TO empirical level scientific knowledge includes all those methods, techniques, ways of cognitive activity, as well as the formulation and consolidation of knowledge, which are the content of human material-sensory activity. From the point of view of methods of obtaining knowledge and their role in the cognitive process, they can be divided into two groups: 1) methods of isolating and studying an empirical object; 2) methods of processing and systematizing the obtained empirical knowledge.
Methods for isolating and studying an empirical object include the following: observation, measurement, experiment, model experiment.
The order in which we have arranged these methods corresponds to the degree of activity of the researcher. This activity increases from observation to model experiment. All previous methods (simpler) are included in subsequent (more complex) ones.
A) Scientific observation
Observation, as the most elementary method, underlies all empirical methods. Both measurement and comparison involve observation, but the latter can be done without the former. In science, observation is used to obtain empirical information about the field under study and to test and validate the truth of empirical judgments.
Scientific observation is a method of cognition, which consists in the deliberate, purposeful, direct, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the external world.
In the act scientific observation we can distinguish: 1) object of observation; 2) subject of observation (observer); 3) surveillance equipment; 4) observation conditions; 5) a knowledge system, based on which the purpose of observation is set. The following features of scientific observation should be emphasized:
Based on developed theory or individual theoretical provisions;
Serves to solve a specific theoretical problem, pose new problems, put forward new or test existing hypotheses;
Has a justified, systematic and organized nature;
It is systematic, excluding random errors;
Uses special observation equipment - microscopes, telescopes, cameras, etc., thereby significantly expanding the scope and capabilities of observation.
The most important requirement for scientific observation is requirement of intersubjectivity. This implies that the observation can be repeated by every observer with the same result. Only if this requirement is met will the result of observation be included in science. Intersubjectivity of observation is important because it indicates the objectivity of the result of observation. If all observers who repeated an observation obtained the same result, then this gives us reason to consider the result of the observation as objective scientific evidence. Of course, the intersubjectivity of observation cannot reliably substantiate its result, since all observers can be mistaken (if, for example, they all proceed from false theoretical premises), however, intersubjectivity protects us from the mistakes of one or another particular observer.
Observations are divided into direct and indirect. At direct observation the scientist observes the chosen object itself. However, this is not always possible. For example, objects quantum mechanics or many astronomical objects cannot be observed directly. We can judge the properties of such objects only on the basis of their interaction with other objects. This kind of observation is called indirect observations. Indirect observation is based on the assumption of a certain natural connection between the properties of directly observed objects and the observed manifestations of these properties, and contains logical conclusion about the properties of an unobservable object based on the observed effect of its action. For example, when studying the behavior of elementary particles, a physicist directly observes only their tracks in a cloud chamber, which are the result of the interaction of an elementary particle with the molecules of vapor filling the chamber. Based on the nature of the tracks, the physicist judges the behavior and properties of the particle being studied.
It should be noted that a sharp line cannot be drawn between direct and indirect observation. In modern science, indirect observations are becoming increasingly widespread as the number of instruments used in observation increases and the scope expands. scientific research. The observed object affects the device, and the scientist directly observes only the result of the interaction of the object with the device.
In observation, the subject's activity is not yet aimed at transforming the object of study. The object either remains inaccessible to purposeful change, or is deliberately protected from possible influences in order to preserve its natural state. Opportunity fix an object in its natural state– the main advantage of the observation method.
What methods of scientific research do you know? Which of them are used in biology? Examples are a must! !!
Answer:
Historical method- one of the main and common for natural sciences a method that allows you to analyze the entire course of development and formation of the object being studied. Observation method - makes it possible to analyze and describe biological phenomena. The descriptive method is based on the observation method. In order to find out the essence of a phenomenon, it is necessary to first collect factual material and describe it. Collecting and describing facts was the main technique of researchers in early period development of biology, but currently has not lost its importance. This method is widespread in botany, zoology, ecology, and ethology. The comparative method has spread since the 18th century and allows, through comparison, to study the similarities and differences of organisms and their parts. The taxonomy was based on its principles, created cell theory etc. Application comparative method in anatomy, paleontology, embryology and other sciences contributed to the approval evolutionary ideas in biology. Experimental method– is associated with the purposeful creation of a situation that helps the researcher study the properties and phenomena of living nature. This method allows you to study phenomena in isolation and achieve their repeatability when reproducing the same conditions. The experiment provides deeper insight into the essence of the phenomenon and mastery of this process. The brilliant experimenter I.P. Pavlov said: “Observation collects what nature offers it, but experience takes from nature what it wants.” There is a field (natural) experiment, which is carried out in natural environment and laboratory (artificial), carried out in laboratory conditions. The modeling method is the study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying models of their functioning. A figurative model can turn into a symbolic one, that is, a mathematical one. In this case, the relations in the model are expressed in mathematical form and further experimentation comes down to certain mathematical calculations. The advantages of a model experiment are that the simulation can reproduce such extreme positions, which often cannot be created on the object itself. Any method is based on the idea of modeling, but the consequence of this is the simplification of the phenomenon, object or process under consideration. and others that are more specific to various biological sciences and will be considered when studying the basics of these disciplines. Why is it necessary to study biology? What is the significance of biology? In one of his lectures, Thomas Huxley wrote: “For a man unacquainted with natural history, being among nature is like visiting art gallery, where 90% of all works of art seen are facing the wall. Introduce him to the basics natural history- and you will provide him with a guide to these masterpieces, worthy of being addressed to the human gaze thirsting for knowledge and beauty.” But, in addition to the cognitive and aesthetic side, biological knowledge have and practical use in many areas of human activity. Research and achievements biological science widely used in Food Industry, pharmacology, production of goods consumer consumption. The most important problem in agriculture is to obtain high-yielding varieties of plants and highly productive breeds of animals and strains of microorganisms, as well as development based on biological research optimal conditions cultivation of plants and keeping animals. Biology is theoretical basis such sciences as medicine, psychology, sociology, hygiene and others. This is especially necessary for man as a part of nature.
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- PLEASE Write the problem in Pascal The calendar of the Chunga tribe consists of N months, each month consists of exactly 30 days, a week consists of 7 days. The 13th day of the month is considered especially unlucky if it falls on a Friday. It is known that this year started on the kth day of the week (1st day of the week - Monday, 2nd - Tuesday, 3rd - Wednesday, ..., 7th - Sunday). Determine how many especially unlucky Fridays there will be in the Chunga tribe this year. Input The first line of the input file contains natural number N(N<=10в девятой степени) - оличество месяцев в календаре племени Чунга, вторая - номер дня недели k (от 1 до 7), на который приходиться первое число первого месяца нового (текузего) года Выходные данные Единственная строка выходного файла должна содержать число несчастливых пятниц в этом году.
Observation is considered the initial form of empirical knowledge, since it is also used within the framework of experiment and measurements, although it can be carried out independently, especially in the first stages of the development of science. Therefore, it is advisable to begin the discussion of methods of empirical knowledge with an analysis of the functions and features of observations in science.
Specifics of observations in science. Scientific observation is a purposeful, systematic and organized perception of the objects and phenomena being studied. The connection between observation and sensory cognition is obvious, since the process of perceiving reality is associated with the processing and synthesis of those sensations, impressions and images that the observer receives from the outside world. All of them serve as a reflection of individual sensory perceived properties, aspects and relationships of observed objects and phenomena. Sometimes observation can also refer to the perception of experiences, feelings and other mental states of the subject himself. This observation is called introspection.
The activity of consciousness in the process of observation does not limit
only in that it combines and synthesizes into a single sensory image, or perception, the results of various sensations. The active role of scientific observations is manifested primarily in the fact that the scientist does not simply record the facts he encounters, but creates
actively and purposefully seeks them, guided by a specific idea, assumption, hypothesis or theory. Therefore, it is often said that observations in science<<теоретически нагружены>>, i.e. assume interaction with theoretical concepts.
Proponents of empiricism and positivism to ensure
<<чистоту>> and the reliability of observations require that we refuse
from any connection between empirical facts and preliminary theories
theoretical ideas and hypotheses. Positivists, for example,
they even hesitated to create<<чистый язык наблюдений>>, which does not contain or imply any connection with the theoretical language of concepts and judgments. It is not difficult, however, to understand that all such programs turned out to be clearly utopian. Even in everyday knowledge, when making observations, people rely on previous thoughts, experiences and generalizations.
Unlike simple, everyday observations, which are mostly random and unorganized, scientific observations have goal-oriented character. When undertaking research, each scientist sets himself a very specific goal: to confirm or refute the assumption, hypothesis or theory that interests him. Thus, the scientist not only records any facts, but deliberately selects those that can either confirm or refute his assumption or hypothesis. Observations in science also have systematic And ordered character. One or several cases of observation of a phenomenon is usually clearly not enough to judge on this basis whether a hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.
Many observations in science require, as a rule, a certain
ny interpretation of their results. This requirement applies primarily to those phenomena and processes that cannot be observed either directly or with the help of the simplest auxiliary devices.
surveillance equipment. For example, the movement of a microparticle in
We observe in a cloud chamber using the track or trace that is formed when a charged microparticle passes through ionized vapor. In all similar cases we judge
o unobservable phenomena only indirectly, since we observe not the phenomena themselves, but the results of their interaction with certain macro-devices and installations. In order to correctly judge the results of such indirect observations, one must turn to a certain theory with the help of which such results are interpreted.
The interrelation and interaction of scientific observations with theoretical ideas makes it possible not only to purposefully search for new facts, but also to correctly interpret them, and thereby separate essential facts from unimportant ones. This is why in science it rarely happens that important discoveries are made by non-specialists, if only because chance, as Louis Pasteur pointed out, can only teach something to a prepared mind.
Despite the fact that scientific observations, like everyday ones,
are based, in principle, on the sensory perception of objects and
phenomena, in science they are better organized, systematized, and most importantly, guided and controlled by theory. Everyday observations are scattered, random in nature and are based on narrow empirical experience and the knowledge that is acquired during this experience.
IN Scientific observations also widely use special tools and devices (microscopes, telescopes, cameras,
cinema and television devices, etc.), which serve to compensate for the natural limitations of human senses, to increase the accuracy and objectivity of observation results.
To identify the specifics of scientific observations, consider
their most important features in more detail.
Intersubjective nature of scientific observations. Since observations serve, on the one hand, as the basis for constructing hypotheses, and on the other, as a means for their empirical verification, then
they give results that should not depend on the will, desires and intentions of the subject. These results should be reproducible by any researcher who is familiar with the relevant problem. Therefore, it is often said that observations should inform us about the objective properties and patterns of real phenomena and processes. But it seems to us more preferable to use the term in this case<<интерсубъективность>> observational results, their independence from the individual researcher, the possibility of their repetition and reproduction by other scientists. However, achieving such a goal involves considerable difficulties.
Although observations are based on sensory perception, nevertheless these perceptions are not a purely passive contemplation of reality, since consciousness not only reflects the world, but also creates it. IN In the process of such active, creative exploration of the world, even at the sensory stage of cognition, errors, misconceptions and even simple illusions associated with the activity of the senses are possible. Everyone knows, for example, that a stick dropped into water appears to be broken. The fallacy of such an illusion is refuted by experience, and is theoretically explained by the law of refraction of light at the boundary of two media. The situation is much more difficult with observation errors that are associated with preconceived notions, erroneous initial settings and other subjective factors, especially with indirect observations. Therefore, the first necessary, although not sufficient, condition for obtaining objective observation results is the requirement that these results be of an intersubjective nature and can be obtained by other observers.
From this point of view it becomes clear that the direct data of the sensory experience of an individual subject, the so-called
sense data which were put forward by empiricists as a genuine source of knowledge, have little value in science precisely because individual sensations and perceptions are not amenable to objective control and verification. In a scientific approach to research, intersubjectivity serves as an important step towards achieving objectively true knowledge. But even in this case, the results of observations by different researchers are carefully analyzed in the light of existing theoretical concepts, and their accuracy and reliability are checked using special instruments and recording devices.
At first glance, it may seem that the use of observation devices that enhance the accuracy of observations completely eliminates, if not errors, then subjectivity in the observation process. It is not difficult, however, to understand that the data recorded by instruments does not in itself tell us anything. They require appropriate interpretation by the researcher, which is carried out on the basis of appropriate theoretical concepts.
Interpretation observation data. Term<<данные>> may give rise to the erroneous impression that they are given to the observer almost in a ready-made form. This impression to some extent corresponds to the everyday idea of the results of observation, but clearly contradicts scientific practice. Typically in science, data is the result of long, careful, and thoughtful research. AND There are three important points to note here.
Firstly, since the data are obtained from separate studies
vators, then they must be freed from various layers and subjective impressions. As noted above, science is interested in objective facts, which allow control and verification, while direct sensory impressions are the exclusive property of the subject.
Secondly, science includes not just sensations as data.
knowledge and perception from observed objects and phenomena, and the results of their rational processing, including standardization of surveillance data using the statistical theory of errors, as well as understanding them from the point of view of the concepts of the corresponding branch of science. Standardization involves bringing data to some normal (standard) observation conditions so that they can be subjected to primary systematization. For this purpose, tables are compiled, graphs and diagrams are constructed. This material can be used to put forward preliminary generalizations and construct simple empirical hypotheses.
Third, the true interpretation of observational data in ter
Mines of the corresponding theory are carried out when they begin to be used as evidence to confirm or refute certain hypotheses. A prerequisite for
use of such data is their relevance to the hypothesis being tested, i.e. the opportunity to test a hypothesis with their help, i.e. either confirm or refute it. Typically, only those observations that are directly related to a hypothesis and predicted by a particular theory are considered evidence.
Why do we consider the cloud trail in the Wilson Chamber a witness?
in favor of the fact that it was left by a charged microparticle? Obviously, because it is predicted by ionization theory. Similarly, Oersted's observations of magnetic needle deviations above
conductor through which current flows, prompted his idea that
that in this case the current forms a magnetic field. This example shows that well-prepared and meaningful observations can serve not only to test ready-made hypotheses and theories,
but also serve as a means of heuristic search for new ones.
All the above examples show that observational data
themselves, without their theoretical interpretation, cannot serve
evidence<<За>> or<<против>> any hypothesis. Until there is a theoretical understanding of observational data, newly discovered facts can, at best, remain random and incomprehensible discoveries. For example, the discovery by the ancient Greeks of the property of amber, rubbed on cloth, to attract small particles (what is now called electrification by friction) or the property of magnetic iron ore to attract metal objects (natural magnetism) remained unclear until the creation of electromagnetic theory, despite attempts explain them using mechanical models of electric and magnetic fluids.
Thus, the difference between scientific observation and everyday observation lies not only in the objectivity and accuracy of observation results, but also in the widespread use of theoretical concepts and laws for their interpretation and explanation.
Functions of observation in scientific research. Observation and experiment, as is known, are two types of empirical
theoretical knowledge in science, without which it is impossible to obtain initial information for further theoretical constructions and their subsequent verification.
The essential difference between observation and experiment is
The point is that it is carried out without any change in the phenomena being studied and without the observer’s intervention in the normal process of their occurrence. This feature of scientific observations was very clearly expressed by the famous French scientist C. Bernard:<<Наблю дение, - писал он, - происходит в естественных условиях, кото рыми мы не можем распоряжаться>>. This, of course, does not mean that scientific observations are a passive reflection of everything
that falls within the sphere of direct perception of the senses. We have already noted that they represent a purposefully organized, controlled and theoretically guided process. Therefore, we are talking here not about the absence of the subject’s activity in general, but about practical activity, associated with the impossibility of influencing observed objects and phenomena practically.
Most often we are forced to limit ourselves to observations and research.
to apply them under natural conditions because they are not available for practical influence. This is the case with most astronomical phenomena, although in recent decades, due to the widespread development of space research, scientific experimentation is increasingly beginning to be used in this area. And yet, observation with the help of increasingly sophisticated instruments will remain in the future the most important method for studying stars, nebulae, galaxies and other objects of the Universe.
Often, when studying social phenomena, they resort to
called participant observation, when the sociologist begins to work as a member of the relevant team in order to explore the issue with greater objectivity and without much interference with the behavior and actions of the team. Direct observation from the outside, and even more so a social experiment in this case, would significantly distort the real picture.
Observation in scientific research is designed to fulfill three main functions.
First and the most important of them is to obtain the empirical information that is necessary to pose new problems that arise with the discovery of inconsistencies between new facts and old ways of explaining them. This feature is characteristic primarily of facts that cannot be studied experimentally (astronomical, geological, many social and other phenomena and processes).
Second The function of observations is associated with the empirical testing of those hypotheses and theories that cannot be carried out using experiment. Of course, experimental confirmation or refutation of hypotheses is preferable to verification using observations. However, where it is impossible to carry out an experiment, the only evidence can be observational data. With observations that are accompanied by precise measurements, the results of testing hypotheses can turn out to be no less reliable than experimental ones, which is confirmed by the history of the development of astronomy.
Third The function of observations is that in the process of testing hypotheses and theories, it is their empirically verifiable consequences that correlate with directly observable facts.
mi, which are formulated in the language of observations. A scientist turns to theory in order to make targeted observations; on the other hand, he is forced to constantly turn to observations and experiments to verify his conclusions. Observation is precisely the link that connects theory with experience, theoretical research with empirical research.
Fundamental Research is devoted to revealing the most general patterns or phenomena of the object being studied.
Search engines Research is related to the development of various scientific directions based on the results of fundamental research.
Applied Research is concerned with bringing basic and exploratory research to practical implementation.
2. What methods of scientific research do you know?
Theoretical, on the basis of which the parameters or characteristics under study are described by mathematical dependencies based on available information from fundamental theories.
Experimental studies that make it possible to obtain, on the basis of direct measurements of the characteristic under study, its dependence on changing parameters.
Theoretical-experimental methods based on the creation of a mathematical model of an object and further analysis of this model on a computer.
3. What methods are used to study the patterns of surface formation?
Research is carried out in two main directions:
Research of technological processes of surface shaping by cutting, plastic deformation and the use of electro- and physicochemical processing methods;
Research of technological processes of surface shaping using combined and other methods (cutting with SPD; cutting with vibrations; cutting with ultrasonic testing; cutting with heating; cutting with the introduction of high-density current, etc.).
4.What parameter is used to evaluate the degree of plastic deformation of a metal during cutting?
The study of the laws of plastic deformation during metal cutting is based on a certain chip formation pattern. There are two chip formation schemes. One of them is a scheme with a single shear plane, and the second is with zones of primary and secondary deformation. When using the simplest scheme relative shift in the processed material as an indicator of the degree of plastic deformation is determined by the relationship:
Where TO l- chip shrinkage coefficient, - rake angle of the cutter.
5. What information is obtained when conducting a study of the durability of a cutting tool?
Such studies are aimed at establishing a connection between the parameters of the cut layer and the geometric parameters of the cutting wedge, establishing patterns and geometry of wear, studying the nature of wear, identifying patterns of destruction of the cutting tool and establishing criteria for its wear.
6. What parameters most fully determine the quality of treated surfaces?
Height of unevenness R z, depth and degree of hardening.
7. What indicators determine the performance qualities of treated surfaces?
Some indicators of roughness (support length of the profile, shape of irregularities and depressions), wear resistance, durability, cyclic (fatigue) strength. For mechanical transmission parts, indicators such as kinematic accuracy and smooth operation are studied.
8. How is it customary to classify processing methods in mechanical engineering?
All used methods for processing workpieces can be divided into three classes according to the method of impact on the item of production: without removing material from the surface of the workpiece; with material removal; with application of material to the surface.
9. What groups are methods of surface plastic deformation divided into?
They are divided into static and shock.
Static ones include: rolling (with balls and rollers); rolling (with balls and rollers); smoothing (diamond, mineral ceramic tiles); vibration PPD; burnishing.
Impacts include: shot blasting; impact rolling; centrifugal rolling; strengthening embossing; vibration volumetric impact treatment; processing with wire tools.
10. Due to what effects does metal removal occur during electrochemical processing?
During electrochemical processing, the formation of the surface of a part is carried out due to the anodic dissolution of the metal. In this case, a distinction is made between processing with a fixed electrode; sewing holes; turning of external and internal surfaces; stretching of external and internal surfaces; cutting workpieces.
11. Due to what effects does metal removal occur during electron beam processing methods?
This method of processing materials uses a powerful electron beam, the energy of which is sufficient to carry out the technological process. The electron beam produces heating, melting and evaporation of almost all materials, welding, dimensional processing, and coating.
12. What is the essence of the measurement process?
The essence of measurement. The measurement process is the perception of a physical quantity and its subsequent normalization, i.e. assigning it a certain numerical value (size).
13. How many basic physical quantities underlie measurements?
There are seven basic physical quantities: length (meter), mass (kilogram), time (second), temperature (kelvin), electric current (ampere), luminous intensity (candela) and amount of substance (mole).
14. What is the essence of direct measurement methods?
The direct measurement method is characterized by the fact that the desired measured value of a physical quantity is found by direct comparison with a standard measure of this quantity. For example, the measurement of weight is found by comparison with the weight of tared weights (a measure of weight); measurement of the viscosity of a liquid by comparison with the viscosity of a reference liquid (a measure of viscosity).
15. What is the essence of indirect methods for measuring a physical quantity?
The indirect measurement method is characterized by the fact that the desired measured value depends on other physical quantities and is determined based on the use of this dependence.
16. What is the characteristic of the analog measurement method?
With the analog measurement method, a direct connection is established between the value of the measured quantity and the value of the physical quantity of the signal. For example, in a mercury thermometer, the height of the column corresponds to a certain temperature. Thus, it is not the numerical value itself that is used, but the analog value.
17. How are measuring instruments divided by metrological purpose?
According to their metrological purpose, measuring instruments are divided into standard and working.
Exemplary measuring instruments are those used for verification of other measuring instruments and officially approved as exemplary ones.
Working means are measuring instruments used to perform various measurements, but not used for checking other measuring instruments.
18. What does representativeness of the measured value mean?
For the general use of measuring technology for the purpose of understanding a process or state, one condition must be met - the measurement must be representative. This is ensured if from the measured value, using a quantitative, regular relationship (the so-called given law), one can draw a conclusion about the quality of the measurement object. If this condition is not met, i.e. the specified law used is incorrect or the conditions for applying the correct specified law are not met, then a so-called representativeness error occurs.
Do you know?
3. What research methods used in biology do you know?
We usually say “scientific knowledge”, “scientific fact”, “scientific picture of the world”. What is the difference between scientific knowledge from the unscientific? What fact can be considered scientific?
Science is one of the ways to study and understand the world around us. Biology helps to understand the world of living nature.
We already know that people have been studying living nature since ancient times. First, they studied individual organisms, collected them, and compiled lists of plants and animals inhabiting different places. Usually this period of study of living organisms is called descriptive, and the discipline itself is called natural history. Natural history is the predecessor of biology.
Each science has its own research methods.
However, no matter what methods are used, the most important principle for every scientist should remain the principle “Take nothing for granted.” This is the principle of refusing blind trust in authority.
The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.
Biology uses various methods, the most important of which are observation, experiment and comparison.
The primary source of all scientific data is accurate, careful, unbiased observation and experiment.
The results obtained from observations and experiments must be checked and rechecked by new observations and experiments. Only then can they be considered scientific facts.
For example, the media have repeatedly reported on the so-called “Bigfoot”, providing eyewitness accounts of encounters with him, sketches and photos supposedly his traces and even the “Bigfoot” himself. Several expeditions were organized to search for Bigfoot. But so far no one has been able to provide either a living “Bigfoot”, or his remains, or any other irrefutable evidence of his existence. Therefore, despite numerous eyewitness accounts, the existence of Bigfoot cannot be recognized as a scientific fact.
Typically, scientific research begins with observation of an object or phenomenon. After summarizing the resulting data, hypotheses (assumptions) are put forward that can explain the observations.
At the next stage of the research, experiments are designed and conducted to test the hypotheses. A scientific experiment must necessarily be accompanied by a control experiment, the conditions of which are different. from the experimental conditions by one (and only one) factor. Analysis of the experimental results will allow you to decide which hypothesis is correct.
A hypothesis that has been tested and found to be consistent with the facts and capable of serving as the basis for correct predictions may be called a theory or law. By calling a provision a law, scientists seem to emphasize its universality, indisputability, and greater reliability. However, the terms “law” and “theory” are often used interchangeably.
Let us consider the stages of scientific research using the example of studying the conditions necessary for seed germination.
Observations of seeds have shown that they do not always germinate. Obviously, certain conditions are necessary for their germination.
So, we can formulate the research problem: What conditions are necessary for seed germination?
The next stage is generating hypotheses. We can assume that for seeds to germinate, they need light, darkness, water, a certain temperature, air, and soil.
Now, in order to check what conditions are really necessary for seed germination, we will develop and conduct an experiment.
Let's take six samples of 100 seeds of one species, for example corn, and place them in conditions that differ in only one characteristic.
Place the vessel with the first sample in a bright, warm place. Pour water into the vessel so that it covers the seeds halfway. In this case, air will freely penetrate to the seeds.
We will place the second sample of seeds in the same conditions as the first, but fill the vessel to the top with boiled water, thus depriving the seeds of air.
We will place the vessel with the third sample in the same conditions as the first, but in a warm place.
In the fourth vessel we will leave seeds dry.
We will keep the fifth sample at a temperature of +1 °C.
Fill the sixth vessel with moist soil and place it in a warm place.
After analyzing the results of the experiment, we come to the conclusion that light and the soil are not necessary conditions for seed germination. Corn seeds germinate in the presence of water, air and a certain temperature. However, if we carefully examine our samples, we will see that even under favorable conditions the first seeds sprouted. Having studied these seeds, we find out that their embryo is dead. Consequently, only seeds with a living embryo can germinate.
If you compare the conditions necessary for the germination of seeds of plants of different species, you will be convinced that they differ greatly. For example, for the germination of corn grains, water will require half their own weight, and for the germination of clover, water should be one and a half times the weight of the seeds. At the same time, clover seeds germinate already at a temperature of +1 °C, corn - at temperatures above +8 °C, and for melon seeds the germination temperature will be +15 °C. You will also find that most seeds germinate as if in the light , and in the dark, but there are plants (for example, tobacco, string), the seeds of which require light for germination.On the contrary, the seeds of camelina germinate only in the dark.
So, even the simplest scientific research requires a clearly thought out and carefully conducted experiment, on the basis of which scientifically reliable conclusions can be drawn. When conducting observations and experiments, the most modern devices, equipment, instruments are used - electron microscopes, radars, chromatographs, etc.
Life is amazingly diverse.
To understand this diversity, it is necessary to identify and organize the codes and differences in living organisms. To solve these problems, the comparative method is used. It allows you to compare the results of observations to identify general patterns.
Biologists also use other research methods. For example, the descriptive method was widely used by ancient scientists, but has not lost its importance today.
The historical method helps to comprehend the obtained facts by comparing them with previously known results.
In science, any new discoveries help eliminate previous misconceptions and point to relationships between phenomena. In biology, new discoveries create the basis for many practical advances in medicine, agriculture, industry and other areas of human activity.
Many people believe that one should engage only in biological research that will help solve specific practical problems of today. Of course, the development of applied sciences is very important, but we must not forget about the importance of research in “pure” science. The knowledge gained in fundamental research may seem useless for everyday human life, but it helps to understand the laws by which the world around us develops, and will almost certainly sooner or later find practical application.
Scientific research. Scientific fact. Observation. Hypothesis. Experiment. Law. Theory.
1. What is the main goal of science?
2. What is the scientific method? What is its main principle?
3. What is a scientific experiment?
4. What fact can be considered scientific?
5. How does a hypothesis differ from a law or theory?
6. What is the role of applied and basic research in science?
Kamensky A. A., Kriksunov E. V., Pasechnik V. V. Biology 9th grade
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