Cardiovascular diseases, oncology and HIV have become the main causes of mortality in the 21st century; it is likely that it will not be possible to completely defeat oncology in the near future, but it may be possible to cope with HIV infection by the end of the century, medical experts told RIA Novosti .
According to the World Health Organization, 41 million people worldwide die from noncommunicable diseases every year, accounting for 71% of all deaths. The largest share of deaths occurs from cardiovascular diseases - 17.9 million people.
“Now the main problem, why people all over the planet are dying, are non-infectious diseases, while cardiovascular diseases are still at the top, for Russia this is number one. The main cause of death is heart attacks and strokes,” Ekaterina Ivanova, chief specialist in medical prevention at the Moscow Region Ministry of Health, expert at the National Health League, told RIA Novosti.
She noted that in many countries, technologies for the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular diseases have reached a very high level. Now people who have suffered these “vascular accidents” can live quite a long time, but this does not happen in all countries, so the mortality rate from these diseases remains very high.
“The whole world is making efforts to defeat non-communicable diseases, and the proof of this is that life expectancy is increasing. Here (in Russia) it has become more than 72 (years), and Europe has lived for more than 80 years, and this suggests that we are still trying to defeat (these diseases),” Ivanova explained.
There is no way to get rid of cancer yet
Cancer, according to WHO estimates, is the second leading cause of death in the world. In 2015, 8.8 million people died from the disease. Cancer causes almost every sixth death in the world.
There are several reasons why cancer has become one of the main causes of mortality in the 21st century, says Professor Sergei Tyulyandin, Chairman of the Russian Society of Clinical Oncology (RUSSCO).
“Firstly, developed countries have better diagnostics, and the second reason is the aging of the population. Because cancer is a disease of the elderly, and with the increase in the life expectancy of healthy people, the chance of developing malignant tumors increases,” Tyulandin told RIA Novosti.
He also noted that in developing countries, the reasons for the increase in the number of cancer patients are changes in diet, changes in activity and environmental pollution.
“Diet may be one of the factors that increases the risk of developing a malignant tumor. This is due to the fact that we eat less plant foods, more protein, rich in fats, and carbohydrates. Obesity is now essentially an epidemic in developed countries and in those that are developing, such as China. This also includes the risk of developing malignant tumors,” Tyulyandin clarified.
According to Tyulandin, it is not yet possible to completely get rid of cancer as a problem. Although there will be local victories in the near term, doctors will learn to treat cancer at different stages and recognize it earlier than is currently possible.
“Cancer is a weakening of the control of the repair abilities of our DNA, as a result our genome accumulates a mutation, resulting in a malignant process. We can cope with the occurrence of a tumor and cure it, but we have not yet learned how to repair the genome. This means that we have cured a person of one tumor, and tomorrow he will have another tumor, the day after tomorrow a third, and so on,” explained Tyulyandin.
We will defeat HIV by the end of the century
According to WHO estimates, HIV remains another major global public health problem: to date, it has claimed more than 35 million human lives. At the end of 2016, there were approximately 36.7 million people living with HIV worldwide.
All countries of the world have been conducting large-scale research to create means to combat HIV infection for more than 30 years, said the head of the immunochemistry laboratory of the Institute of Virology named after D.I. Ivanovsky, professor, doctor of biological sciences Eduard Karamov.
“We can assume that by the end of the century we will truly cope with HIV and AIDS. A key component will be the development of an effective HIV vaccine. Current vaccine candidates protect only 30% of people. This is not enough. A vaccine must protect at least 70-80% of people to be effective,” Karamov said.
Such drugs will be created in the next 10-12 years. “It is possible that they already exist, but tests have not yet been carried out to prove their effectiveness,” Karamov explained.
Global problems- these are problems that cover the whole world, all of humanity, pose a threat to its present and future and require united efforts and joint actions of all states and peoples to be solved. When you hear the term Global Problems, first of all you think about ecology, peace and disarmament, but hardly anyone will think about an equally important problem as the problem of human health. Recently, in world practice, when assessing the quality of people’s lives, health has been put in first place, because without health it is impossible to talk about the quality of life. This problem worried people at all stages of historical development. The diseases for which a vaccine was found were replaced by new diseases previously unknown to science. Until the mid-20th century, human life was threatened by plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, polio, tuberculosis, etc. In the second half of the last century, great successes were achieved in the fight against these diseases. For example, tuberculosis can now be detected in the early stages, and even by getting vaccinated, you can determine the body’s ability to become infected with this disease in the future. As for smallpox, in the 60-70s the World Health Organization carried out a wide range of medical activities to combat smallpox, which covered more than 50 countries with a population of over 2 billion people. As a result, this disease was virtually eliminated from our planet. But they were replaced by new diseases, or diseases that existed before, but were rare, began to increase in numbers. Such diseases include cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, sexually transmitted diseases, drug addiction, and malaria.
Oncological diseases. This disease occupies a special place among other diseases, since this disease is very difficult to predict and it spares no one: neither adults nor children. But people are powerless against cancer. As is known, cancer cells are present in any organism, and when these cells begin to develop, and what will trigger this phenomenon, is unknown. Many scientists argue that cancer cells begin to develop under the influence of ultraviolet rays. There are also additives that speed up this process. Such additives are found in seasonings, for example glutomat, in sparkling water, chips, crackers, etc. All these supplements were invented in the late 90s, and it was then that mass illness of people began. The development of this disease is also influenced by the environment, which has deteriorated greatly in recent years. The number of ozone holes that allow dangerous ultraviolet rays to pass through has increased. Radiation is also very dangerous for humans; it causes many diseases, including cancer. Our planet has not yet recovered from the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, as did the disaster in Japan, which led to an explosion at the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant. In a few years, this disaster will certainly affect people's health. And, of course, it will be oncology.
AIDS. The human immunodeficiency virus differs from other viruses and poses a great danger precisely because it attacks the cells that are supposed to fight the virus. Fortunately, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted from person to person only under certain conditions and much less frequently than other diseases such as influenza and chickenpox. HIV lives in blood cells and can pass from one person to another if blood contaminated with HIV enters the blood of a healthy person. To avoid becoming infected through someone else's blood, it is enough to take basic precautions where you have to deal with blood. For example, make sure that there are no cuts or abrasions on the body. Then, even if the patient’s blood accidentally gets on the skin, it will not be able to penetrate the body. The virus can be transmitted to a child from a sick mother. Developing in her womb, he is connected to her by the umbilical cord. Blood flows through blood vessels in both directions. If HIV is present in the mother's body, it can be transmitted to the child. In addition, there is a danger of infection of infants through mother's milk. HIV can also be transmitted through sexual contact. For example, a person with chickenpox develops a rash. It becomes clear to both him and everyone that he has chickenpox. But HIV may remain undetectable for a long time, often for years. At the same time, for quite a long time a person feels absolutely healthy. This is what makes HIV very dangerous. After all, neither the person into whose body the virus has entered, nor those around him, have any idea. Without knowing about the presence of HIV in his body, this person can unwittingly infect others. Nowadays, there are special tests (assays) that determine the presence of HIV in a person’s blood. It is very difficult to predict exactly what will happen to a person diagnosed with HIV, because the virus affects everyone differently; having HIV in your body and having AIDS are not the same thing. Many people infected with HIV live normal lives for many years. However, over time, they may develop one or even several serious diseases. In this case, doctors call it AIDS. There are a number of diseases, the disease of which means that a person has developed AIDS. However, it has not yet been established whether HIV always leads to the development of AIDS or not. Unfortunately, no medicine has yet been found that could cure people with HIV and AIDS.
Schizophrenia. When considering this topic, we must also keep in mind that when assessing a person’s health, we cannot limit ourselves only to his physiological health. This concept also includes mental health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia. For example, a disease such as schizophrenia has become very common lately. The era of schizophrenia began in 1952. We rightfully call schizophrenia a disease, but only from a clinical, medical point of view. In the social sense, it would be incorrect to call a person suffering from this disease sick, that is, inferior. Although this disease is chronic, the forms of schizophrenia are extremely diverse and often a person who is currently in remission, that is, outside of an attack (psychosis), can be quite capable, and even more professionally productive, than his average opponents. For example, a very difficult person in everyday life, with difficult relationships within the family, cold and completely indifferent towards his loved ones, turns out to be unusually sensitive and touching with his favorite cacti. He can watch them for hours and cry completely sincerely and inconsolably when one of his plants dries up. Of course, from the outside it looks completely inadequate, but for him there is his own logic of relationships, which a person can justify. He’s just sure that all people are deceitful, and no one can be trusted. There are two types of schizophrenia: continuous and paroxysmal. With any type of schizophrenia, changes in personality and character traits are observed under the influence of the disease. A person becomes withdrawn, strange, and commits actions that are absurd and illogical from the point of view of others. The sphere of interests changes, hobbies that were completely unusual before appear.
Cardiovascular diseases. Myocardial infarction is one of the most common manifestations of coronary heart disease and one of the common causes of death in developed countries. In the United States, approximately one million people develop myocardial infarction each year, and about a third of those affected die. It is important to note that about half of deaths occur in the first hour from the onset of the disease. It has been proven that the incidence of myocardial infarction increases significantly with age. Numerous clinical studies indicate that in women under the age of 60, myocardial infarction is four times less common and develops 10-15 years later than in men. Smoking has been found to increase mortality from cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction) by 50%, and the risk increases with age and the number of cigarettes smoked. Smoking has an extremely harmful effect on the human cardiovascular system. Nicotine, carbon monoxide, benzene, and ammonia contained in tobacco smoke cause tachycardia and arterial hypertension. Smoking increases platelet aggregation, increases the severity and progression of the atherosclerotic process, increases the content of substances in the blood such as fibrinogen, and promotes spasm of the coronary arteries. It has been established that an increase in cholesterol levels by 1% increases the risk of developing myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular diseases by 2-3%. It has been proven that reducing serum cholesterol levels by 10% reduces the risk of death from cardiovascular diseases, including myocardial infarction, by 15%, and with long-term treatment by 25%. The West of Scotland study showed that lipid-lowering therapy is effective in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction. Diabetes mellitus. If you have diabetes, the risk of myocardial infarction increases on average by more than two times. Myocardial infarction is the most common cause of death in diabetic patients (both men and women) aged 40 years and older.
Supplements and their effect on the body. Today, the modern food market is characterized by a very wide range of choice, both in assortment and in price categories. Recently, food products included in the daily diet, or, more precisely, their composition, which in turn is replete with a list of all kinds of so-called food additives, the most common among which are ingredients with index E. Most of them are very dangerous for the health of adults, not to mention children. Additives and their effect on the body I would like to consider one of the most harmful and at the same time the most common additives - E 250. E250 - sodium nitrite - a dye, seasoning and preservative used for dry preservation of meat and stabilization of its red color. E250 is approved for use in Russia, but prohibited in the EU. Effects on the body: - increased excitability of the nervous system in children; - oxygen starvation of the body (hypoxia); - decreased content of vitamins in the body; - food poisoning with possible fatal outcome; - cancer .This additive is found in carbonated drinks, condiments, cooked sausages, crackers, etc.
Conclusion
global health problem
Danger surrounds man and his health everywhere. Every person should think about their lifestyle, because it doesn’t take long to get sick, but treatment takes years, and some diseases cannot be cured at all. And as long as incurable diseases continue to exist on Earth, the problem of human health will always be global.
Cancer and AIDS are perhaps the two most terrible diagnoses a person can hear. Both are incurable, cause a lot of suffering and require gigantic efforts to even slightly prolong life. Needless to say, the situation is deplorable when a malignant neoplasm and HIV are detected together in one patient.
HIV infection provokes the development of malignant neoplasms - a weakened immune system “does not see” and cannot fight bad cells that begin to divide uncontrollably, turning into a tumor. There are a number of pathologies that are classified as AIDS-associated:
- Kaposi's sarcoma (hemorrhagic sarcomatosis);
- cervical cancer (caused primarily by infection with papillomavirus in HIV patients);
- non-Hodgkin's lymphomas;
- lymphoma of the central nervous system.
The presence of these diagnoses in an HIV-infected patient indicates the terminal stage of immunodeficiency - AIDS. There are also groups of diseases, the incidence of which is higher in HIV-positive patients, regardless of the degree of immunosuppression:
- rectal cancer;
- cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx;
- skin neoplasms;
- lungs' cancer.
According to statistics, up to 40% of HIV patients have some kind of malignant neoplasm.
Cancer risk and HIV infection
Large scientific studies have shown that the risk of developing cancer in HIV for specific nosologies is several, and sometimes several tens of times, higher than in HIV-negative patients. For example, the risk of a rectal tumor is 55 times higher, and Kaposi's sarcoma is 200 times higher. Scientists note that HIV and cancer, as a secondary concomitant disease, are more common in drug addicts, alcoholics or people who have refused antiretroviral therapy. Smoking with HIV increases the risk of developing cancer of the lip, pharynx or lungs several hundred times.
Features of HIV therapy for cancer
If an HIV-positive cancer patient receives chemotherapy or radiation therapy, this primarily affects the immune system - the toxic effect of the treatment affects the composition of the blood, cell renewal and the level of lymphocytes. This may reduce the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy. On the other hand, patients with HIV have low tolerance to chemotherapy - more and more severe complications, less therapeutic effect. When taking ART and drugs for the treatment of oncology simultaneously (immunotherapy, biotherapy, chemotherapy, antibacterial agents), their chemical interaction is possible, which leads to:
- increased load on the liver and kidneys;
- decreased effectiveness of drugs;
- possible formation of toxic compounds.
Oncological surgeries for HIV
A blood test for HIV antibodies is mandatory before any surgery. But the patient’s HIV-positive status is not a contraindication to surgery, but simply requires additional safety measures for medical personnel. Surgical treatment of cancer in HIV is carried out according to the same standards as in HIV-negative patients, but has some features:
- assessment of the level of CD4 lymphocytes to determine the stage of immunodeficiency and the body’s ability to recover after surgery;
- mandatory control of concomitant infections - if the disease is in the acute phase, then antibacterial (antiviral, antifungal - depending on the pathogen) therapy is necessary before surgery and stabilization of the process;
- assessment of the severity of the patient’s condition and the presence of concomitant chronic pathologies of the cardiovascular and excretory systems.
Recovery after surgery for immunodeficiency is somewhat more difficult - incisions take longer to heal, often fester and become inflamed, and functional indicators return to normal more slowly. But surgical treatment of cancer for HIV, as far as possible, prolongs the patient’s life and improves the quality of life.
Short description
A problem is, in a broad sense, a complex theoretical or practical issue that requires study and resolution; in science - a contradictory situation that appears in the form of opposing positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requires an adequate theory to resolve it. An important prerequisite for successfully solving a problem is its correct formulation. An incorrectly stated problem or pseudo-problem leads away from solving real problems.
INTRODUCTION
2
2
CLASSIFICATION OF GLOBAL PROBLEMS
4
2.1
Aging problem
5
2.2
North-South problem
6
2.3
Preventing thermonuclear war and ensuring peace for all nations
6
2.4
Preventing catastrophic environmental pollution and loss of biodiversity
7
2.5
Providing humanity with resources
8
2.6
Global warming
8
2.7
Ozone holes
9
2.8
The problem of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and AIDS
9
2.9
Demographic development
11
2.10
Terrorism
13
3
WAYS TO SOLUTION GLOBAL PROBLEMS
14
3.1
Demographic transition
14
3.2
Nuclear disarmament
15
3.3
Energy saving
17
3.4
Montreal Protocol
18
3.5
Kyoto Protocol
19
3.6
Life extension
20
3.7
Roman Club
22
CONCLUSION
25
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According to another hypothesis, the process of formation of “ozone holes” may be largely natural and not associated solely with the harmful effects of human civilization.
2.8. The problem of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and AIDS
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), along with cancer and diabetes, firmly hold the lead among the most common and dangerous diseases of the 20th and now 21st centuries. The most terrible epidemics of plague, smallpox, and typhus that raged in former times are a thing of the past, but their place has not remained empty. New times correspond to new diseases. Medicine rightly calls the 20th century “the era of cardiovascular diseases.”
CVDs are the leading cause of death worldwide: no other cause causes more deaths each year than CVDs.
This problem affects low- and middle-income countries to varying degrees. More than 82% of deaths from CVDs occur in these countries, almost equally among men and women.
By 2030, approximately 23.6 million people will die from CVDs, mainly from heart disease and stroke, which are projected to remain the single leading causes of death. The largest increase in these cases is expected to occur in the eastern Mediterranean region, and the largest number of deaths is expected to occur in the southeastern region.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, English AIDS) is a condition that develops against the background of HIV infection and is characterized by a decrease in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes, multiple opportunistic infections, non-infectious and tumor diseases. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of mucous membranes or blood with biological fluids containing the virus, for example, blood, semen, vaginal secretions or breast milk. HIV infection is not transmitted through saliva and tears, or through household contact. HIV transmission can occur through anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusions, and the use of contaminated needles and syringes; between mother and child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding through the above biological fluids. AIDS is the terminal (final) stage of HIV infection.
It is believed that the spread of HIV infection has now become pandemic. In 2008, the number of people living with HIV was about 33.4 million, the number of new infections was about 2.7 million, and 2 million people died from AIDS-related illnesses.
Molecular phylogeny has shown that HIV emerged in West-Central Africa at the end of the nineteenth or early twentieth century. AIDS was first described by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981, and its causative agent, HIV, was described in the early 1980s.
To date, no vaccine against HIV has been created; treatment of HIV infection significantly slows down the course of the disease, but only a single case of complete cure of the disease as a result of a modified stem cell transplant is known. Highly active antiretroviral therapy reduces mortality from HIV infection, but such drugs are very expensive and not available in all countries of the world. Due to the fact that the treatment of HIV infection is significantly difficult, infection prevention, which consists of promoting protected sex and single use of syringes, plays a key role in controlling the HIV infection pandemic.
Thus, the problem of AIDS is the most pressing and affects not only a certain group of people, but is a danger to all humanity, because There is no cure for HIV, and the disease is spreading at an alarming rate
2.9. Demographic development
Demographic explosion - ultra-high rates of population growth in a certain territory
Demographic crisis – low rates of birth rate, death rate and, accordingly, natural increase. A demographic crisis can be understood as both population loss and overpopulation.
In the first case, this is a situation that develops in a country or region when the birth rate falls below the level of simple population replacement, as well as below the mortality rate. This is the situation currently developing in Russia.
Demographic processes at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries. are largely determined by two trends:
- demographic "explosion", characterized by a sharp increase in population in the countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America, starting from the 60s;
- “zero population growth” in Western European countries.
The first leads to a sharp exacerbation of socio-economic problems in developing countries, including hunger and illiteracy of tens of millions of people. The second is a sharp aging of the population in developed countries, including a deterioration in the balance between workers and pensioners, etc.
In Russia, according to Goskomstat data as of January 2000, the population was 145 million 600 thousand inhabitants; Moreover, from January 1 to December 1, 1999 alone, the country’s population decreased by 716,900 people. In other words, in 1999 the population of Russia decreased by 0.5% (for comparison: in 1992 - by 0.02%). Every year 60 thousand children die in the country. Mortality is 1.5 times higher than birth rate; 80% of infant mortality is caused by infectious diseases. A terrible problem is child and adolescent substance abuse and drug addiction. There is a discrepancy between the number of divorced women of reproductive age and the number of men willing to remarry. According to experts, by 2020 the working population of Russia beyond the Urals will be 6-8 million people. For comparison, in the adjacent areas of the border countries of this region in the same year, the working-age population is projected to be 600 million people. By 2050, the population of Russia as a whole may amount to only 114 million inhabitants. The emergence of many conflicts in the post-Soviet space once again raises the problem of migration. In these conditions, the state and society must make every effort to interest the Russian population in childbearing.
In the case of overpopulation, a demographic crisis is understood as a discrepancy between the population of a territory and its ability to provide residents with vital resources.
2.10. Terrorism
Terrorism is a policy based on the systematic use of terror. Synonyms for the word “terror” (Latin terror – fear, horror) are the words “violence”, “intimidation”, “intimidation”.
In Russian law, terrorism is defined as the ideology of violence and the practice of influencing public consciousness, decision-making by state authorities, local governments or international organizations associated with intimidation of the population and/or other forms of illegal violent actions.
In US law, terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated violence committed against civilians or targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually with the goal of influencing public sentiment.
At the end of the 1960s, a specific form of terrorism emerged – international terrorism.
3. WAYS TO SOLUTION GLOBAL PROBLEMS
The main options for solving the above global problems are:
- demographic transition - the natural end of the population explosion of the 1960s;
- nuclear disarmament;
- energy saving;
- Montreal Protocol (1989) – combating ozone holes;
- Kyoto Protocol (1997) – combating global warming;
- scientific prizes for successful radical extension of life of mammals and their rejuvenation;
- Roman Club (1968).
Let's consider options for solving global problems in more detail.
3.1. Demographic transition
Demographic transition is a historically rapid decline in fertility and mortality, as a result of which population reproduction is reduced to simple replacement of generations. This process is part of the transition from a traditional society (characterized by high birth rates and high deaths) to a modern one.
The term was first coined by American demographer Frank Notestein in 1945, although similar ideas had been expressed before. The very concept of demographic transition gained particular popularity later, in connection with the demographic changes that occurred after the Second World War in countries liberated from colonialism. As a result of a significant reduction in mortality (at first, mainly due to successful anti-epidemic measures) and the persistence of a high birth rate in these countries, population growth accelerated sharply, which was called the demographic explosion. It was found that similar changes occurred mainly already in the 19th century and in now economically developed countries, but in them a sharp acceleration in population growth was accompanied by a decrease in the birth rate and, ultimately, a stabilization of population growth. On the other hand, a fairly rapid decline in the birth rate is currently observed in third world countries, many of which (for example, Iran) are already quite close to completing the demographic transition.
The transition from high levels of fertility and mortality to low ones is called the demographic transition. According to this periodization, economically developed countries have already completed the demographic transition, while developing countries are completing the second and entering the third stage, that is, they are emerging from the state of the demographic explosion and are approaching the completion of the demographic transition.
3.2. Nuclear disarmament
Nuclear disarmament is the process of reducing the arsenals of nuclear weapons, their carriers and delivery systems, as well as production. According to supporters of nuclear disarmament, it will reduce the chance of a nuclear war. Opponents of this concept point out that the process of nuclear disarmament could negate the "deterrence" effect that largely kept the world from war during the second half of the 20th century.
Nuclear weapons first entered service with the US Army in 1945. In August of the same year, it was first used in combat against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). In 1949, the USSR acquired nuclear weapons, thus beginning the “nuclear race.” Nuclear weapons have become an integral tool of diplomacy for both countries.
The beginning of disarmament is considered to be the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when the world first came to the brink of a nuclear disaster. The reason for this was the deployment of American medium-range missiles in Turkey, which provoked the Soviet Union to urgently install similar missiles in Cuba. One of the consequences of the Cuban missile crisis was the emergence in the West of a powerful social movement in support of nuclear disarmament. The disarmament process also had an economic overtone: the build-up of the nuclear arsenal carried a colossal burden on the country's economy.
The first treaty regulating the development of nuclear weapons was the multilateral Treaty Banning Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Underwater (1963). In 1968, a multilateral Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed. Subsequently, it was signed by almost all countries of the world (except Israel, Pakistan and India).
The first bilateral agreement between the USSR and the USA was signed in 1972. The SALT I Treaty was the first to directly limit the accumulation of nuclear weapons. In particular, under the terms of the treaty, the parties were obliged to maintain the volume of nuclear arsenals at the level that it had reached at the time of ratification. In the same year, the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Defense Systems was signed, obliging the parties to reduce the number of areas protected by missile defense systems to two, and the number of ground-based launchers to 200. This treaty terminated in 2002. The SALT II Treaty (1979) prohibited the introduction of nuclear weapons into space.
In 1987, the bilateral INF Treaty obliged the USSR and the USA not to test, produce, deploy, or destroy existing medium- and short-range missiles (up to 5,500 km). This treaty, in particular, made it possible to free European countries from nuclear weapons. The 1991 START I treaty limited the number of nuclear warheads to 6,000 for each side and prohibited the development of air-launched missiles. In 1992, it was joined by Belarus, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, where nuclear weapons were also located for some time after the collapse of the USSR.
In 1993, the START II treaty was signed between Russia and the United States, which prohibited the placement of multiple warheads on missiles. This treaty was ratified but never entered into force. In 2002, the Treaty on the Reduction of Strategic Offensive Potentials decided to reduce the number of warheads to 2,200 for each side by 2013.
In 2009, it became known about the possibility of signing a new Russian-American treaty that would limit existing nuclear arsenals by 80%.
Currently, the American side is actively developing the missile defense system by deploying its individual elements in European countries, countries of the former USSR and CIS member countries. The Russian Federation actively opposes the initiatives of the United States and NATO countries, without excluding the possibility of bringing the country's nuclear arsenal to full combat readiness, which undoubtedly does not add stability to the global political situation in terms of nuclear security.
3.3. Energy saving
Energy conservation (energy saving) is the implementation of legal, organizational, scientific, production, technical and economic measures aimed at the efficient (rational) use (and economical expenditure) of fuel and energy resources and the involvement of renewable energy sources in economic circulation. Energy saving is an important task for the conservation of natural resources.
Currently, the most pressing issue is household energy saving (energy saving in everyday life), as well as energy saving in the housing and communal services sector. An obstacle to its implementation is the containment of the growth of tariffs for the population for certain types of resources (electricity, gas), the lack of funds from housing and communal services enterprises to implement energy-saving programs, the low share of calculations for individual metering devices and the application of standards, as well as the lack of a mass household culture of energy saving.
Ensuring energy saving in the agricultural sector is also relevant.
The main directions and methods of energy saving at present are: