Piaget, 1896-1980) - Swiss psychologist, founder of the Geneva School genetic psychology. In the first period of his work, P. discovered a number of features of children’s ideas about the world: the inseparability of the world and one’s own self (one’s actions, thoughts) up to a certain age, animism (animation of the world), artificialism (understanding of the world as created by human hands), etc. , which are based on a certain mental position of the child, called by P. egocentrism (see Centering): as P. believes, “the child always judges everything from his own, individual point of view; it is very difficult for him to take the position of others”; in other words, the child’s thinking is largely subordinated to the “logic” of his own perception. The main phenomena of a kind of children's logic: syncretism (connecting everything with everything), insensitivity to contradictions, transition from particular to particular without addressing the general, lack of understanding of the relativity of certain concepts, etc. Egocentrism is also manifested in egocentric speech. Subsequently, the child’s egocentrism is overcome through the process of socialization.
In the 2nd period of his creativity, P. created the concept of stage-by-stage development of intelligence, highlighting the stage of sensorimotor intelligence (0-2 years), the stage of pre-operational thinking (2-7 years), the stage of specific operations (7-12 years) and the stage formal transactions(up to about 15 years old). Wherein mental actions(see Operation, Intellectual operations) are considered by P. as internalization initially external actions.
Theoretical and empirical works P., his ideas and concepts had a significant influence on modern developments in the field of philosophy and methodology of cognition (see Genetic epistemology), although they were subject to justified criticism from a number of schools of Sov. psychology (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, Ya. Ya. Galperin, etc.), in particular for considering P. mental development child outside the socio-historical context, understanding this development as a spontaneous process, practically independent of learning, considering egocentric speech as “dying speech”, and not as an intermediate stage on the path of formation inner speech(Vygotsky), etc. See also Accommodation, Assimilation, Grouping, Decalage, Conservation. (E. E. Sokolova.)
Piaget Jean
(1896-1980) - world-famous Swiss psychologist, specialist in the field of cognitive theory (genetic epistemology), developmental psychology, educational psychology, experimental and theoretical psychology. Author of the theory of stages of intelligence development. He graduated from Neuchatel University (1915), received a diploma in natural sciences (1917), and then a doctorate. in biology (1918). By this time he had published more than 30 works on biology, but since 1918, working under the leadership of P. Bleuler, he became interested in psychology. In 1921, E. Claparède offered P. the post of manager scientific research Institute Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Geneva), and in 1925 he received his first chair of psychology, sociology and philosophy of science at the University of Neuchâtel. In 1929 he moved to Geneva (professor of history scientific thought University of Geneva), where he worked until his retirement and receiving the title of Honored. professor in 1971. In parallel, he held positions: professor of experimental psychology and sociology in Lausanne (1938-1951); professor of genetic psychology at the Sorbonne (Paris, 1952-1953); directors International Center genetic epistemology (Geneva, 1955-1980). He was President of the Swiss Commission for UNESCO and was a member of 20 scientific societies, honorary doctor of many universities. Awarded the Erasmus Prize (1972) and ten other prizes. Co-ed. Archives de Psychologie and seven other journals. In his first works (Speech and thinking of a child, 1926, in Russian translation: M.-L., 1932, 1995) he analyzed in detail the qualitative specifics of children's thinking. Using the method of clinical conversation, he put forward, based on the child’s judgment, the position that the main distinguishing characteristic of his cognitive activity is egocentrism, due to which he confuses the subjective and objective, transfers his internal motivations to the real connections of things. The child’s thinking also reveals such features as magic (words and gestures are given the power to influence external objects), animism (these objects are endowed with consciousness and will), artificialism (phenomena of the surrounding world are considered to be manufactured by people for their own purposes). These properties of thinking are reflected in the child’s egocentric speech, which expresses the logic of feelings and does not perform a communicative function. Egocentrism is overcome through socialization. Later P. revised this view, developing a special logical system, which allows us to describe the development of a child’s psyche as a transformation of the actions (operations) he performs. From the system of real external actions (sensorimotor intelligence), which are coordinated in complete systems and turn into internal actions, a logical-mathematical structure of human cognition arises. To do this, actions must acquire special characteristics and turn into operations. The sensorimotor and pre-operational stages are replaced by the operational stage. The interdependence of operations, their reversibility (for each operation there is an opposite or inverse operation) create stable and at the same time mobile integral structures. From the stage of specific operations (which P. dated to the younger school age) thinking moves to the formal stage logical operations, ending at the age of 15, in which operations are organized into a structural whole, and the ability to reason through hypotheses appears. The description of periods and stages of intelligence development was second only to egocentrism major discovery P. in the field of child psychology. At the same time, research on the development of intelligence was supplemented by the study emotional processes, memory, imagination, perception, which were considered as completely subordinate to the intellect. Although P. received international recognition as a researcher in child psychology, he himself considered his work as a contribution to the theory of knowledge ( genetic epistemology), aimed at studying the development (genesis) of knowledge. The program of his research was outlined in his first book, published in 1918 (Recherche. La Concorde) and, in essence, was developed over the next sixty years. P.’s key concept was universal knowledge, in which the question was posed: how a cognizing subject achieves a specific level of universal knowledge in the process of endless increment of rational knowledge. In an attempt to answer this question, as opposed to philosophical realism and nominalism, P. put forward constructivism, with the help of which he intended to reconcile the objectivity of knowledge (realism) with its sociocultural variability (nominalism). P.'s central argument was that if rational knowledge is a fact, then its development must be at least partially rational throughout the development of the child and the history of science. Research program P. described the sequence of development and the mechanisms by which rational knowledge develops. It requires the use of intellectual structures for its emergence. Hence the task of psychology is to discover these structures and analyze them. P. applied formal models, based on group theory, category theory, and logic to describe distinctive features intellectual structures. He identified four such features: preservation (invariance), novelty, necessity and design. P.'s argument was that good organization(construction) combines preservation (the acquired knowledge is retained) and novelty ( best knowledge develop) through necessity (knowledge is built into the necessary system). However, there has been insufficient research on other factors to show how conservation is coupled to the construct of novelty marked by necessity. P.'s works attracted international attention most XX century, while he was the most criticized author. His theory of the stages of development of intelligence was questioned due to the often observed phenomenon of deca-lage, due to the fact that, according to critics, it did not allow him to adequately describe the processes of learning, individual differences intelligence, etc. Experimental work A.V. Zaporozhets, P.Ya. Galperin, D. B. Elkonina showed that it is not so much logical operations as orientation in objects and phenomena that is the most important part any human activity. Nevertheless, P.’s work brilliantly demonstrated the possibility of translating such complex philosophical questions, like What is knowledge? V empirical questions for psychology: How does knowledge develop?. Answers to similar questions identified that scientific paradigm, which continues to influence scientific standards for evaluating alternative descriptions today intellectual development. Besides, modern representatives neostructuralism developed and presented a modified version of the stage theory, and therefore P.’s approach continues to develop. P. author large quantity publications. His works were published in Russian translation: Problems of genetic psychology / Vopr. Psychology, 1956; Teaching mathematics, co-author, M., 1960; Genesis of elementary logical structures, co-author, M., 1963; Selected psychological works, M., 1969; Experimental psychology, volume 1-6, M., 1966-1978 (ed. jointly with P. Fress). L.A. Karpenko, M.G. YaroshevskyJean Piaget (Jean Piaget, August 9, 1896, Neuchâtel, Switzerland - September 16, 1980, Geneva, Switzerland) - Swiss psychologist and philosopher, known for his work on the study of the psychology of children, the creator of the theory of cognitive development and the philosophical and psychological school of genetic psychology.
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget began to take an early interest in biology, especially mollusks, and even published several scientific papers before finishing school. its long scientific career Piaget began at the age of ten, when he published a short note about albino sparrows in 1907. For my scientific life Piaget wrote more than 60 books and several hundred articles.
Piaget completed his doctorate in natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel, and he also studied for some time at the University of Zurich. At this time, he began to become interested in psychoanalysis, a very popular direction of psychological thought at that time.
After receiving his degree, Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, where he taught at a boys' school on the Rue des Grandes aux Velles, whose director was Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test. While helping to process IQ test results, Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave incorrect answers to some questions. However, he focused less on the wrong answers and more on the fact that children make the same mistakes that older people do not. This observation led Piaget to theorize that the thoughts and cognitive processes of children differ significantly from those of adults. Subsequently, he created general theory stages of development, which states that people at the same stage of development exhibit similar general forms cognitive abilities. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland and became director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva.
In 1923, Piaget married Valentin Chatenau, who was his student. The married couple had three children, whom Piaget studied since childhood. In 1929, Piaget accepted an invitation to take up the post of director of UNESCO's International Bureau of Education, which he remained at the head of until 1968.
Books (4)
Genesis of elementary logical structures
Jean Piaget is a major Western scientist, professor of psychology, sociology, philosophy, founder of the Geneva school of genetic psychology, who devoted his life to the study psychological development child.
His scientific activity, which is distinguished by its extraordinary breadth of vision, is recognized greatest contribution into human knowledge. In his work, Piaget demonstrated a brilliant example of translation philosophical problems, such as “what is cognition”, into accessible for empirical study psychological issues. No one child psychologist cannot be considered successful today without getting acquainted with the results scientific activity Jean Piaget.
This work, written by him in collaboration with his closest collaborator Barbel Inelder, is devoted to the study of the development of elementary logical operations that underlie the child’s formation of the concepts of number, quantity, space, randomness, etc.
Teaching mathematics
The proposed edition is a translation of the first edition teamwork International Society for the Study and Improvement of the Teaching of Mathematics.
Scientists from various fields who studied the capabilities of the human mind participated in the development of this work. pedagogical approaches etc.
Psychology of intelligence
The theory, the first ideas and provisions of which were formulated by the author in the first half of the last century, remains relevant and is still assessed by experts as one of the most productive in laboratory, experimental and practical research.
Child's speech and thinking
There is a well-known scientific paradox according to which the authority of a scientist is best determined by the extent to which he has slowed down the development of science in his field. So, the entire modern world psychology of children's thinking is literally blocked by the ideas of the outstanding Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, one of whose main works is presented in this book.
This work, first published in Russian back in 1932, remains relevant to this day, defining the basic origins scientific knowledge child psychology. It is the result of many years of research such mental functions V childhood, as thinking and speech, and clearly characterizes the transition from realistic perception to reality, step by step, from the extra-verbal autistic thinking of an infant and further as the child grows up, through egocentric speech and egocentric thinking to socialized speech and logical thinking teenager.
Jean William Fritz Piaget(French Jean William Fritz Piaget; August 9, 1896, Neuchâtel, Switzerland - September 16, 1980, Geneva, Switzerland) - Swiss psychologist and philosopher, known for his work on the study of child psychology, creator of the theory of cognitive development. The founder of the Geneva school of genetic psychology, later J. Piaget developed his approach into the science of the nature of knowledge - genetic epistemology.
Biography
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, the capital of the French-speaking canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget began his long scientific career at the age of eleven, when he published a short note on albino sparrows in 1907. During his scientific life, Piaget wrote more than 60 books and several hundred articles.
Piaget became interested in biology early, especially mollusks, and published several scientific papers before finishing school. As a result, he was even offered the prestigious position of caretaker of the shellfish collection at the Geneva Museum. Natural history. By the age of 20, he had become a recognized malacologist.
Piaget completed his doctorate in natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel, and he also studied for some time at the University of Zurich. At this time, he began to become interested in psychoanalysis, a very popular direction of psychological thought at that time.
After receiving academic degree Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, where he taught at a boys' school on the Rue Grande aux Velles, whose director was Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test. While helping to process IQ test results, Piaget noticed that young children consistently gave incorrect answers to some questions. However, he focused less on the wrong answers and more on the fact that children make the same mistakes that older people do not. This observation led Piaget to theorize that the thoughts and cognitive processes of children differ significantly from those of adults. He went on to create a general theory of developmental stages, which states that people at the same stage of their development exhibit similar general forms of cognitive abilities. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland and became director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva.
In 1923, Piaget married Valentine Chatenau, who was his student. The married couple had three children, whom Piaget studied since childhood. In 1929, Piaget accepted an invitation to take up the post of director of the International Bureau of Education, which he remained at the head of until 1968.
Scientific heritage
Peculiarities of the child's psyche
IN initial period In his work, Piaget described the features of children’s ideas about the world:
- inseparability of the world and one’s own self,
- animism (belief in the existence of souls and spirits and in the animation of all nature),
- Artificialism (perception of the world as created by human hands).
To explain them, I used the concept of egocentrism, by which I understood a certain position in relation to the surrounding world, overcome through the process of socialization and influencing the constructions of children's logic: syncretism (connecting everything with everything), non-perception of contradictions, ignoring the general when analyzing the particular, misunderstanding the relativity of some concepts. All these phenomena are most bright expression in egocentric speech.
Theory of intelligence
IN traditional psychology Children's thinking was seen as more primitive compared to the thinking of an adult. But, according to Piaget, a child’s thinking can be characterized as qualitatively different, original and distinctively special in its properties.
Piaget developed his method when working with children - a method of collecting data through a clinical conversation, during which the experimenter asks the child questions or offers certain tasks, and receives answers in free form. The purpose of the clinical interview is to identify the causes leading to the occurrence of symptoms.
J. Piaget's activity as a psychologist began in 1920 in Paris in collaboration with G. Lipps and E. Bleyer. Since 1921, at the invitation of E. Claparède, he began to conduct scientific and teaching job at the Institute named after J. J. Rousseau in Geneva and within a few years became a professor at the University of Geneva. In Paris, he worked a lot in the clinic, studied logic, philosophy, psychology, and conducted experimental studies on children, which began without much enthusiasm. However, Piaget soon found his own field of study. This was the end of the theoretical and the beginning of the experimental period in Piaget's work as a psychologist. (eleven)
In the field of child psychology, he studied the origin and development of the child’s intelligence, the formation of fundamental concepts (object, space, time, causality, etc.), features of children’s logic and worldview. The main task of all research is to study the mechanisms of a child’s cognitive activity, which are hidden behind the external picture of his behavior. Piaget's experiments revealed a number of new psychological phenomena- the egocentric nature of the child’s thinking and speech, features of children’s logic and ideas about the world. For Piaget, the basic unit of thinking is an operation (that is why his teaching is called the operational concept of intelligence). Sensorimotor coordination, concrete operations and formal operations constitute the three main structures of intelligence. Analysis of the process of achieving them allowed Piaget to divide the entire course of mental development into main periods. Piaget supplemented the general picture of the development of intelligence with the study of emotional processes, memory, imagination, perception, which he considered as entirely subordinate to the intellect. Views on the nature of a child’s intelligence are reflected in solving the problem of the relationship between learning and development. According to Piaget, learning is subject to the laws of development. The effectiveness of training depends on the extent to which external conditions correspond to the current level of development. Critical analysis and the creative rethinking of Piaget’s ideas by many modern scientists have significantly enriched the world psychological science. (13)
He transformed the basic concepts of other schools: behaviorism (instead of the concept of reaction, he put forward the concept of operation) and Gestaltism (Gestalt gave way to the concept of structure). Piaget built his new theoretical ideas on a solid empirical foundation - on the material of the development of thinking and speech in a child.
The period 1921-1925 is the beginning of Piaget’s work on the systematic study of the genesis of intelligence. Precisely based on this common goal, he first identified and investigated a particular problem - he studied the hidden mental tendencies that give qualitative originality to children's thinking, and outlined the mechanisms of their occurrence and change. By using clinical method Piaget established new forms in the field child development. The most important of them is the discovery of the egocentric nature of children's speech, quality features children's logic, the child's ideas about the world that are unique in their content. However, Piaget’s main achievement, which made him a world-famous scientist, was the discovery of the child’s egocentrism. Egocentrism is the main feature of thinking, the hidden mental position of a child. The originality of children's logic, children's speech, children's ideas about the world is only a consequence of this egocentric mental position.
The results of Piaget's research during this period are contained in his first five books on child psychology. They were perceived by the scientific community as the last word in this area, although Piaget considered them only source material for subsequent work.
These conclusions of Piaget, in which the child looked like a dreamer ignoring reality, were criticized by Vygotsky, who gave his interpretation of the child’s egocentric speech. At the same time, he extremely highly appreciated the works of Piaget, who prefers to talk not about what a child lacks compared to an adult (knows less, thinks more simply, etc.), but about what the child has, what his internal mental organization.
In 1925-1929, Piaget studied the history of science, tracing and comparing the development of basic scientific categories and ideas in science and in the intellectual development of the child. The results of research from this period were published in three volumes. They reflect the genesis of intellectual behavior, the picture of the world (the child’s ideas about permanent volume, space, causality), the emergence of symbolic behavior (imitation, play). These studies show that intelligence emerges in a child before language acquisition. Intelligent operations more high level prepared by sensorimotor action. The following task arose: to trace the path from the emergence of the idea of the permanence of an object to the ideas of preservation physical properties object (weight, mass, etc.). These studies, carried out in collaboration with B. Inelder and A. Sheminskaya, confirmed the basic law of child development formulated by Piaget in early works, is the law of transition from general egocentricity to intellectual decentration, a more objective mental position.
The decade from 1929 to 1939 were years of fruitful scientific research. Together with Inelder and Sheminskaya, Piaget conducted research on the genesis of number, quantity, space, time, movement, etc. These studies made it possible to study the stage of specific operations, and, most importantly, to see in them the desired operational integral logical structures of intelligence.
In 1939-1950, Piaget continued his research in the field of psychology of thinking. He studied the formation of the concepts of movement, speed, time, the child’s idea of space and geometry. Together with M. Lambercier, a study of perception was begun, which interested Piaget in connection with the development of intelligence. The main problem that occupied Piaget during these years was the relationship between intelligence and perception.
During the same period, Piaget conducted experimental study transition from the thinking of a child to the thinking of a teenager, the characteristics of formal operational thinking were given, and the general epistemological concept of “genetic epistemology” was formulated. The main publications of this time were the three volumes of “Introduction to Genetic Epistemology.”
Thus, thirty years later, having written more than twenty volumes of psychological research, Piaget again returned to his central philosophical idea - genetic epistemology, based on psychology.
There is a huge gap between what existed in child psychology at the beginning of the century before Piaget’s work, and the level of development of theory that now exists thanks to his work. Piaget is a psychologist who paved new paths in science. He created new methods, discovered laws unknown to him mental life child. Piaget came to psychology because it combined his biological, philosophical and logical interests. Based on the perspective of creating a genetic epistemology of the science of origin and development scientific knowledge, Piaget translated traditional issues theories of knowledge into the field of child psychology and began to solve them experimentally. (eleven)
Conclusion
J. Piaget's research on the development of children's cognition - perception and especially thinking - constitutes one of the most significant phenomena of modern foreign psychology.
His scientific activity, which is distinguished by its extraordinary breadth of vision, is recognized as the greatest contribution to human knowledge. In his work, Piaget demonstrated a brilliant example of translating philosophical problems, such as “what is knowledge,” into psychological questions accessible to empirical study. Not a single child psychologist today can be considered successful without becoming acquainted with the results of the scientific work of Jean Piaget.
The contribution of J. Piaget to the psychology of thinking should first of all be considered from the point of view further paths development of psychology. Starting under strong influence ideas of French sociologism from a broad sociological formulation of problems in the psychology of thinking, Piaget later - in the course of modifying the original subject of research - moved into the mainstream of individual psychological problems. In this area lie his major achievements. Individual psychology in his person received the most perfect embodiment to date.
An analysis of the various stages of intellectual development shows that, on the one hand, the conclusions made by Piaget fully reflect and explain the specifics of the psychosocial formation of personality in ontogenesis, and on the other hand, they require clarification and addition from other theories and concepts. No wonder many domestic and foreign psychologists questioned the unambiguity of the conclusions made by J. Piaget.
To summarize, we can briefly outline the contribution to psychology of J. Piaget in the following way:
Improvement individual psychology(consideration of individual psychological problems).
· Study important issues socio-historical understanding of the psyche.
· Usage system analysis mental life.
· Identification and study of the stages of development of thinking.
“Piaget’s great and undeniable merit lies in the fact that he, brighter and deeper than anyone else, raised the question of the development of thinking - as a question not only of quantitative, but also qualitative changes- and tried to identify qualitatively different stages in the course of a child’s mental development.”– S.L. Rubinstein.
Thus, we see that the theory, the first ideas and provisions of which were formulated by the author in the first half of the last century, remains relevant and is still assessed by specialists as one of the most productive in laboratory, experimental and practical research.
Related information.
PIAGE, JEAN(Piaget, Jean) (1896–1980), Swiss psychologist, founder of the Geneva school of genetic epistemology, creator of the operational concept of intelligence. Born in Neuchâtel (Switzerland) on August 9, 1896 in the family of a university professor. I started getting interested very early natural sciences, at the age of 10 he wrote his first scientific work in biology.
Graduated from universities in Zurich, Paris and Lausanne. Subsequently in different time was a professor at these universities. From 1921 he worked at the Institute Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Geneva, and in 1929 he became its director. In 1952–1963 he taught in Paris (at the Sorbonne).
Founder of the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Paris (1955).
I studied the language and thought processes in children (the child’s ideas about space, time, number and causality, the characteristics of children’s logic), studied the development of perception and the moral development of the child. Applied the structural method to the analysis early stages mental development.
According to the operational concept of intelligence ( Psychology of intelligence, 1946) the functioning and development of the psyche occurs within the framework of the child’s adaptation to the environment with the help of behavioral patterns that he already has and the adaptation of these patterns to specific situations.
Using specially designed psychological method clinical interview (in which non- external signs phenomena, and the processes leading to their occurrence), relying on the child’s judgments, put forward the position that the main distinguishing characteristic of his cognitive activity is “egocentrism.” By egocentrism he meant the inseparability in the child’s consciousness of the surrounding world from his own self (the inseparability of the subjective and objective), the transfer of internal impulses to the real connections of things, ignoring contradictions, the “general” in the presence of the “private”, etc. Believed that as a child grows, he enters into a process of socialization and goes through several stages, at each of which “equilibrium” is achieved. Piaget identified four main stages of intelligence development:
sensorimotor period (from 0 to one and a half - 2 years),
pre-operational thinking (from 2 to 7 years),
stage of concrete operations (from 7 to 11 years),
stage of formal or propositional operations (from 11–12 to 14–15 years)
First turning point, at about one and a half years, is also the end of the “sensorimotor period.” At this age, the child is able to solve various non-verbal tasks: looking for objects that have disappeared from sight, i.e. understands that external world exists constantly, even when not perceived. The child can find his way by making a detour, uses simple tools to get the desired object, can foresee consequences external influences(for example, that the ball will roll downhill, and if you push the swing, it will swing and return to its previous position).
The next stage, the “pre-operational stage,” is characterized by a conceptual understanding of the world and is associated with language acquisition. Around the age of seven, the child reaches the stage of “concrete operations”, for example, he understands that the number of objects does not depend on whether they are arranged in a long row or in a compact pile; Previously, he could think that there were more objects in a long row.
The last stage occurs in early adolescence and is called the “formal operations” stage. At this stage, a purely symbolic idea of objects and their relationships becomes available, and the ability to mentally manipulate symbols appears.
Piaget published several books based on diaries in which he recorded observations of the development of his own children, including Origins of Childhood Intelligence (La Naissance de l"intelligence chez l"enfant, 1936) and Child's construction of reality (La Construction du réel chez l"enfant, 1937).
He hypothesized that science could also be viewed from a genetic point of view, as evolutionary process, So what scientific view on the nature of reality is a consequence of the establishment of equilibrium, and not a gradual discovery of everything more"truths".
Piaget uses the apparatus of mathematical logic as a formal apparatus for describing systems of intellectual operations.
Piaget’s psychological and logical ideas found their generalized expression within the framework of “genetic epistemology” - a theoretical-cognitive concept based on the idea of increasing invariance of the subject’s knowledge about an object, based on a genetic and historical-critical approach to the analysis of knowledge. IN last years Piaget develops problems of genetic epistemology in connection with topical issues logic, biology, psychology, linguistics and cybernetics (in particular, questions about interdisciplinary connections psychology, its place in the system of sciences, the specifics of structural methods of cognition, etc.).
Main works: Speech and thinking in a child (Le Langage et la pensée chez l"enfant, 1923), Introduction to Genetic Epistemology (Introduction à l"épistémologie génétique, v. 1–3, 1949–1950), Structuralism (Le Structuralisme, 1968), Problems of genetic psychology (Les problems de psychologie génétique, 1972).