of free land. For centuries, the peasants of Ancient Rus' retained the opportunity to withdraw from former place and settle down quickly enough in a new one. Thus, the process of limiting the economic independence of rural and urban workers was slow.
In general, Ancient Rus' exhibited both Western (economic development along the path of feudalism, the institution of vassalage) and Eastern features in its development (communal, corporate nature of social ties, the presence of free lands, etc.).
The Old Russian state in the assessments of modern historians. Discussion about the nature of the socio-economic system of Rus' in domestic science. The concepts of “state feudalism” and “community system”. In the West they still claim that the ancient Russian state was created by the Varangians (Vikings, Normans) who came from Scandinavia. This theory was first formulated in the 18th century. German scientists G.-F. Miller and G.-Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia.
The first anti-Normanist was M.V. Lomonosov. He and his other supporters reasonably argued that already in the VI-VIII centuries. Slavic tribal principalities united into large super-unions with the features of early statehood. Based on various sources, they called such proto-states
“Power of the Volynians” Kuyaba (around Kyiv), Slavia (around Novgorod), Artania (region of Ryazan, Chernigov), etc.
Domestic scientists continued to refute Norman theory. They argued that the Old Russian state arose as a result of the long independent development of the East Slavic tribes long before the Varangians (Normans) came to Rus'. In addition, the Slavic farmers stood on more high level development than the Scandinavian warriors.
The Old Russian state was formed on the basis of the transition from primitiveness to civilization of the East Slavic and neighboring Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In this case, the Varangian squads, who came to Eastern Europe along the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” actually played a certain role. At the same time, there was a process of assimilation of the Varangians and the indigenous population, as a result of which Rus'’s dependence on hired Varangian squads was constantly decreasing.
Thus, according to chronicle information, it is established that the great Kyiv princes– descendants of Rurik from the second half of the 10th century. It was no longer surrounded by the Varangians as much as by local residents - the Slavs. The descendants of the Varangians married Slavic women and adopted the Slavic language and names. Igor (Ingvar) and Olga (Helga) are still Scandinavian names, and their son Svyatoslav already bore the Slavic name - “holy glory”. The chronicle mentions quite a lot of people around Svyatoslav with Varangian names, for example, Voivode Sveneld. The son of Svyatoslav, Vladimir (Slavic name - “who owns the world”), the main boyar was the Slav Dobrynya.
On the question of the economic and socio-political system of Ancient Rus' among domestic historians No consensus. Thus, the famous Soviet historian L.V. Tcherepnin (1905–1977) and its supporters put forward the concept "state feudalism". They argued that by the X–XII centuries. In Kievan Rus, large private land ownership mainly developed and its main form was feudal patrimony. Historians of this school believe that the peasants living in it not only paid tribute to the state, but became dependent on the feudal lord (boyar), paying him in-kind feudal rent for the use of the land or working off corvée.
Thus, according to L.V. Tcherepnin and his followers new level the development of productive forces, the transition to arable and settled agriculture with the formation of relations of personal, economic and land dependence, the seizure of communal lands by strong people - its “possession” - gave production relations in Ancient Rus' a complete feudal character.
A number of domestic historians – supporters of the theory – have a different point of view "community system" The founder of this theory was AND I. Froyanov (born 1936). Based on the same theoretical and source base as his opponents, he showed that large-scale private land ownership was poorly developed in Ancient Rus'. Therefore, the estate could not be the basis for the development of the feudal mode of production in its Western European version.
According to the concept of I.Ya. Froyanova, the overwhelming majority of the population of Kievan Rus was free. In addition, Rus', in his opinion, until the end of the 10th century, remained not a state, but a tribal union (proto-state), that is, a transitional form to state organization, corresponding to the stage of military democracy. Tribute to I.Ya. Froyanov did not consider it as a species feudal rent, but as a war indemnity, without correlating it with the class exploitation of the working population. Thus, I.Ya. Froyanov put forward the concept of the pre-feudal nature of ancient Russian society and state. It should be noted that this discussion continues in the scientific world to this day.
Questions and tasks
1. What were the main prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state?
2. Identify and characterize the main social groups Old Russian state. What was the difference in the rights of free and dependent populations?
3. What was the role of cities in the political and socio-economic structure of Ancient Rus'?
4. What problems of the history of the Old Russian state are debatable?
Ways of the emergence of cities in Ancient Rus'.
Cities arose as administrative centers, residences of princes and mayors. Some cities grew from fortified places, outposts in border areas. The city, as a rule, was built on a hill at the confluence of two rivers, which provided reliable defense against enemy attacks. The central part of the city, protected by a rampart and a fortress wall, was called Kremlin, Krom or Detinets. There were palaces of princes, courtyards of boyars, churches, and later monasteries. The craft part of the city was adjacent to the Kremlin – posad. Individual areas inhabited, as a rule, by artisans of a certain specialty were called settlements.
In cities, priests tried to be located next to princes and boyars. Cities were the focus of the culture of that time, the center of various innovations that gradually penetrated other territories. The disseminators of advanced experience were people of intelligent professions - book copyists, architects, artists, doctors. Most of the literate people of that time were also in cities. On the lands adjacent to the cities, three-field farming was introduced, and new crops and livestock breeds were spread. Windmills and watermills began to be built. Mostly in the cities, stone construction was carried out, especially temple construction. More than 150 architectural monuments are known that have survived to our time from pre-Mongol times. The art of construction reached a fairly high level in Ancient Rus', and the cadres of the most qualified builders were also located in cities.
The lowest level of social organization of Slavic society was also the neighboring (territorial) community - world, rope Name rope came from the word “rope”, which was used to measure land when distributing it within the community. The farms of individual families worked the land together and were connected mutual guarantee, mutual responsibility for paying the debt, etc. Farmers were the direct producers of bread and other products necessary for all residents.
Farming system in East Slavic lands gradually improved, farming areas expanded. Gradual release from hard work at slash agriculture, work on “old arable lands” cleared by previous generations made the forced collectivity of the clan system unnecessary. Now a separate family could feed itself, and this meant the withering away of the clan system. In its place came neighbor's community. The small family primarily became the economic unit. Private property could not arise until man realized his separation from the race. Subsequently, the development of individual self-awareness was undoubtedly influenced by the material results of the fragmentation of common tribal property.
The rural community arose, developed and, changing, existed for a thousand years, until the twentieth century. Community traditions and orders determined the way of life and characteristic features of the life of the Russian peasantry throughout the history of feudalism. The number of such communities gradually decreased. Subsequently they remained only far north countries.
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Development civil society in Russia. Decembrists: system of views and tactics of action. Features of socio-political development in the 1st half of the 19th century. Social and political struggle around the problem of historical choice: liberals and conservatives. Zemstvo movement. Russian radicalism. The theory of “community socialism” (A.I. Herzen). Populism: stages, leaders, evolution. Formation of political parties (first workers' organizations, RSDLP, AKP).
Completion of the struggle for markets, colonies and spheres of influence. Division of the world. "Awakening Asia" - the first wave of anti-colonial revolutions.
Comparative analysis of the economic development of Europe, the USA and Russia. General: monopolization of industry, development of financial capital. Features of the Russian economy: forcing Russian industrialization “from above”, dependence on foreign capital, the presence of landownership. The wretchedness of the Russian village. Impoverishment of the masses. “Asynchronous” type of development of the Russian Empire.
Russian Revolution 1905-1907 and its results. Reforms P.A. Stolypin. The formation of a multi-party system and the experience of Duma parliamentarism in Russia. Third June Monarchy. Political Bonapartism.
Russian foreign policy in the context of the creation of the main military-political blocs. The First World War: causes, main stages. Russia at war and the crisis of autocracy. National crisis. February bourgeois-democratic revolution: features and dynamics of political development from February to October 1917
Radicalization of society and the strengthening of the influence of the Bolsheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. October Revolution of 1917. Economic and political transformations of Soviet power. Constituent Assembly and its dissolution. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the change in Russia’s relationship with the West. Modern domestic and foreign historiography about October revolution 1917
The world after the First World War. Versailles-Washington system. The League of nations. Creation of the Third (Communist) International as an organ of the world revolutionary movement.
Causes and stages of the civil war in Soviet Russia. External and internal fronts of the civil war. Intervention and its scale. The policies of the Soviet (red) and white governments in the civil war. Social forces and main political parties in the civil war. Consequences of intervention and civil war. The first wave of Russian emigration.
The transition from “war communism” to NEP. Adopting a course towards building socialism in one country. Education of the USSR. Political intra-party struggle: essence, forms, stages.
Attempts by Soviet diplomacy to normalize relations between the USSR and other states: features and contradictions. Genoa Conference. The Dawes Plan and the Locarno Agreements. “Crisis points”: 1923 (“Curzon’s note”), 1927, 1929 (conflict on the Chinese Eastern Railway).
Main trends in world economic development in the 2nd quarter of the twentieth century. Economic stabilization, followed by a global economic crisis. Ways out of the crisis: Roosevelt’s “New Deal”, “social democratic model”, “fascism”, “national socialism”. "Popular Fronts" in Europe.
Strengthening reactionary tendencies in the political life of Europe. Victory of fascist and pro-fascist regimes. Course for the redivision of the world. Aggravation of the international situation in the 2nd half of the 30s. The policy of condoning aggression by Germany and Italy on the part of leading Western states. Refusal of the Soviet leadership from the idea of world revolution. The USSR's struggle to create a system collective security in Europe. VII Congress of the Comintern and its decisions.
Socio-economic development and socio-political life of the USSR. Features and results of the pre-war five-year plans. Forced industrialization. Collectivization of agriculture. Mobilization model. Command-administrative system. Discussions about totalitarianism in modern science. The evolution of the national-state structure of the USSR.
Beginning of World War II. "Strange" war. Success Hitler's Germany in the implementation of “blitzkrieg” tactics in Europe in 1940.
Foreign policy of the USSR on the eve of World War II. Negotiations with England and France and their results. Soviet-German non-aggression pact of August 23, 1939. Treaty of the USSR and Germany “On Friendship and Border.”
Foreign policy actions of the Soviet state during the Second World War. Soviet-Finnish war. Accession Western Ukraine, Western Belarus and the Baltic states. Treaties of the USSR with Turkey and Japan.
The beginning of the Great Patriotic Wars s. Attack of Hitler's Germany on the USSR. Mobilization of the forces of the Soviet people to repel the enemy. Transformation of the country into a single military camp. Restructuring the economy on a war footing. “Everything for the front, everything for victory.”
The reasons for the failures of the Red Army at the initial stage of the war. The birth of the Soviet Guard. Counter-offensive of Soviet troops near Moscow. Destruction Nazi invaders. Military actions of 1942
A radical turning point during the Great Patriotic War. Encirclement and defeat of the enemy group at Stalingrad. Battle on Kursk Bulge. The international significance of the victories of the Red Army at Stalingrad and Kursk.
Soviet rear during the war. Consolidation of Soviet society during the war. Guerrilla movement behind enemy lines.
Results of military operations of 1944. “Ten Stalinist strikes.” Allied military actions in 1944-1945. Surrender of Germany. Decisive contribution Soviet Union to the defeat of fascism.
The entry of the USSR into the war with Japan. Defeat of the Kwantung Army. Japanese surrender. The end of World War II.
Results and lessons of the Second World War and the Great Patriotic War. Sources of the victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War.
Anti-Hitler coalition. The nature of interaction between the allies at different stages of the war. Lend-Lease. Tehran and Yalta conferences allied powers. Potsdam Conference and its decisions. Creation of the UN.
Geopolitical consequences of the Second World War. Qualitative changes in socio-economic and political appearance peace.
Transformation of the USA into a superpower. The global nature of the Soviet-American confrontation. "Cold War". Creation of NATO. Marshall Plan. The emergence of the socialist system. Development of economic integration and coordination of foreign policy activities of socialist countries (CMEA, OVD). Victory of the revolution in China, formation of the People's Republic of China. Korean War (1950-1953).
Collapse colonial system. Revolution in Cuba. Formation of the non-aligned movement. Arms race, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957 Nuclear Club. Caribbean crisis. The Vietnam War. Arab-Israeli conflict.
Creation and development of international financial structures: World Bank (1945), IMF (International Monetary Fund - 1944), IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - 1944). Integration processes in post-war Europe. The Treaty of Rome and the creation of the EEC.
The entry of world civilization into the era of scientific and technological revolution. A fundamental revolution in the productive forces. Development of new energy sources. Breakthrough into near-Earth and outer space and its development. Automation in production and management. Revolution in the field of electronics.
USSR in post-war period. Attempts by the Soviet state to rethink the world process and its role in international relations. The main directions of restructuring the foreign policy of the USSR.
Restoration and development of the national economy. Attempts at economic and social reforms in the USSR in the 50s - early 60s. Development and implementation of problems of scientific and technological progress. Development nuclear energy. Space exploration (S.P. Korolev). The first flight into space in 1961 (Yu.A. Gagarin). Preconditions for the economic and political crisis.
Socio-political development of the USSR in the post-war years. Strengthening the regime of personal power. Ideological campaigns and their meaning. Death of I.V. Stalin. Changes in the socio-political atmosphere in the country. Criticism of Stalin's personality cult - XX Congress of the CPSU. "Thaw" of the 60s. Unfulfilled hopes for democratization. The transition from state socialism to nomenklatura socialism.
The nature of economic development of Soviet society in the 60-70s. Increasing difficulties in managing the country's unified national economic complex. Attempts to reform management and their results. Reform A.N. Kosygina. Increasing lag in the implementation of scientific and technological progress. Increasing imbalances in the development of various sectors of the economy. Exacerbation of contradictions in economic and political development. Formalization of democratic institutions of state and society. “Stagnation” as a phenomenon: essence, main trends and their manifestation in the sphere of economics, ideology and culture.
The main directions of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 70s. The turn from the Cold War to détente. "Peace Program" and its implementation. Helsinki - 1975. Aggravation of the international situation in the early 80s. Enter limited contingent USSR troops in Afghanistan: causes, results and consequences. "Reaganomics". The concept of “Star Wars” in the USA (SOI program).
Course towards economic and political modernization of the USSR. Reasons and first attempts at comprehensive reform Soviet system in 1985 M.S. Gorbachev. Searches for new vectors of domestic and foreign policy. Rebuilding the system " public relations" “New political thinking”, its practical implementation and consequences. Changes in the geopolitical position of the USSR. The collapse of the socialist system. "Velvet revolutions" in Eastern European countries. Economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping in China.
Intensification of crisis phenomena in Soviet society. The beginning of the collapse of the Soviet system. National contradictions. The Novoogaryovsky trial and an attempt to preserve the USSR. State Emergency Committee (August 1991) and the collapse of socialist reformism in the USSR. Belovezhskaya events. Liquidation of the USSR and creation of the CIS. Objective and subjective factors of the collapse of the socialist system and the USSR.
New configuration of political forces after the collapse of the USSR. B.N. Yeltsin and the beginning of liberal reforms in Russia. " Shock therapy"in the economic sphere. Dismantling the political system of the Soviets. Conflict between branches of government. October events of 1993. Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993. The growth of local separatism and ways to overcome it. Chechen wars. Socio-economic transformation of the country. Orientation to the market system of relations, its contradictions and consequences. Russia's financial dependence on the West. Polarization Russian society. The rise of marginalized groups. Social degradation and social protest. The price of the reforms of the 90s.
Socio-political results of 2001-2008. The fight against separatism. Strengthening the vertical of power. Reforming the central management system. Improving economic legislation and the budget system. Tax reform.
Russia in the context of the global economic crisis in the global economic system. The problem of terrorism in international relations. Russia in the global anti-terrorist coalition. Globalization: positive, positive trends and deep contradictions. The role of Russia in solving the problem of economic and political sustainability of the planet. Foreign policy activities in a new geopolitical situation.
Socio-economic and political changes in the depths of Slavic society at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries.
Question 2. The emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs.
Eastern Slavs are a cultural and linguistic community of Slavs who speak East Slavic languages. The East Slavic tribes, which, according to most scientists, managed to merge into a single Old Russian nation, made up the main population of the medieval Old Russian state. As a result of the subsequent political stratification of the Eastern Slavs, by the 17th century the following were formed (in descending order of numbers): Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. Also some sources are separate East Slavic people are considered Carpathian Rusyns.
Proto-Slavs
The ancestors of the Slavs have long lived in Central and Eastern Europe. In terms of their language, they belong to the Indo-European peoples who inhabit Europe and part of Asia up to India. Archaeologists believe that Slavic tribes can be traced from excavations to the mid-second millennium BC. The ancestors of the Slavs (in scientific literature they are called Proto-Slavs) are supposedly found among the tribes that inhabited the basin of the Odra, Vistula and Dnieper; in the Danube basin and the Balkans, Slavic tribes appeared only at the beginning of our era.
It is possible that Herodotus speaks about the ancestors of the Slavs when he describes the agricultural tribes of the middle Dnieper region.
He calls them “scolots” or “borysthenites” (Boris-fen is the name of the Dnieper among ancient authors), noting that the Greeks mistakenly classify them as Scythians, although the Scythians did not know agriculture at all.
Ancient authors of the 1st-6th centuries. AD They call the Slavs Wends, Ants, Sklavins and speak of them as “countless tribes.” The estimated maximum territory of settlement of the ancestors of the Slavs in the west reached the Elbe (Laba), in the north to the Baltic Sea, in the east to the Seim and Oka, and in the south their border was a wide strip of forest-steppe running from the left bank of the Danube to the east in the direction of Kharkov. Several hundred Slavic tribes lived in this territory.
Settlement of the Eastern Slavs
In the VI century. from a single Slavic community, the East Slavic branch (the future Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian peoples) stands out. The emergence of large tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs dates back to approximately this time. The chronicle has preserved the legend about the reign of the brothers Kiya, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper region and about the founding of Kyiv. The chronicler noted that there were similar reigns in other tribal unions, naming more than a dozen tribal associations of the Eastern Slavs. Such a tribal union included 100-200 separate tribes. Near Kiev, on the right bank of the Dnieper lived the glades, along the upper reaches of the Dnieper and along the Western Dvina - the Krivichi, along the banks of the Pripyat - the Drevlyans, along the Dniester, Prut, the lower reaches of the Dnieper and along the northern coast of the Black Sea - the Ulichs and Tivertsy, along the Oka - the Vyatichi, in the western regions of modern Ukraine - the Volynians, north of Pripyat to the Western Dvina - the Dregovichi, along the left bank of the Dnieper and along the Desna - the northerners, along the Sozh River, a tributary of the Dnieper, - the Radimichi, around Lake Ilmen - the Ilmen Slavs (Slovenes).
The chronicler noted the uneven development of individual East Slavic associations. He shows the glades as the most developed and cultural. To the north of them there was a kind of border, beyond which the tribes lived in a “beastly manner.” According to the chronicler, the land of the glades was also called “Rus”. One of the explanations for the origin of the term “Rus” put forward by historians is associated with the name of the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper, which gave the name to the tribe on whose territory the Polyans lived.
The chronicler's data on the location of Slavic tribal unions is confirmed by archaeological materials. In particular, data on various forms women's jewelry (temple rings), obtained as a result archaeological excavations, coincide with the instructions in the chronicle about the placement of Slavic tribal unions. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs in the west were the Baltic peoples, Western Slavs(Poles, Czechs), in the south - the Pechenegs and Khazars, in the east - the Volga Bulgars and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes (Mordovians, Mari, Muroma).
The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. This is confirmed by archaeoslavic excavations, during which seeds of cereals (rye, barley, millet) and garden crops (turnips, cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes) were discovered. Industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown. The southern lands of the Slavs overtook the northern ones in their development, which was explained by differences in natural and climatic conditions and soil fertility. The southern Slavic tribes had more ancient agricultural traditions, and also had long-standing ties with the slave states of the Northern Black Sea region.
The Slavic tribes had two main farming systems. In the north, in the region of dense taiga forests, the dominant farming system was slash-and-burn. It should be said that the border of the taiga at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. was much further south than it is today. The remnant of the ancient taiga is the famous Belovezhskaya Pushcha. In the first year, under the slash-and-burn system, trees were cut down on the developed area and they dried out. The next year, the felled trees and stumps were burned, and grain was sown in the ashes. A plot fertilized with ash gave a fairly high harvest for two or three years, then the land was depleted, and a new plot had to be developed. The main tools of labor in the forest belt were an axe, a hoe, a spade and a harrow-harrow. They harvested the crops using sickles and ground the grain with stone grinders and millstones.
IN southern regions fallow soil was the leading farming system. If there was a large amount of fertile land, plots were sown for several years, and after the soil was depleted, they were transferred (“shifted”) to new plots. The main tools were the ralo, and later a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare. Plow farming was more efficient and produced higher and more consistent yields.
Academician B.A. Rybakov notes that already from the 2nd century. AD reveals a sharp rise in the entire economic and social life that part of the Slavic world, which would later become the core of Kievan Rus - the Middle Dnieper region. The increase in the number of treasures of Roman coins and silver found on the lands of the Eastern Slavs indicates the development of trade among them. The export item was grain. About the Slavic export of bread in the 2nd - 4th centuries. speaks of the adoption by the Slavic tribes of the Roman grain measure - the quadrantal, called the chetyrek (26.2 l.), which existed in the Russian system of weights and measures until 1924. The scale of grain production among the Slavs is evidenced by traces of storage pits found by archaeologists that could hold up to 5 tons grains
Livestock breeding was closely related to agriculture. The Slavs raised pigs, cows, sheep, and goats. Oxen were used as draft animals in the southern regions, and horses in the forest belt.
Hunting, fishing and beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees) played an important role in the economy of the Eastern Slavs. Honey, wax, and furs were the main items of foreign trade.