Territory of Galicia. Galicia - the history of genocide and the creation of a clan of traitors

Land of the White Croats

• - - Moravian king Svyatopolk I annexed the lands of the White Croats, who lived in the valleys of the San and Dniester rivers, to Great Moravia.
• near - the region was occupied by the leader of the Hungarians (Magyars) Arpad.
• after - the region was captured by the Czech prince Boleslav I the Terrible.
• - Kiev prince Vladimir the Great in the war with the Poles (Czech prince Boleslav II the Pious or Polish prince Mieszko I) captured Cherven and Przemysl and included their lands in Kievan Rus.
• - - Boleslav I the Brave included the Cerven cities into Poland.
• - - Yaroslav the Wise included the Cherven cities into Kievan Rus.
• - - Boleslav II the Bold included the Cherven cities into Poland.
• - the son of Volodar Rostislavich Vladimirko united the Galician land and moved the capital to Galich, which gave its name to the Galician principality.
• - Roman Mstislavich united the lands of the Volyn and Galician principalities as part of the Galician-Volyn principality.
• - Coloman, Prince of Hungary, son of András II Árpád, Prince of Galicia from 1214, took the title of King of Galicia and Lodomeria ( rex Galiciae et Lodomeriae), which was worn by .

Kingdom of Rus'

In the 14th century, the Galician land became the subject of a dispute between Poland, Hungary and Lithuania. As a result of the long war for the Galician-Volyn inheritance (-), the lands of the Galician-Volyn principality were divided - the Kingdom of Poland received part of the principality with the cities of Galich and Lvov, Podlasie, Lublin and the southern lands of Podolia, as well as part of Volyn with the cities of Belz and Kholm, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Volyn with Vladimir and Lutsk, Polesie and part of Podolia.

As part of the Kingdom of Poland

The indigenous (East Slavic) population of Galicia (Galicia), Bukovina, Transcarpathia called themselves the adjective “Russians” or the noun “Rusyns”.

Already by the beginning of the 16th century, all the social elite (magnates and lords) of Galicia changed their rituals, switched from Orthodoxy to Catholicism and became Polonized. After 1453, the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans, when the Ecumenical Patriarch found himself a virtual hostage of the Ottoman Sultans and the schism in the Kyiv Metropolis after the Union of Florence, the gentry and senior clergy The Kyiv Metropolis began to lean towards a union (alliance) with Rome. Over the centuries since the Union of Brest in 1596, the Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church took root in Galicia and became the traditional religion for many of its inhabitants.

There has been a large Jewish community in Galicia since the 14th century. Jews were engaged in trade, clothing production, household items, jewelry, leather dressing, etc., sometimes uniting into their own craft workshops (Lviv, early 17th century). Lending money to kings and gentry, they received a payoff for collecting taxes and local fees (roads, bridges and others), rented estates, lands, logging, mills, taverns, etc., which explains the unusually high percentage of rural residents among Jews Galicia (by 1765 - 30% of the total Jewish population in the east and 40% in the west).

A number of Austrian government orders in Galicia significantly limited the power of the gentry over the serfs and delineated their rights and responsibilities, although the gentry demanded that they continue to have the unrestricted right to dispose not only of labor and property, but also the personality of their serfs, as is It was under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Measures were taken to raise the cultural level and authority of the Uniate clergy. A number of government scholarships were given to Rusyns to receive education at the Uniate Theological Seminary in Vienna, and Uniate bishops were given equal rights with Catholic ones, for example, the right to participate in the newly established Galician Diet.

The European revolutions of 1848, which were called the “Spring of Nations,” spread to many European countries, including Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Galicia (see Revolution of 1848 in Galicia).

The conflict between the Poles and Rusyns in Galicia either subsided or flared up depending on domestic policy Austrian government in national issue. By supporting one side or the other, the Austrian government created a certain balance in Galicia, which gave, in end result, the ability to manage this region.

Galician Sejm

In 1861, the Regional Sejm of Galicia was created to resolve issues of local life in the kingdom. It met on the basis of a decree of the Austrian emperor once a year in Lvov. Executive body The Sejm was a regional committee (pol. Wydzial Krajowy). .

Self-government was carried out through the Sejm (division of the regional), councils and departments (committees) of the district and village councils (“rada hromadska”). The Sejm consisted of 8 archbishops and bishops, 3 university rectors and 141 elected deputies, of which 74 were gentry, 44 were larger (magnates), 20 were cities and 3 were chambers of commerce and industry in Lviv, Krakow and Brody. Deputies were elected for 6 years. Galicia sent 63 deputies to the Diet in Vienna, 23 of whom were small owners. County councils consisted of 26 members elected for 3 years. The electoral system was such that the Poles always had a majority. Krakow and Lviv had city councils and special self-government. The language of administration and the Sejm was Polish.

Science and education

Traditional women's festive attire in Galicia

Traditional Ukrainian men's costume in Galicia

The university in Krakow was founded in 1364, in Lviv - in. Teaching was conducted in Polish, with the exception of a few Russian departments at the Lviv University.

There are 21 gymnasiums (one Jesuit), 2 pro-gymnasiums, 3 real schools. In the majority lower schools The language of instruction is Little Russian, which is also used in one gymnasium in Lvov and in Przemysl. In other gymnasiums the language of instruction is Polish, in Brody and one gymnasium in Lviv it is German.

Rusyns were given the opportunity to begin education in their native language in primary schools and introduce its teaching in gymnasiums. In the Russian Empire, the secret circular of the Minister of Internal Affairs Valuev in 1863, and then the Emsky decree of Alexander II in 1876, introduced serious restrictions on the use of the Ukrainian language in the press. From now on the publication Ukrainian literature began to move from Russia to Austria-Hungary, which turned into a kind of refuge for Ukrainian writers. The largest Ukrainian public figure of that time, M. Drahomanov, also moved to Lvov for some time.

The main scientists and other societies of Galicia: the Academy of Sciences in Krakow, with a rich library and archaeological museum; society (Zakład) named after Ossolinsky, in Lviv, with a library, museums, art gallery; Polish Society of Naturalists, Galician-Russian Matica, Societies named after Kachkovsky and Shevchenko in Lviv.

By the end of the 19th century, Galicia began to be called the “Ukrainian Piedmont”, likening its role to the one that the Sardinian kingdom played in the unification of Italy. M. Grushevsky, who in 1894 moved from Kyiv to Lvov, argued that Galicia was “the advanced part of the Ukrainian people, which had long overtaken the poor Russian Ukraine”, that “until now Galicia has followed, and Ukraine has stood or followed Galicia.” . Pavel Skoropadsky, who was the hetman of Ukraine in 1918, wrote in his memoirs about the Galicians: “... unfortunately, their culture, due to historical reasons, is too different from ours. Then, among them there are many narrow fanatics, especially in the sense of professing the idea of ​​hatred towards Russia... It does not matter to them that Ukraine without Great Russia will suffocate, that its industry will never develop, that it will be entirely in the hands of foreigners, that the role of their Ukraine is to be populated some kind of vegetating rural life."

Galician-Russian movement

XX century

On December 15, 1902, the Galician-Russian Charitable Society was formed in St. Petersburg. According to the charter approved by the Ministry of Internal Affairs on October 8, 1902, the society set as its goal “to provide all kinds of moral and material support to Russian Galicians and their families temporarily or permanently residing in St. Petersburg. In addition to charitable assistance to the natives of Galicia, the society also sought to promote the familiarization of Russian society with the life of Carpathian Rus', its past and present.By 1914, according to the board of the society, the latter had about 700 members.

In a note on the Polish issue, Russian Foreign Ministry official Olferev wrote in 1908 that as a result of the policy of the Austro-Hungarian authorities in Galicia, “Ukrainians will merge into a single independent people and then the fight against separatism will become impossible. As long as the Russian spirit still lives in Galicia, Ukrainians are not so dangerous for Russia, but as soon as the Austro-Polish government succeeds in realizing its dream by destroying everything Russian in Galicia and forcing forever to forget about the once-existent Red Orthodox Rus', then it will be too late for Russia You can’t deal with the enemy.”

The fear of the penetration of ideas of Ukrainian separatism from Galicia into Russia forced the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Finance to make a decision in 1909 to regularly allocate funds to “help the Carpathian Russians.” In 1911, P. A. Stolypin allocated 15 thousand rubles at a time for expenses for elections to the Austrian parliament. The talk was about helping organizations with a “Muscophile” orientation. Every year, at the request of the Minister of Internal Affairs, 60 thousand rubles and 25 thousand rubles were allocated directly through the Minister of Finance. The distribution and transfer of state funds for the maintenance and development of Russian cultural and educational institutions of the Carpathian Slavs were entirely under the jurisdiction of V. A. Bobrinsky and Chamberlain Gizycki. The government entrusted them with the specified amounts, without controlling them and without demanding an account of the spending of the money. This was done, first of all, in order to exclude possible complications at the diplomatic level. By allocating funds, the Russian government completely avoided how and for what they were used. In addition to government subsidies, another 10-12 thousand rubles were given annually by private donations. All transferred funds, in accordance with the charter of the Galician-Russian Society, were to be spent on cultural and educational purposes. In fact, these were a wide variety of events of both a cultural and political nature. A central place in cultural work was given to the dissemination of the Russian language in Galicia, since the issue of cultural and linguistic orientation formed the basis of the program of the Galician “Muscovophiles” and since 1909 acquired political implications.

In the eastern regions of Galicia (that is, in the former territory of the Galician-Volyn principality proper), the Ukrainian population significantly predominated, and the western part of Galicia was inhabited mainly by Poles. According to data for 1910, out of 5,317,158 residents of Eastern Galicia, Polish was the native language for 2,114,792 residents (39.8%), and Ukrainian for 3,132,233 (58.9%). It should be taken into account that the Polish-speaking population included not only Poles, but also Jews, who during the second half of the 19th century- beginning The majority of the 20th century switched from Yiddish to Polish.

World War I

Appeal from the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, to the Russian people		Austrian coat of arms, Russian trophy 1914. Photo from Niva magazine		Coat of arms of the Russian Galician General Government, 1914		Russian medical workers and the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (in the back seat of a car) in Lvov

Already a day after the capture of Lvov, on September 5, the office of Count G. Bobrinsky, who was appointed Military Governor-General of Galicia, began its work in the city. The office continued its activities until July 14.

The Russian government planned to further integrate the eastern part of Galicia into Russia itself, and western Galicia (populated mainly by Poles) into the Kingdom of Poland. The activities of the administration of G. A. Bobrinsky lasted less than a year, in conditions of constant hostilities, so it is difficult to talk about a purposeful policy of civilian administration.

As Russian troops advanced through the territory of Galicia and Bukovina, two provinces were formed, Lvov and Ternopil, and later also Chernivtsi and Przemysl. The provinces were divided into districts, and their administration at both the provincial and district levels was almost entirely staffed by officials from Russia. Only two of the local natives took up positions as assistant county governors. Local natives were used only as translators and minor officials. This was explained not only by the mistrust of local residents on the part of the Russian administration, but also by the fact that most of the local Russophile intelligentsia was repressed by the Austrian authorities at the very beginning of the war ( See article Thalerhof). In the districts of western Galicia, due to the predominance of Poles in the population, Russian officials of Polish nationality were appointed to positions.

Repressive measures were taken against persons suspected of spying for Austria-Hungary (especially Jews) (eviction to remote areas of Russia, taking hostages, prohibition of movement within the General Government, etc.). Many Greek Catholic priests were also expelled churches (in particular, Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky). In 1914-15, 1,962 people were administratively expelled. In 1915, 554 (according to other sources - 700) hostages were taken. As a rule, they were entrepreneurs, bank directors, and city mayors. It was announced that Jews were being taken hostage because, based on denunciations from Jews, the Austrian authorities were persecuting the Rusyns for collaborating with the Russian occupation authorities. .

Galicia was abandoned by Russian troops as a result of the German offensive. To avoid the mobilization of the population of Galicia into the Austro-Hungarian army, the commander of the Southwestern Front, General Ivanov, issued an order to expel the entire male population aged 18 to 50 to the Volyn province. According to press reports, by August 1915 there were about 100 thousand refugees from Galicia in Russia. .

Many (at least 20 thousand) “Russophiles” were imprisoned by the Austrian authorities in the Thalerhof and Terezin concentration camps, some were executed.

The Army of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (UGA - Ukrainian Galician Army), with varying success, despite the acute shortage of ammunition, provisions and ammunition, fought with Polish troops until May 15, 1919, when the 70,000-strong Polish army of General Jozef was formed and armed in France Hallera, which was transferred to Galicia ostensibly to fight the Bolsheviks, began military operations against the UGA and ousted the latter from almost the entire territory of Galicia.

Subsequently, the UGA attempted a counter-offensive (Chortkiv operation), as a result of which temporary success was achieved - part of Galicia was liberated from the Poles, but by mid-July 1919, the UGA was completely forced out by Polish troops across the Zbruch River. After this, the existence of the ZUNR as a state entity practically ceased, although the government existed in exile until 1923

On the territory of Western Galicia in the city of Tarnobrzeg it was proclaimed Tarnobrzeg Republic.

Galicia within Poland

South-eastern Poland and the historical regions of Volhynia and Galicia (Galicia) between the two World Wars

In 1921, as a result of the Treaty of Riga and the decision of the Ambassadors of 1923, the territory of Eastern Galicia was transferred to Poland. According to the terms of the agreement [ specify] in territories with a Ukrainian population, Poland undertook to provide Ukrainians with equal rights with Poles and guarantee national cultural development, provide autonomy, open a university, etc. The Polish government did not fulfill any of these conditions. Ukrainians were actually considered second-class citizens, subject to Polishization and Catholicization. Poland's policy was aimed at the forced assimilation and complete destruction of the Ukrainian character of Eastern Galicia, Volhynia, Kholmshchyna, Podlasie and other territories in which ethnic Ukrainians formed the majority or represented a significant part of the population.

In the early 1920s - mid-1930s, Galicia became the main territory of action of the UVO and from the beginning of the 1930s - OUN, adhering to the “propaganda of the idea of ​​​​a general revolutionary breakdown of the Ukrainian people,” despite the small number of these formations in comparison with those legally operating political parties, uniting ethnic Ukrainians (the largest was UNDO). Their terrorist and provocative actions caused the greatest resonance in Galician society.

In the early 1920s, the UVO carried out active propaganda activities, provoking the Ukrainian population of Galicia to sabotage the actions of the Polish government - the census, payment of taxes, conscription into the Polish army, elections to the Sejm and Senate.

During 1922, a series of acts of sabotage and sabotage were recorded in the lands of Galicia, of which 38 were on railway transport. Military warehouses were set on fire, telephone and telegraph communications were damaged, and the gendarmerie was attacked. The raid of UVO militants in the Ternopil district had a wide resonance - “they destroyed and set fire to Polish farms, houses of Polish colonists, killed Polish police officers and gendarmes.” In total, 20 “Polish collaborators”, 10 “police officers and their “agents”” and 7 “Polish military” were killed in 1922. On October 15, 1922, UVO militants killed the Ukrainian poet and journalist S. Tverdokhleb, the leader of the Ukrainian Grain-Growers Party, who advocated peaceful coexistence with the Poles. In the same 1922, the Polish security authorities managed to arrest a member of the UVO M. Dzinkivsky, whose confession made it possible to arrest almost the entire asset of the organization’s militants in Galicia. This practically stopped the activity of the UVO in 1923. It was restored in 1924 - in 1924-1925 the UVO switched to the “expropriation of Polish property.” To carry out expropriations, the regional commandant of the UVO Yu. Golovinsky created the “Flying Brigade”, which began attacking postal stagecoaches and carriages, post offices and banks. On April 28, 1925, during an attack on the main post office of Lviv, they received 100 thousand zlotys (about 25 thousand dollars) - which was a huge amount at that time. The Polish police managed to liquidate the Flying Brigade only towards the end of 1925. On October 19, 1926, the Polish school curator J. Sobinsky was killed in Lvov. The murder was committed by Roman Shukhevych, a combat assistant of the Ukrainian Military District in the region - the Polish police arrested two other militants of the Ukrainian Military District who were later sentenced to hanging, later commuted to 10 and 15 years in prison, respectively.

On November 1, 1928, militants from the Ukrainian Military District, mingling with the crowd in a demonstration dedicated to the 10th anniversary of the proclamation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic, opened fire on the police, provoking a response. On the night of November 1–2, 1928, a bomb was detonated near the Polish monument to the “defenders of Lviv.” In December 1928, the UVO handed over a bomb to the editorial office of the Polish newspaper Slovo Polske. In the spring of 1929, the trade exhibition "Targi Wschodne" was blown up - several bombs exploded in different places.

In the second half of 1930, a broad anti-Polish so-called sabotage campaign began: attacks on government institutions and arson of Polish property swept through the villages of Galicia. The UVO took responsibility for these actions. Acts of “expropriation” and political murders continued with renewed vigor. The government's response was brutal pacification actions launched on the orders of Piłsudski. On August 29, 1931, Ukrainian nationalists in Truskavets killed Seym Ambassador T. Goluvko, a supporter of the “Polish-Ukrainian compromise” - an act that can be explained based on the logic of the UVO-OUN - achieving a “revolutionary disruption of the masses” in conditions of “compromise” is problematic. Further, the terror only expanded, the victims of which were no longer only Polish but also Ukrainian leaders and ordinary residents.

After the murder of Polish Minister of Internal Affairs Bronislaw Peratsky in 1934, the entire leadership of the UVO-OUN at ZUZ was arrested. The head of the OUN, E. Konovalets, fearing the extradition of the emigrant part of the organization, ordered a stop to terrorist attacks on Polish territory.

But this did not stop the effect of the sentences already passed by the OUN-UVO. The murder of the director of the Ukrainian gymnasium Lvov I. Babii caused a great resonance in the Ukrainian society of Galicia - all legal parties condemned it. Metropolitan Sheptytsky sharply condemned the murder - he wrote: “there is not a single father or mother who would not curse the leaders who lead youth on the pathless path of crime,” “Ukrainian terrorists, who sit safely outside the borders of the region, use our children to kill their parents, and They themselves, in the aura of heroes, rejoice at such a profitable life.”

The reactivation of the OUN occurs in 1938 with the support of Nazi Germany. The main partner of the OUN was the 2nd department of the Abwehr (“sabotage and psychological warfare”), which set the following tasks for the OUN - the destruction of important objects on the territory of the future enemy, the escalation of instability, and the staging of uprisings. The department’s tasks also included creating a “fifth column” on enemy territory. The preparations for the “Ukrainian uprising” were led by the head of the Abwehr station in Breslau.

Until the end of 1940, on the territory of Western Ukraine (which already included Bukovina, annexed in July 1940, and part of Bessarabia), 69,517 people were arrested and prosecuted without arrest on various charges, including criminal charges (of which 15,518 Poles, 15,024 Ukrainians, 10,924 Jews), of which just over 300 were sentenced to VMN.

By the end of 1940, the activities of the OUN(b) intensified significantly in Galicia. Groups of members and supporters of the OUN(b) prepared by the Abwehr tried to cross the border of the USSR with varying degrees of success. Despite the opposition of the NKVD and the NKGB, they collected data on the deployment of troops and the location of warehouses, the place of residence of commanders and other information of interest to the Wehrmacht.

By the spring of 1941 (after receiving significant funding from the Abwehr for such activities), clashes took place on the territory of Galicia between OUN(b) detachments and the forces of regional police and the NKGB.

The response to the activation of the OUN underground was Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR No. 1299-526ss of May 14, 1941 “On the seizure of counter-revolutionary organizations in the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR.” The total number of people expelled from the Western regions of the Ukrainian SSR before June 1941 was 11,097 people (including those expelled under other decisions). Until June 1941, 11,020 people were arrested and detained without arrest in Western Ukraine.

In 1940-1941, four mass deportations Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Jews, Germans, Russians, Czechs, Armenians and others from the eastern voivodeships of the Polish Republic (western regions of the Ukrainian SSR and BSSR). The NKVD authorities deported approximately 335,000 Polish citizens to the northeastern regions of the European part of the RSFSR, Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Russian Far East. At least 198,536 people were expelled from the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR:

• February 1940 - 89,062 people (about 84.8% Poles, 13.8% Ukrainians, 1.4% Jews and others) deported to the northeastern regions of the European part of the RSFSR (Arkhangelsk region, Komi ASSR, Bashkir ASSR, and others), Siberia, and Kazakhstan;

• April 1940 - 31,332 people (about 70.6% Poles, 25.0% Ukrainians, 3.0% Jews, 1.4% Russians, Germans, and others) deported to Kazakhstan;

District of Galicia in the General Government

By the beginning of Germany's attack on the Soviet Union, the commanders had German units there were detailed data on the Soviet troops opposing them in Galicia, prepared by the OUN (b). On June 22, 1941, a number of Red Army commanders and their families were attacked by OUN militants, who also carried out sabotage on communication lines. In a number of settlements in the direction of attacks of German troops, armed uprisings initiated by the OUN (b) took place. On June 24, an armed uprising began in Lvov. In rural areas, OUN detachments, with the support of part of the local Ukrainian population, attacked small units of the Red Army and individual vehicles. In June, on the Lutsk-Brody-Rovno line, a counterattack by several mechanized corps of the Red Army took place (some historians indicate it as the largest tank battle of the beginning of the war), which did not achieve its goals.

In connection with the rapid advance of German troops in the prisons of Western Ukraine, the NKVD and NKGB officers shot more than 7 thousand “counter-revolutionary, criminal-political elements” - primarily those arrested and convicted under articles of the Criminal Code of the Ukrainian SSR 54, 2.11, and especially members of the OUN.

With the arrival of German troops, greeted in many populated areas as “liberators” by part of the local Ukrainian population, local Ukrainian administration was organized in populated areas. In a number of cities and towns, armed groups consisting of Ukrainians killed representatives of the Soviet government, communists and Komsomol members. There were also anti-Jewish actions of the Ukrainian population, as a result of which thousands of Jews died, which was the beginning of the extermination of more than a million Jews in Galicia (both local and deported from European countries).

At the beginning of August 1941, the territory of Galicia was declared the district of Galicia. The Ukrainian police units previously formed by the OUN(b) and the embryonic units of the Ukrainian National Revolutionary Army were partially disbanded and partially reorganized into auxiliary police, which in the District of Galicia were exclusively Ukrainian (only Poles served in the small transport police).

Since the fall of 1941, the OUN(b) has been paying attention to filling the Ukrainian auxiliary police with its supporters not only in the west, but also in the east of Ukraine - “Ukrainian nationally-conscious youth should massively voluntarily enroll in the cadres of the Ukrainian police” in the eastern Ukrainian lands. It was the Ukrainian police units (4 - 6 thousand) that became an important part of the formation of the UPA in the spring of 1943.

By 1943, Galicia was one of Nazi Germany's quieter conquests in Europe. At the beginning of March 1943, in the newspapers of the District of Galicia, the “Manifesto for the combat-ready youth of Galicia” was published by the governor of Galicia, Otto Wächter, which noted the devoted service “for the good of the Reich” of the Galician Ukrainians and their repeated requests to the Fuhrer to participate in the armed struggle - and the Fuhrer, considering all the merits of the Galician Ukrainians, allowed the formation of the “SS division - Galicia”. Until June 2, more than 80 thousand volunteers signed up for the division (of which more than 60 thousand were from the Lemberg district). June 30, 1943 The Head of the SS and SD in the District of Galicia sends a report on the almost complete “Decision Jewish question in Galicia,” where, among other things, the participation of the Ukrainian auxiliary police in acquiring the status of “Jude-frei” (free of Jews) for this territory was separately noted.

In the fall of 1943, the OUN underground began active operations in Galicia against the Polish population.

Galicia after spring 1944

Local OUN and UPA detachments are conducting operations against German troops, Polish and Soviet partisans. After the German troops were driven out of the territory of Galicia, the nationalist underground carried out actions to disorganize the rear of the Red Army, disrupt the mobilization and procurement companies and destroy the Soviet party activists aimed at restoring Soviet power and the infrastructure of these regions, as well as local residents suspected of loyalty to the authorities.

On March 31, 1944, the USSR NKVD order No. 7129 was issued, which approved the order and list of persons subject to exile to remote areas of the USSR (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Omsk, Novosibirsk and Irkutsk regions), family members and active rebels. According to it, all adult family members of OUN members and active rebels, both arrested and killed during clashes, were subject to exile. In addition to them, the families of activists and leadership of the OUN-UPA were subject to exile (commandants, assistant commandants and SB employees, district and supra-district OUN guides, kurenye, gospodarchi, chiefs and communications supervisors, active members of gangs of those in hiding or in an illegal situation. Those deported were allowed take with you up to 500 kg of things and property (the weight of food was not limited). On January 3, 1945, 3,165 people (1,155 families) were evicted from the Lviv region; Ternopil region, 1,249 people (498 families); During the same period, members of the OUN-UPA were killed/captured/confessed in the regions: Lviv -12713/10471/2496, Ternopil 11057/5967/2833, Stanislav 10499/9867/1167, Drohobych 1972/2720/569 (later a number of district departments The NKVD and MGB of these regions were convicted of adding the number of “destroyed and captured bandits”) Until April 15, 1945, the number of deportees increased to: in the Lvov region 3,951 people (1,468 families) were evicted; Ternopil 2,238 people (974 families) Stanislavskaya 2,917 (1,329) Drohobychskaya 1834 (701 families). In addition, it was sent to forced labor for those evading conscription into the Red Army: in the Lviv region - 2635 people, Stanislavskaya - 1768, Drohobychskaya - 1720, Ternopil - 829.

During 1944-45, 16 Soviet-Russian teachers were killed in the Lvov region, 127 in the Ternopil region. These teachers were brought, as a rule, from the Eastern regions of Ukraine (while local teachers, like the entire Galician intelligentsia, were exterminated by the Soviet government or taken into exile). During the same period, 50 clubs and reading huts were burned and destroyed in the Ternopil region, which were supposed to serve to instill communist ideology in Galicia.

In the fall of 1944, according to an agreement between the USSR and Poland, the voluntary-forced resettlement of ethnic Poles living there began from the territory of Galicia. Until the beginning of 1946, more than half a million people were taken from Galicia to Poland alone ( total number Poles displaced to Poland from territories ceded to the USSR are estimated at more than 850 thousand people). A similar reverse flow of Ukrainians living on the territory of the Polish state was much smaller - in total, just over 140 thousand were resettled in the USSR. By the spring of 1945, with the help of the 1st Division and several brigades of the NKVD, with the participation of border troops and fighter squads formed from the local population, almost all large and medium-sized armed formations of the OUN were destroyed or scattered. Despite this, small units continued to operate, attacking civilian infrastructure and individual military personnel. Despite the fact that by the end of 1947 the activity of the OUN underground had decreased to several areas, it was almost completely eliminated only by 1952.

In total, during the period 1944-46, the following were evicted: Lviv region - 5927 people (2531 families), Ternopil region - 3780 people (1741 families), Stanislavskaya - 5590 (2393), Drohobych region - 5272 (1977 families). In October 1947, a mass deportation of families of the OUN underground was carried out; the following were deported: Lviv - 15,920 people (5,223 families), Ternopil - 13,508 people (5,001 families), Stanislav - 11,183 (4,512), Drohobych - 14,456 (4,504 families). The expulsions of individual families were carried out as punishment for murders and gang activity committed in their places of residence before 1952. The total losses of Soviet citizens from the actions of the OUN-UPA were Ivano-Frankivsk - 10,527, Drohobych and Lviv - 7,968, Ternopil - 3,557 (most of whom were local villagers). After Stalin's death, the vast majority of those expelled began to return to their former places of residence, which led to an increase in the number of crimes in 1955-1957 in these regions. .

Ethnic composition

The main population groups before the Second World War were Ukrainians (Rusyns), Poles, Jews, Germans; after the war, mainly Poles lived in western Galicia (see Operation Vistula).

According to some sources in Eastern Galicia before World War II, Polish Jews (Polish) Russian made up more than a third (in 1921 about 37%) of the urban population.

In modern eastern Galicia The main population is Ukrainians, which in the past were called Rusyns, the second largest national group is Russians (in Lviv - 8.9%).

Modernity

In the modern Ukrainian language, the words “Galicia” and “Galician” are still used - that is, a resident of eastern Galicia, the territory of the present-day Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk and most of the Ternopil regions. From the Ternopil region, only four districts, completely Shumsky, Kremenets, Lanovets and partially Zbarazhsky district do not belong to Galicia, but to the historical region of Volyn.

see also

Notes

1. A few words about terminology. We deliberately use the word Galicia with an emphasis on last syllable, not Eastern Galicia. It is accepted in historical literature and most fully reflects the concept.- Pashaeva N. M., Essays on the history of the Russian Movement in Galicia in the 19th-20th centuries. / /State publ. ist. b-ka Russia. - M., 2001. - 201 p. (p. 5)
2. Andrey Dikiy. Unperverted history of Ukraine-Rus, volume II. Chapter “Western Ukraine-Rus”
3. F. I. Svistun. Carpathian Rus' under the rule of Austria. Lviv, 1895-1896 (djvu)
4. universal encyclopedia
5. Self-name before the 20th century - Rus, Rusyns, Rutheny
6. //
7. Alexander Shirokorad."Rus and Lithuania" // Galician Kingdom. - M.: "Veche", 2004. - P. 50, 52, 56-60, 83, 370.
8. // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
9. B. A. Uspensky A brief outline of the history of the Russian literary language, M. 1994.
10. ISBN 5-88735-064-4 A. Yu. Bakhturina. Policy of the Russian Empire in Eastern Galicia during the First World War, M. 2000, p. 29
11. A. Yu. Bakhturina. Policy of the Russian Empire in Eastern Galicia during the First World War, M. 2000, p. 38
12. ISBN 5-88735-064-4 A. Yu. Bakhturina. Policy of the Russian Empire in Eastern Galicia during the First World War, M. 2000, p. 39
13. http://www.ukrstor.com/ukrstor/sokolov_dream.html
14. Forgotten ethnic group
15. Note from Durnovo
16. S. A. Sklyarov Polish-Ukrainian territorial dispute and great powers in 1918-1919.
17. ISBN 5-88735-064-4 A. Yu. Bakhturina. Policy of the Russian Empire in Eastern Galicia during the First World War, M. 2000, pp. 192-193
18. ISBN 5-88735-064-4 A. Yu. Bakhturina. Policy of the Russian Empire in Eastern Galicia during the First World War, M. 2000, pp. 182,189
19. Evidence on the history of Ukraine in 3 volumes / Instruction. I.Pidkova, R.Shust. - Lviv, 2001.
20. Drawings on the history of political terrorism and terrorism in Ukraine XIX-XX centuries. Institute of History of Ukraine NAS of Ukraine, 2002
21. Hans Bentzin, "Division Brandenburg - Die Rangers von Admiral Canaris", 2.Aufl. 2005 (2004), edition ost, Das Neue Berlin Verlagsgesellschaft mbH"

The protracted “Euromaidan” booth in Kiev, in which a huge role is played by activists who arrived, for ideological or mercantile reasons, from the western regions of Ukraine, traditionally called Galicia, has again brought to life the old question - what is this Galicia like? Why are these Galicians, who have earned the unflattering nickname “Galitsai”, who themselves proudly called their main city of Lviv “Banderstadt” (the city of Bandera), completely pathological Russophobes? And, most importantly, is it possible to cure Galicians from Svidomism?

1. What is Galicia

Indeed, the most “obvious” region of Western Ukraine is Galicia (or, in Western style, Galicia). Moreover, usually all of Western Ukraine is confused with Galicia, ignoring the peculiarities of Bukovina, Volyn and Transcarpathia. But, in fairness, we must admit that Galicia really “leads” (in which direction is another question) all the western lands of Ukraine, so such a simplification is quite understandable. But the ethnic history of Galicia deserves special attention because this region is the most anti-Russian Russia. It was here that pathologically evil Russophobic Ukrainian nationalism developed, which, unlike other regions of Ukraine, has mass support here.

Nowadays, Galicia includes three regions of Ukraine - Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk and Ternopil. Until 1945, Galicia included the lands along the Syan (or San) River with the cities of Przemysl and Yaroslav (Nadsyanye), as well as the city of Kholm and the surrounding Kholm region. The total area of ​​Galicia within its modern borders is 50 thousand km2. Population - 5 million people.

The natural conditions of Galicia are quite favorable. The climate here is temperate continental, with warm, humid, long summers and very mild winters (often with thaws; stable snow cover is present only in the mountains). Most of Galicia naturally belongs to the Kapatya region. The Podolsk Upland sharply abuts the Carpathian Mountains, which in the region reach a height of 1,000 m (the highest mountain Hoverla, formerly Ruska, has a height of 2,600 m). The Carpathian Mountains are densely overgrown with forests, and valuable species of wood grow here, almost unknown in Great Russia. The river network of Galicia is very dense. It is here in the Carpathians that the Dniester and Prut rivers begin. The soils here are very fertile, so it is not surprising that these lands have been inhabited by humans for a very long time, since the Paleolithic times, and in our time are characterized by a high population density. From natural resources there are rich deposits of sulfur, potassium salts, building stone, mineral waters. As you can see, the region is rich and abundant, which, however, has always attracted conquerors here. And this left an indelible imprint on the entire history of the region.

Galicia has long been the most densely populated territory of Ukraine. For almost their entire history, local residents called themselves Rusyns, that is, residents of Rus'. Only at the beginning of the 20th century they managed to get the ridiculous idea into their heads that they were a separate nation of “Ukrainians.” And yet, even now, Western “Ukrainians” do not at all represent a single ethnic whole.

Due to the peculiarities of traditional life, local dialect, culture, clothing, way of life, settlement and others, several ethnographic groups coexist in the region: Boykos, Hutsuls, Lemkos, Pokutians, Opolyans.

Boyki inhabit the side of the middle part of the Carpathians. The Boyks were mainly engaged in cattle breeding, logging, salt mining, and blacksmithing. And only later did agriculture develop here. In the territory inhabited by the Boyki, the sights of monumental folk construction have been preserved - wooden chapels, bell towers, churches.

The Hutsuls are located in the southeastern part of the Carpathians, within Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. The relief of the Carpathian Mountains determined the way of life of the Hutsuls. The Hutsuls have long been engaged in mountain pasture cattle breeding, forestry, and timber rafting along mountain rivers. Agriculture (mainly gardening and vegetable gardening) was of secondary importance, which fundamentally distinguished them from the Rusyns of the flat part of Galicia, Bukovina and Transkapartya. The Hutsuls developed artistic crafts (carving and wood burning, production of leather and copper products, pottery, weaving). The Hutsuls differ sharply from other Little Russians, including the Rusyns living in the Carpathians, in their dialect, clothing, housing structure, and traditional applied arts.

Thanks to their geographical isolation, the Hutsuls, like many highlanders, were able to preserve in their culture and customs the ancient Slavic features, long lost by the inhabitants of the valleys, and even more so, of the cities. The Hutsuls maintained clan-clan relations for quite a long time, right up to the 20th century. There was a blood feud among the Hutsuls. In the novel by M. Kotsyubynsky “Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors”, on which the famous film was made, we are talking specifically about the traditions of vendetta among the Hutsuls. Even in the middle of the 20th century, cases of murders based on blood feud were recorded in the Carpathians. And nowadays, echoes of those ancient times are manifested in the prohibition of marriage with representatives of certain clans.

The Pokutians occupy the territory northeast of the Hutsuls. Pokuttya (from the word “kut” - a corner, hence the concept of “nook”) is located between the Prut and Cheremosh rivers in the territory of the modern Ivano-Frankivsk region of Ukraine. The center of Pokuttya is the city of Kolomyia, whose name was previously Kut. Agriculture has always been developed here, and in all centuries the inhabitants have been engaged in artistic crafts (embroidery, carpet weaving, pottery). Pokutti clothing has retained many archaic elements and is distinguished by restraint and attractiveness. Pokutt villages were located mostly in the lowlands.

Opolians inhabit Opole - the western part of the Podolsk Upland. The main occupation of the residents is agriculture. The decorative art of the Opolyans is very unique. They use beads and floral patterns in embroidery.

Lemkos live on the borderland with the Boykos. The main part of the Lemko territory is located outside Galicia - in Transcarpathia and Poland. They preserved their customs, rituals, and certain features of material culture in clothing and food. Unlike the bulk of Galicians, the Lemkos preserved the Orthodox faith. In 1947, Polish authorities evicted almost all Lemkos from their homeland. Most of the historical Lemkovina is now inhabited by Poles. Some Lemkos live in Galicia, while others are scattered throughout Poland.

2. Red Rus'

In ancient times, these lands were inhabited by different peoples, in particular, carps related to the Thracians (from them the name of the Carpathian Mountains comes), Celts (probably, the name of the city of Galich, hence the name of the entire region, is due to them). Probably also from the Celtic tribe of Bojians (who gave the name Bohemia, as the Czech Republic was previously called), the name of the Bojki, a subethnic group of local Rusyns, comes from. But already at the beginning of our era the region became Slavic. Here were the possessions of the Antes, Dulebs, and White Croats, who formed their own tribal principalities. In the 10th century, the city of Cherven (probably the capital of the region) was mentioned here, which is why the other cities were called Cherven. These included Lucesk (Lutsk), Suteysk, Brody, etc. In addition, the cities of Belz and Przemysl are also known. It is probably from the Cherven cities that the name Chervonnaya Rus was formed.

The Cherven cities were located on the border of Rus' and Poland and therefore were the subject of constant disputes and military clashes. Russian chroniclers noted that the Cherven cities were part of a united Rus' even under Oleg the Prophet (that is, in 882-912), for example, the White Croats participated in Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople, although the organization of the central government is not known to us. The Polish king Mieszko in 981 captured the Cherven cities, but in the same 981 they were recaptured by the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The chronicler briefly mentioned under the year 981: “Volodimer went to the Poles and conquered their cities: Przemysl, Cherven and other cities that are to this day under Russia.” At the same time, Vladimir founded a city “in his name”, a little to the north, in modern Volyn, the modern city of Vladimir-Volynsky. There is also a story about the establishment of an Orthodox diocese in the new city in 982, that is, another 6 years before the baptism of all Rus'. From this we can conclude that Christianity, and precisely in the Eastern Greek version, has already penetrated into these regions. However, since local lands Eastern Slavs bordered on the Great Moravian Empire, where at the end of the 9th century the activities of Cyril, Methodius and their associates unfolded, then Christianity could well have had followers in the future Galician land back in the pagan period of Russian history.

Rus' fought with Poland for the Cherven cities back in 992, then, taking advantage of the strife of Vladimir’s sons, Poland again captured this region in 1018, but in 1030 Yaroslav the Wise again drove the Poles out of here. In 1031, imitating his father, Yaroslav also built a city “in his name” - Yaroslav on the Syan River, which became the westernmost city of Rus' and until 1947 also the westernmost city of the Eastern Slavs.

Until the end of the 11th century, the Volyn and Carpathian lands were subordinated to the Kyiv princely table. But gradually, as Kievan Rus collapsed, the lands of Chervonnaya Rus acquired more and more independence. The region was experiencing a rapid economic and demographic boom. New cities arose - Galich (first mentioned in 1098, although a settlement existed in its place in the 7th-8th centuries), Kremenets (1064), Zvenigorod (1086), Brody (1084), Drohobych (1091), Terebovl (now - Terebovlya, first mentioned in 1097), Udech (now Zhidachiv, 1164), Rohatyn (late 12th century). Soil fertility, richness of mineral resources (in particular, rock salt and valuable wood species), relative protection from Polovtsian raids (although the Polovtsians penetrated here, the Dnieper lands mostly took their blow), trade routes to the West, to the Danube - everything this contributed to the prosperity of the region. Of course, most of the benefits from the prosperity went to the local boyars, who became one of the most powerful in Rus'.

Local boyars had such influence, the like of which was not found anywhere in Rus'. Thus, each boyar had his own army, and since the Galician boyars’ regiments often outnumbered the prince’s, in case of disagreement, the boyars could argue with the prince using military force. Supreme judicial branch princes in case of disagreement with the boyars passed to the boyar elite. The boyars exercised their power with the help of the boyar council. It included largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The boyar council was convened, as a rule, on the initiative of the boyars themselves. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at his own request, and could not issue a single state act without his consent. The council zealously protected the interests of the boyars, even interfering in the prince's family affairs.

The boyars kicked out the princes they disliked, and the boyars hanged the two sons of Prince Igor of Chernigov, who, having become princes in Galich, tried to rule on their own. The mistress of Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl, who tried to influence politics, was burned by the boyars under the pretext of “immorality.”

The Galician-Volyn princes convened a veche from time to time, but it did not have much influence. Small merchants and artisans could have been present, however decisive role the top of the boyars played.

So, the Galician principality developed its own type of political power - the boyar oligarchy. This was the fundamental difference between Galich and the Novgorod Republic and the Suzdal autocracy. Those princes who tried to rule independently inevitably came into conflict with the boyars. However, although the boyars tried to turn the prince into their puppet, the traditions of the legitimate monarchy of the house of Rurikovich were still strong. When, during the period of strife at the beginning of the 13th century, the boyar Vladislav Kormilchich, not being a Rurikovich, proclaimed himself a prince, this caused unanimous indignation of the boyars: “The boyar should not eat the prince.” As a result, Vladislav, despite his military strength and wealth, failed. But the very precedent of the attempt to crown a boyar is important. There was nothing like this anywhere in Rus'.

Specific Principality of Galicia separated from Kyiv at the end of the 11th century. In 1084, three brothers, Rurik, Volodar and Vasilko Rostislavich, the great-grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise, took possession of Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Terebovl, without permission (but, of course, at the invitation of the local boyars) in the Carpathian region. Gradually, all three small principalities united into one, the center of which in 1141 became the city of Galich. Gradually, the Principality of Galicia turned into one of the most developed and richest among all other ancient Russian lands.

The wealth of the city of Galich was evidenced by the fact that archaeologists discovered about 30 stone temples of the 12th century. The city stood on the Dniester (more precisely, on its deep tributary Lukva, not far from its confluence with the Dniester). The prince's palace, connected by a system of high passages to the Church of the Savior, is strikingly reminiscent of the palace complex in Bogolyubovo created by Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Probably both castles were built by the same architects. The craft quarter of Galich, Predgradye, was equal in area to the Podol of Kyiv in the 12th-13th centuries.

Other cities of the principality also flourished. At the beginning of the 13th century, chroniclers knew of 60 Galician cities, and they were rich and populous. People loved stone architecture here, which testified to the development of the region. The name of a certain architect and stone cutter Avdey has been preserved in history.

In 1199, taking advantage of the crossing of the Rostislavich dynasty, Galich was captured by the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich, uniting both principalities under his rule. Roman Mstislavovich also took possession of Kiev, thus becoming the master of all southwestern Rus'. Like Andrei Bogolyubsky, Roman called himself an autocrat. He was well known in Western Europe, where he was called the king. It is interesting that in Germany, in the Catholic monastery of the city of Erfurt, there is a record of a man who made rich donations, whose name was “Romanus Rex Ruthenorum”. In the West, the Galician-Volyn principality was called the “kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria” (as Volyn was called after the city of Vladimir-Volynsky). This name lived until 1918.

In 1205, Roman died during a campaign in Poland, after which strife began in the united Galician-Volyn principality, complicated by invasions of Poles and Hungarians. During the strife that lasted for more than three decades, Roman's son, Daniil Galitsky, one of the most prominent figures of Rus', emerged. He managed to regain his throne by defeating foreign invaders and subduing the boyars, resorting to terror. It is no coincidence that one of his associates advised the prince: “If you don’t kill the bees, don’t eat the honey!”

Under Daniel, the Galicia-Volyn principality again became one of the most developed lands in Rus'. Daniil founded new cities - Danilov, making it his residence, and made the city of Kholm, founded by him, another residence. Daniel also built Lviv, in which there was a courtyard of his son and heir Lev Danilovich, Kolomyia, Sambir, as well as a number of other cities.

The Galician-Volyn principality occupied a vast territory - from the southern part of modern Lithuania, all of western Belarus, Volyn, Galicia, as well as Bukovina, Transcarpathia, and vast lands between the ridge of the Eastern Carpathians and the Black Sea, including the lower reaches of the Danube (now the territory of Moldova, and the north -eastern Romania).

At the beginning of 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. Galich and “innumerable cities” were taken and burned. However, the Tatars had already been weakened by a three-year military campaign in Rus', as a result of which some cities of Galician Rus' managed to fight off the Tatars, such as Kremenets and Danilov. Having passed through the Galician-Volyn principality, the Tatars attacked Europe, devastating Poland, Hungary, Serbian and Bulgarian lands. In 1242-43 Batu went to the steppes of the Lower Volga region, demanding tribute from the Russian princes.

In the Principality of Galicia, the boyars tried to regain their autocracy. Daniil Romanovich had to re-conquer the principality. The neighbors again chose to take advantage of the strife, despite the fact that they themselves had just survived the Batya’s invasion. In 1245, a large Polish-Hungarian army besieged the Galician border city of Yaroslav. Daniel fought with them, and in his army there were also Lithuanians and Polovtsians. The battle of Yaroslav ended in a brilliant victory for Daniel. Thus, Rus' was also saved from invasion from the west.

However, the main problem for all of Rus' was the relationship with the Horde. If Daniel’s contemporary Alexander Nevsky chose to buy off the Horde and repel the onslaught from the west, then Daniel relied on an alliance with the West against the Horde. History has shown whose calculation was correct.

The Pope promised Daniel help, trying to organize a crusade against the Tatars, demanding submission in return Orthodox Church, agreeing, however, to preserve the Eastern rite in it. Daniel agreed to these conditions, and the pope declared him king and in 1253 in the city of Dorogiczyn, (in the territory of modern Poland, in the historical region of Podlasie), Daniel was crowned by the papal representative. As the chronicler wrote, “Danilo received a crown from God in the city of Dorogichin, when he went to war against the Yatvingians with his son Leo and Somovit, the prince of Lyadsky.”

However, Daniel did not receive any help from the West, and as a result, he chose to abandon the church union. Daniel retained the title of King of Rus' (rex Russiae). The last person to wear it was Daniil's grandson Yuri Lvovich, who died in 1308.

In principle, Daniel’s consent to the union of churches, which failed due to the papacy’s failure to fulfill the agreement, and his acceptance of the Western title of king at that historical moment were insignificant episodes. However, these ominous fruits sprouted much later.

3. Russian Voivodeship of the Kingdom of Poland

Daniil Galitsky died in 1264. For the last year of his life he was also the Prince of All Rus'. After his death, Galicia-Volyn Rus' lost its unity. True, Daniel’s son Lev managed to unite Chervonnaya Rus' and transfer the unified Galician-Volyn principality (along with the title of “King of Rus'”) to his son Yuri Lvovich. However, Daniel's successors were not strong personalities and were increasingly inferior to their boyars. In 1323, the last representatives of the family of Roman Mstislavovich died, after which Galicia finally fell under the rule of the boyar oligarchy. The boyars invited the Polish Mazovian prince Boleslav Troydenovich, whose mother, Maria Yurievna, was the sister of one of the last Galician princes, to reign. Having converted to Orthodoxy, Boleslav Troydenovich took the name Yuri (which is why he went down in history as Yuri-Boleslav). However, in 1340, due to the intrigues of various boyar groups, Yuri-Boleslav was poisoned, and this ended the era of independent and Galician princes. Several letters have reached us from Yuri. In one of them, Yuri is called “Dei gratia natus dux minoris Russiae” (“By God’s grace, the natural prince of Little Rus'”). So for the first time in history the term “Little Rus'” appears. Probably, in addition to memories of the role of the region as the metropolis of the Eastern Slavs, the fact that Yuri-Boleslav owned only a small part of Rus', in comparison with the Lithuanian and Moscow princes, also played a role.

After this, the Principality of Galicia, without a prince, under the rule of the oligarchy, remained to exist for one decade. Meanwhile, while the Galician land was disintegrating and plunging into anarchy, the unification of the Polish kingdom took place to the west.

The constant Russian-Polish wars noted in chronicles from the 10th century were, in general, not of an aggressive nature, but were only predatory raids on each other. The Russian princes also did not hesitate to invade Poland, often at the invitation of the Polish princes, who were happy to use the Rusyns against their competitors. Russian and Polish princes and boyars often became related to each other, and their alliances and conflicts did not differ from the same relationships between the Rurikovichs within Rus' or the Piasts within Poland.

In the middle of the 14th century, Poland, after two centuries of fragmentation, was united into one kingdom. The unifier of Poland, Casimir III, did not miss the opportunity to increase his possessions at the expense of his neighbor in the east. Referring to the will of Yuri-Boleslav (the existence of which even the then Polish chroniclers did not believe), according to which he gave all his possessions to Poland, Casimir already invaded Galicia in 1340. Part of the boyars supported the conqueror, fortunately he not only preserved, but also expanded their privileges. The townspeople and part of the boyars, however, resisted. At the head of the last defenders of Galician Rus' was a certain boyar Dmitry Dedko (Detko). Formally recognizing himself as a vassal of the Lithuanian prince Lubart Gedeminovich, who became the prince of Volyn, Dedko waged a stubborn armed and diplomatic struggle. Only in 1349, after a long war, Galicia was conquered. Volhynia remained with Lubart.

True, Lubart tried, with the support of the Galicians, to expel the Poles from Galicia, as a result, until 1387, brutal wars raged in this region. The region was also repeatedly subjected to Tatar raids.

However, 1349 became a fatal date in the history of Galicia. Until 1939, the Poles dominated here, including at a time when there was no Polish state of its own. The six-century break with the bulk of the Eastern Slavs, including its Little Russian branch, left a deep imprint on the life, culture and mentality of the Galicians.

It should be noted that Polish rule was not initially felt as foreign domination. For almost a century, the Galician land was considered as the personal possession (domain) of the Polish king, who retained here all the previous laws, the dominant religion and language. Thus, for the Galicians, the Polish king was, strictly speaking, a Galician prince. King Casimir III not only did not oppress the Orthodox, but even sought to create an independent Orthodox metropolis in Galicia.

Only in 1434 were general Polish laws extended to Galicia, which thus lost its special status. The former Principality of Galicia now became the Russian Voivodeship (Województwo ruskie) of the Kingdom of Poland, which included Lvov, Przemysl, Sanok (from the city of Sanok), Belz, Kholm and Galich proper. Part of the Galician lands were also part of the Podolsk Voivodeship. The former name of Chervonnaya Rus (Russia Rubra in Latin) was also retained.

The Galician boyars fully approved of the merger of Galicia with Poland. The fact is that in Poland proper a system had already begun to take shape in which large feudal lords (magnates) and small ones (gentry) were completely freed from duties and various services, and had full power in the kingdom. And now the arrogant Galician boyars have achieved unlimited power in their domains.

Moreover, supporters of the further expansion of gentry freedoms in Poland could now always count on the Galicians in their demands. And already in 1454 the king was forced to agree that without the will of the Sejm he could not convene a militia. In 1505, the liberties of the gentry were enshrined in a special constitution, which simultaneously approved serfdom (much earlier than in Muscovite Rus'). And this made the Galician boyars (now turned into lords) the most faithful defenders of Polish power, and then gradually turned them into the Polish aristocracy.

Galicia, after the unrest and upheaval of the 13th-14th centuries, rose again. The economic rise of Eastern Europe in the 15th century had a favorable effect on Galicia. But much more serious were the ethnic changes that turned Galicia until the middle of the 20th century into a region with a very mixed ethnic composition.

Daniel also invited colonists from Europe to his possessions. The result was controversial. On the one hand, Galician Rus' recovered more quickly from the consequences of Batu’s invasion than, for example, Great Rus'. But on the other hand, the cities of Galicia increasingly acquired a foreign character.

After the establishment of Polish rule, foreign colonization intensified. After the wars of the 14th century, Galicia had a large amount of deserted, yet fertile lands, which was very tempting for settlers. Cities rising from the ashes also needed skilled artisans and merchants. At the same time, the Polish kings tried to create a layer of population loyal to themselves in Galicia, fearing the overly powerful local boyars. To this end, the kings generously allocated lands to knights of various ethnic origins who settled in the region. Among the rural settlers, Poles predominated, but there were also Germans, Slovaks, and Hungarians. The result was significant polonization of the westernmost regions of Galicia. Thus, in the area of ​​​​ancient Belz, by the middle of the 16th century, only 15% of noble families of Russian origin remained.

Some of the settlements founded by Polish colonists became large settlements, among them Stanislav (now Ivano-Frankivsk), Ternopil, Kristinopol (now Chervonograd), Zhovkva, and others.

Peasant Polish colonization was still not very large-scale. The majority of peasant Poles, being also oppressed by feudal lords, like the Rusyns, living surrounded by Rusyns, having the same way of life, quickly became Russified. It is interesting that in 1874, in his report at the archaeological congress in Kiev, the Galician politician, one of the leaders of the Rusyn revival, Yakov Golovatsky, noted that many villages with names like Lyashki, Lyakhovichi, Lyadskoye, etc., were mainly inhabited by Orthodox Rusyns and Uniate religion, and in none of the listed villages there is a single church. However, this applied to deep Galicia, where the few Polish colonists simply “drowned” in the Russian sea. But in the westernmost regions of Galicia, the Reshov and Przemysl principalities, next to the indigenous Polish lands, the rural colonists themselves gradually Polished the local Rusyns.

In the XIV-XVI centuries, the so-called “Wallachian colonization”, when Romance-speaking Vlachs widely settled along the slopes of the Carpathians. But if the Polish colonization was mainly of a gentry nature, replenishing mainly only the ranks of the ruling class, then the Wallachians, who were distinguished by their numbers, the same Orthodox religion with the Rusyns and a very similar way of life, not only populated the wastelands, but also assimilated a considerable number of Rusyns. Vast lands in the lower reaches of the Danube and the southern spurs of the Carpathians became East Roman Moldavia. This principality also included Bukovina, which was still dominated by Rusyns. On the other hand, the Wallachians, having settled among the predominant Slavic population, became Russified very quickly. In Galicia there are still many settlements founded by the Vlachs, which are ordinary Ruthenian villages.

Urban colonization had a much more serious sociocultural significance. Simultaneously with rural colonization of the XIV-XVI centuries. Numerous trade and craft people flocked to Galician cities, quickly changing everything ethnically urban population. Galicia became the easternmost limit of German colonization of the east. Even the Polish kings at the end of the 12th century invited German colonists, both to the countryside and to the cities. The conqueror of Galicia, Casimir III, was especially active in attracting the Germans. It is clear that colonists began to arrive on the eastern outskirts of the kingdom. But if the village did not attract the Germans, unlike the Vlachs, then the cities began to grow rapidly, mainly due to the influx of colonists.

Already in the first quarter of the 15th century, in the main city of the Russian Voivodeship - Lviv, Germans made up 70% of the townspeople; in other cities they also made up the majority of the population. The Germans predominated in the craft shops of Lvov, and the city patriciate also consisted of them.

Another category of urban colonists were Armenians who arrived mainly from Crimea. Their appearance in Lviv dates back to the first years of the city’s foundation. In the 1350s Lviv Armenians built the church that still exists today. In 1361, the Armenians got their own bishop, which indicated a significant number of parishioners of the Armenian Gregorian Church. Somewhat later, the Armenians had their own spiritual court. Armenians inhabited a special quarter in Lvov (however, Armenian artisans and merchants often lived together with non-believers). There were skilled jewelers among the Armenians, but merchants trading with eastern countries predominated among them.

Since 1346, there was a special Muslim (“Saracenic”) quarter in Lviv. The Muslims of Galicia were mainly Tatars.

Finally, a Jewish community emerged and soon became very visible. In Lviv, the first mentions of Jews date back to 1356. Already at the end of the 14th century, a certain Lviv Jew Volchko was a creditor of several kings. By 1500, Jews lived in 18 cities of the Russian Voivodeship. Even Casimir III granted Jews numerous benefits and privileges, which greatly contributed to the rapid growth of the Jewish population in Galicia. Over time, there were so many Jews here that Galicia began to be called Galilee. The number of Jews grew from century to century, and by the second half of the 19th century, Jews already made up more than 10% of all residents of Galicia.

In addition to the Talmudic Jews speaking Yiddish, Karaites, Jews of non-Jewish origin, and descendants of the ancient Khazars also came to Galicia from Crimea. The first Karaites arrived in Galicia back in 1246 at the invitation of Daniil Romanovich.

There were also people from many other European countries in the cities of Galicia. So, after the fire of 1527, Italian artisans arrived to restore Lviv, many of whom remained to live in the city they rebuilt. The Scots who lived in Lviv are also known.

The Rusyns, on the other hand, were a minority in Lvov. Basically they lived on a street that was called (and is still called) Russian.

As is always the case in colonized regions, there was great ethnic mixing and assimilation in Galicia. In those days, a person's identity was determined by his religion, but even in the era of religious wars and the Inquisition, interfaith marriages were not uncommon. It is interesting that several prominent figures in Poland were children of such marriages. Among them was Stanislav Orekhovsky (1513-1566), a prominent preacher and historian, a native of the town of Orekhovitsy in the vicinity of Przemysl. Another prominent Galician was Nikolai Rey (1505-1569), nicknamed the “father of Polish literature” because he was one of the first writers in the Kingdom of Poland to write not in Latin, but in Polish. He himself was a Rusyn from the outskirts of Galich.

However, these outstanding people, despite their Ruthenian origin, still considered themselves Poles. They, like many other Galicians, were, so to speak, indicators of assimilation processes in the region. Since the Catholic Church was dominant in Poland, in most interfaith marriages, if one of the spouses was Catholic, the children were considered Catholic. This is how Catholicization took place, and after this the Polishization of part of the Galician Rusyns.

Here we have to touch on one delicate problem. The influx of colonists itself could not have such an impact on the ethnic history of Galicia as the processes of assimilation, that is, the Polishization of local residents of very different ethnic origins. Beginning with the fall of the Galician-Volyn principality, the Polonization of part of the Galicians took place for almost six centuries. By the time of the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the entire Galician aristocracy and a significant part of the urban population had become Polish. The village remained faithful to its original traditions and the ritual side of religion.

If in the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania Catholics (which, as noted, meant their Polish self-identity) constituted at least a dominant, but still overwhelming minority of the population, then in Galicia the situation was much more tragic. There were no Cossacks here, no proximity to the Moscow border, or even the steppe where the dissatisfied could take refuge, and therefore any resistance to religious and ethnic assimilation was many times more difficult. And at the same time, polonization began here three centuries earlier than in the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. And one cannot help but admire the fact that Galicia is in such unfavorable conditions was able to maintain its East Slavic character. Another thing is that centuries of Polish-Catholic domination left an indelible mark on all aspects of the life of Galicians, which is reflected in the 21st century.

Polonization of Galicia began immediately after the conquest of the region by Casimir III. It is significant that although colonists from the Catholic West arrived in the Principality of Galicia a century earlier, under Daniel, in Lvov, when it was occupied by the Poles in 1349, there was not yet a single Catholic church in which Casimir III could organize a thanksgiving prayer service for occasion of his victory. But immediately after the conquest of Galicia, Catholic missionaries moved here. Already in 1367, under Casimir III, a Catholic archbishopric was created in Galich (later transferred to Lvov), and the need for an archbishopric was explained not by satisfying the spiritual needs of the small Catholics at that time, but by the desire to spread Catholicism. Catholic leaders could boast of certain successes. Many boyars were “seduced” into Latinism, which, however, was fully explained earthly reasons in the form of a desire to gain the privileges of the Polish lordship. And already in the 15th century, the Catholicization of almost the entire local Russian aristocracy took place. The proud boyar families of the Kerdeevichs, Khodorovskys, Tsebrovskys with a centuries-old pedigree, joined the ranks of the Polish nobility.

Cities with a foreign population became Catholicized and Polished much later than the aristocrats. Only towards the end of the 17th century did the cities become Polish-speaking. The German and Armenian population finally joined the ranks of the local Poles. Rich townspeople often acquired estates in the countryside and became gentry. Thus, the wealthy Stekher family from Lvov, having acquired the village of Malye Vinniki, became the Vinnitsa gentry.

Jews continued to profess Judaism and use the Yiddish language in everyday life.

Rusyns who lived in cities occupied the lowest social position, Modern Ukrainian historians usually go into ecstasy when they write about the fact that the cities of Galicia had complete self-government on the basis of Magdeburg Law. However, they tend to keep silent that, unlike the cities of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (where there were few Catholics, and city freedoms extended to all free citizens), in Galicia only Catholics enjoyed city freedoms. In other words, a Rusyn (like an Armenian and a Jew) could become a full-fledged citizen only by changing his faith. Thus, the charter of the workshop of Lviv jewelers stated that: “Lviv jewelers should neither tolerate among themselves nor accept a single master - a heretic or schismatic, only Catholics, unless some heretic from the Rusyns or Armenians unites with the Roman Church.” . It is interesting that some Polish kings took measures to stop discrimination against the Orthodox, caring for political stability, but all the good wishes of the kings were sabotaged by the Catholic elite of the guilds. It is clear that gradually more and more Rusyns accepted Catholicism, joining the ranks of the privileged urban stratum.

During the Khmelnytskyi period, Lviv was besieged by Bohdan Khmelnytsky twice (in 1648 and 1655). However, the Lvov burghers did not at all sympathize with the rebellious “Selyuks”. True, the burghers did not want to fight, so Khmelnitsky, taking a large indemnity from Lvov, left. As we can see, even then there was a huge difference between the foreign city and the rural population of the region. This situation will last until the middle of the 20th century.

The decline of the economy and, accordingly, of urban life in Poland at the end of the 17th and almost the entire 18th centuries led, paradoxically, to the final polonization of the cities of Galicia, since the influx of new residents from the countryside, which would have occurred in the case of economic development, would increase the share of Rusyns, which would open up the possibility of re-Russification of cities. But the stagnation of urban life led to the ossification of both the social and ethnic structure of the population of Galician cities. For three centuries, until the end of the 19th century, the cities of Galicia were Jewish towns interspersed with a Polish-speaking Catholic population.

The resistance of the Rusyn peasants, who experienced severe social oppression, along with national and religious ones, had the character of armed robbery. Already in the 1550s. the “oprishki” operating in the Carpathian Mountains are mentioned - noble robbers who protect the people. The center of Opryshkovism was Pokuttya - a mountainous area between the Prut and Cheremosh rivers, at the junction of the borders of what was then Poland, Moldova and Wallachia, now the Kolomyia region of the Ivano-Frankivsk region. The oprishki operated until the end of the 18th century, that is, three centuries! (However, separate groups of oprishki existed in the first quarter of the 19th century). Such a phenomenon could not have lasted so long if it had had the support of the local population. The most famous of the oprishks, the memory of whom is still preserved in Rusyn folklore, Oleksa Dovbush, was killed in 1745.

It is impossible not to admit that if in Galicia a serf could not take refuge in a foreign city, it was quite difficult for him to get into the Zaporozhye Sich, and under these conditions oprishkovism really became the most striking form of struggle for the protection of the Rusyn population from the consequences of colonization and serfdom.

The most stubborn and courageous Galicians still made their way to the Dnieper to the Cossacks. The famous Cossack chieftain Peter Sagaidachny, who bravely fought the Turks and defended Orthodoxy against the union, was of Galician origin. The father of Bogdan Khmelnitsky came from the Galicians of Przemysl. During liberation war 1648-54 In Pokuttya, a vast liberated area was formed, where the local rebels were led by Semyon Vysochan.

The consequences of two processes - colonization and assimilation were fatal for Galicia: local Rusyns lost almost completely their elite, since the boyars became Polish, and the urban strata consisted of foreigners. The Rusyns, mostly peasants, mostly serfs, and only a small part of the lower strata of the urban population, could rely only on the church.

The Catholic hierarchs tried in every possible way to undermine the influence of the Orthodox Church. The royal authorities introduced many laws that were offensive to Orthodox Christians. For example, all Orthodox Christians were required to celebrate Catholic holidays. During trials with Catholics, the testimony of Orthodox Christians was not accepted and was considered invalid. The Orthodox clergy had to pay a poll tax, in contrast to the completely tax-exempt Catholic clergy. By the way, all tax-paying classes of Galicia had to pay a tax on land, and only for Russian priests a poll tax was introduced. The royal authorities, on the advice of the hierarchs of the Catholic Church, sought to undermine Orthodoxy by preventing the election of the Metropolitan of Galicia and thereby the ordination of clergy for a century and a half. However, the Orthodox received initiation from the Metropolitan of Moldavia. It’s curious, but Moldova, which was dependent on the Turkish Sultan, turned out to be a fighter for the rights of Rusyns in Poland.

But since there were almost no more or less wealthy nobles and townspeople left among the parishioners, the Orthodox Church became precisely the people's church, having support among the masses of downtrodden peasants.

Of course, the Orthodox were significantly outnumbered. In the middle of the 16th century in villages the proportion between Orthodox churches and Catholic churches was 15: 1. Another thing is that Orthodox parishes were poor; sometimes one priest served several parishes. After the Union of Brest, the imposition of Uniatism began in Galicia. The main role in the fight against the union began to be played by urban church brotherhoods of the laity, not subordinate to local church hierarchs.

In Lviv, such a brotherhood arose in 1572, and 14 years later received from the Antiochian Patriarch Joachim the right of patriarchal stauropegy, that is, independence from local church rulers. This was of great importance, since the local Orthodox bishop Gideon Balaban was inclined towards church union. However, later Balaban opposed Uniatism, reconciling with the Brotherhood.

The initiator of the creation of the brotherhood in Lviv was Yuriy Rohatynets, a renowned master craftsman who introduced “a new type and style of saddlery,” and at the same time, according to his associates, an informal “patriarch and doctor” for Lviv residents, a public figure, and a talented publicist.

The Lviv brotherhood opened its own school in 1585, where secular sciences were also taught. Following the example of Lvov, brotherhoods and schools were soon opened in other cities - Przemysl, Galich, Krasny Stav (Krasnystav), and others.

The Lviv brothers had considerable experience in fighting for their rights with the Catholic majority of Lvov. It is not surprising that many Galicians led the fight against the union throughout the entire territory of Little Rus', which was under Polish domination. Thus, Elisha Pletenetsky from near Lvov headed the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, which was not subordinate to the Uniate metropolitan. When the Uniate hierarchs tried to remove Pletenetsky, the entire Orthodox Kyiv came out in his defense, and the Uniate appointed in his place was drowned in the Dnieper.

Pletenetsky's successor was another Galician from the village of Kopystna in the vicinity of Przemysl - Zakhary Kopystensky, a brilliant writer and polemicist. Galician Pamva Berynda, poet and translator, became one of the first publishers of Orthodox books. A teacher at the Lvov fraternal school, who came from the Belz townsfolk, Lavrentiy Zizaniy published the alphabet and Church Slavonic grammar in 1596. Among the most famous Orthodox publicists fighting the union was the Athonite monk Ivan Vishensky, who came from Sudovaya Vishnya near Lvov.

In 1620, the Patriarch of Jerusalem established a new Orthodox hierarchy, and the Galician Job Boretsky again became the head of the entire church, which did not recognize the union. He was the rector of the Lvov fraternal school; in 1615 he moved to Kyiv, now heading the school at the fraternity founded there. In 1620, Job became the new Metropolitan of Kyiv, Galicia and All Rus'. Twice Job sent embassies to Moscow with requests for help, which was so needed in the difficult task of fighting the Uniates and royalty for the right of the existence of Orthodoxy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This is what was written in the petition of Metropolitan Job to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich: “Thus, your blessed royal majesty, the king from kings, the branch and tribe of the great autocrats of all Russia, by God’s will and his omnipotent wave, did not make the land an alien, but freed his own from the establishment the earth, by the right hand of the Highest, you took the royal diadem and the Russian great power was crowned with a crown, and was clothed with a crown. For in the first warriors from your power who departed from your power by the power of the cross, create that without trouble, so that the pious clan and the Orthodox Church, who are found in bitterness in the work of the wicked and godless Hagarians, may be comforted by your royal bounties, and take care of us, the same uterine tribe of Russia. to the people of thy power and to your very royal majesty by one race of flesh and one race of spirit, the holy catholic apostolic church of the same people and cities...”

As we see, the Galician (and, more broadly, the Little Russian Orthodox clergy) actually recognized the unity of the Russian people.

But the rapid rise of the Orthodox (which for those times also meant ethnic) awakening was short-lived. The crisis of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the second half of the 17th century led to the decline of urban life. As a result, the activities of the brotherhoods gradually faded away. And Uniatism finally triumphed. In 1700, Lviv Bishop Joseph Shumlyansky announced his accession to the union (Greek Catholic Church).

However, the Lvov Assumption Staropigial Brotherhood and the monasteries of Galicia offered decisive resistance to the bishop. The Lviv brotherhood continued to fight the union until 1708. The brotherhood was finished off by the destruction of Lviv by the troops of the Swedish king Charles XII during the Northern War.

Even longer than the brothers, the Orthodox monasticism of Galicia opposed the introduction of the union. The Manyava monastery in the Carpathian Mountains managed to hold out without recognizing the union until 1786. The monastery was never seduced into the union - it was abolished by Emperor Joseph II by order after Galicia became part of the Habsburg Empire. The same monastery cared for the last two remaining Orthodox churches in Galicia in Lvov and Brody. Both churches were in rented private apartments, as prescribed by a generally binding law that had existed since the mid-15th century, which prohibited Orthodox Christians from building new or renovating old Orthodox churches.

The most diehard supporters of Orthodoxy moved to Left Bank Ukraine or to the Muscovite kingdom, where many refugees from Galicia made good careers. Among them was Stefan Yavorsky, a native of the town of Yavor, under Peter I, locum tenens of the patriarchal throne and president Holy Synod, that is, actually the head of the entire Russian Church.

So, in the 18th century, the union nevertheless triumphed among the Rusyns of Galicia. The East and West of Little Rus' were no longer connected by spiritual ties - the main cultural bonds of the era. Galicia was losing more and more of its Russian character. In 1720, the city of Zamosc held a cathedral of the Uniate Church, at which the Uniate Church underwent noticeable Latinization. Amendments were made to the order of the liturgy in accordance with the Roman Catholic canon, Catholic additions to the Creed (Filioque) were recognized, and a number of purely Catholic holidays were introduced. In Uniate churches there might now be no iconostases, but benches were installed, priests began to shave their beards and even began to resemble priests in appearance. True, in the right bank of Ukraine these innovations did not have time to take hold due to the resistance of the Cossacks, and soon followed the return of the Little Russian lands along the right bank of the Dnieper to Russia and the liquidation of the union. But Galicia, which went to Austria during the division of Poland, remained Uniate, along with all the Latin innovations.

Thanks to the comrade's tip shepelev *I read an interesting summary material by Oleg Yalovenko, with the most interesting parts which I would like to introduce to those interested.
Recently, a lot of objective research has appeared regarding the “heroes of Ukraine” or, rather, the heroes of the Ukraine that those who collaborated with the fascists dreamed of. To put it in Volapuk, “politically correct researchers” are fighters against Stalinist authoritarianism. Following this logic, an SS man ceased to be such upon entering the territory of the Soviet Union. One of these heroes is now on trial in Munich.

Award from the Kaiser. The last Austrian Emperor Charles inspects the legion Sich Riflemen
http://www.segodnya.ua/news/13044851.html ">Source

Let's turn to what people prefer to remain silent about...
We will talk about distant events, about the First World War and the years preceding it, when in Western Ukraine, which then belonged to Austria-Hungary, there lived a people who called themselves Ruthenians (now only residents of Transcarpathian Rus' call themselves this way - once the Hungarian Banate of Ugoch, then part Czechoslovak Republic, and now the Transcarpathian region of Ukraine).

Most of the Rusyns lived in Austrian Galicia (the exception was Transcarpathia, which was part of Transleithania, i.e., the Hungarian part of the Habsburg monarchy). Austrian Galicia was divided into Eastern (administrative center - Lemberg (modern Lvov), 51 counties) and Western (administrative center - Krakow, 30 counties). According to the 1910 census, 5,913,115 people lived here, of which 5,334,193 people lived in Eastern Galicia. According to the Austrian census, based on the use of “everyday language,” Rusyns prevailed in the counties of Eastern Galicia (62.5% ), and in Western - Poles (from 53 to 99.9%). These data, of course, were to a certain extent arbitrary, since they did not provide data on the Jews living here.
According to more accurate Russian data, in Eastern Galicia and Bukovina the Rusyn population was 41-62%, the Polish population in some places reached 45%, the Jewish population - 11%, in Eastern Galicia 62% belonged to the Uniate church, in Bukovina - 68% to the Orthodox. 37% of the entire territory of Galicia belonged to large owners (owners of latifundia over 1 thousand hectares of land) - there were only 475 of them and they were mostly Poles. At the same time, 94% of Rusyns were engaged in agriculture and the vast majority of these peasants owned plots of land from 1 to 5 hectares.

On February 21, 1846, a Polish uprising began in Krakow (which, under the terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, was a free, i.e., self-governing neutral city under the protectorate of Austria, Russia and Prussia), the leaders of which declared the final goal of their movement to be the restoration of Poland within the borders of 1772 ., and the closest thing was the spread of the uprising to the Austrian province of Eastern Galicia with its center in Lemberg, which they wanted to make the main base.

Agrarian unrest with a clearly defined ethno-confessional orientation began in Eastern Galicia. The "Khlops" destroyed the "lords" who fled from their peasants not only to Krakow, but also to Russian territory, under the protection of the imperial Russian government. Under the influence of these events, in a number of border Russian provinces, dissatisfaction of the serfs with their landowners also arose, especially since here too they were represented mainly by Poles. True, in Russia it did not come to the massacre of the gentry, because the government nipped this movement in the bud.

The Austrian garrison left Krakow and Nicholas I a decision was made to send Russian troops there under the command of Lieutenant General F.S. Panyutina. Already on February 19 (March 3), 1846 they were near the city. Wanting to avoid unnecessary bloodshed, the command issued the following appeal: “Residents of the city of Krakow! A strong Russian army is coming to restore the disturbed peace in your city. Hurry to receive it within your walls so that it can protect the innocent. Anyone who lays down their arms will be spared. Death awaits those who will be taken with weapons, and moreover, the city, if they begin to defend it, will be given over to fire and sword."

This corresponded to the instructions of Nicholas I, given by him on February 20 (March 1) to Paskevich: “Take Krakow coute que coute (at any cost); if they surrender, so much the better; no, take by force and definitely take it"On March 3, troops entered the city, the rebels fled without offering resistance. Soon Austrian and then Prussian troops entered the city. Krakow was introduced military administration led by the Austrians. At the suggestion of Nicholas I, the city and the surrounding region were transferred to Austria. Because Berlin looked to the future territorial expansion the Habsburg Empire without much enthusiasm, the emperor even took it upon himself to convince Prussia not to interfere with such a decision.
The final annexation of this most important strategic point (covering the so-called “Bohemian Corridor”, i.e. the gap between the Carpathians and the Tatras) to Austria occurred on April 3 (15), 1846, when the corresponding Russian-Austrian convention was signed, and a small The Russian detachment - 2 battalions, 2 hundreds of irregular cavalry and 2 horse guns - left Krakow.

It is known how Austria repaid the support provided by Russia in 1846 and 1848-1849 during the Crimean War. Contemporaries called it “black ingratitude”; the very word Austria became for Russian society synonymous with betrayal and duplicity.

It was decided to turn the Little Russian card into a Ukrainian one and use it as a trump card in the fight against Russia and the Russian people. The battlefield became the education system, the main weapon being the Polish professorship at Lvov University, the Uniate Church and... Russian revolutionaries, who did not shy away from any tactics in their struggle against the “hated autocracy.”

April 1, 1863 A.I. Herzen formulated his position regarding the rebellion in the Kingdom of Poland as follows: “We are with Poland, because we are for Russia. We are with the Poles, because we are Russians. We want independence for Poland, because we want freedom for Russia. We are with the Poles, because that one chain binds us both." Public opinion in England and France, and after it the governments of these states, took an openly anti-Russian position, Austrian Galicia turned into a base for Polish troops.

Developed particular activity Holy See. The Catholic Church in Poland actively participated in the uprising; Pope Pius IX publicly extremely harshly condemned the retaliatory actions of the Russian authorities, reproaching them for the persecution of Catholicism. IN highest degree It is indicative of the fact that it was in 1863 that the Vatican began the process of canonization of Josaphat Kuntsevich, Bishop of Polotsk and Vitebsk, who became famous for his savage persecution of the Orthodox Church in the 17th century and was killed in 1623 by the residents of Vitebsk driven to despair by him. Attempts by the Poles and the Catholic Church to lead the Belarusian peasantry with terror and canonization of monsters failed.

The attempt to call the Little Russians to war against Russia also ended in failure. It is very characteristic that this call came from Galicia. In 1863, in the fourth issue of the Lvov magazine "Meta", a poem by P.P. was first published. Chubinsky “Ukraine Has Not Yet Died”, which became an anthem in the 20th century Ukrainian nationalists, and in a slightly revised form - the anthem of the Ukrainian Republic. The time and place of publication is very symbolic, as well as the obvious imitation of the Polish anthem “Poland has not yet perished.” The author called for support for the uprising of the “brothers” Poles who took up arms:

"Our brother Slavs have already taken up the challenge;
Don't wait for anyone to hit us in the backside.
Let's get together all the brothers - Slavs:
Let your enemies perish, let the will come!

The attempt of the Poles and Russian supporters of the revolution to raise an uprising in the Volga region, using a provocation - a forged Supreme Manifesto, was also unsuccessful.

The rebels' provocations and lies went hand in hand with revolutionary terror. By the autumn of 1863, the number of his victims in the cities of the Kingdom of Poland, Western and Southwestern regions reached 600 people, the number of tortured peasants who did not sympathize with the Polish national movement, was much more. It is not surprising that already in April 1863, in response to the killings of Russian soldiers, the peasants of the Vitebsk province destroyed several rebel detachments and about 20 estates.

Governor General Vilensky M.N. Muravyov decisively and uncompromisingly responded to revolutionary terror with repression. By July 1864, 177 Catholic priests were expelled from the region, and all expenses for the maintenance of arrested and exiled priests were borne by the Catholic Church. 7 priests were shot. From March 1863 to December 1864 In the General Government, 128 people were executed, of which the majority were 47 people. - for participating in the rebellion and committing murders, 24 people each - for betraying the oath and for leading rebel detachments, 11 - for serving the revolutionary committee as “gendarmes-hangers”, i.e. murderers, 7 - for reading or distributing revolutionary manifestos and inciting an uprising, 6 people each - for active participation in "gangs of rebels" and organizing conspiratorial activities, 3 - for participating in a rebellion and committing robberies. Muravyov personally approved 68 death sentences.

In addition, according to the verdicts of military courts with deprivation of rights, 972 people were sent to hard labor and settled in remote places Siberia - 573, for settlement in less remote places of Siberia - 854, assigned to military service as privates, 345, exiled to prison companies 864, sent to settle on state lands within the Empire 4,096 people. (or about 800 families), 1,254 people were exiled to live in the internal provinces by a court decision, 629 families of the so-called outlying gentry were evicted from the region. Administratively, by order of Muravyov, 279 people were expelled outside the General Government. In general, those expelled from the Northwestern Territory made up the majority (57%) of all repressed participants in the uprising of 1863 (those expelled from the Kingdom of Poland amounted to 38%, from the Southwestern Territory - 5%). In the Little Russian provinces there was no such need - here even the weakest attempts to provoke an uprising were broken by the strong loyalty of the peasantry to their country and no less strong hatred of the Poles.

The attitude towards the uprising and its allies in Russia changed. Among that part of society that condemned the Poles, a rise in patriotic sentiment was noticeable. Supporters of the revolution and radicals found themselves isolated. Speaking in defense of the rebel Poles A.I. Herzen, who since 1856 was one of the undisputed rulers of the minds of the Russian liberal public, was rejected by it. His magazine "The Bell", published in London, was selling in Russia in the amount of 2.5 to 3 thousand copies back in 1862. Since 1863, the circulation of the Bell dropped to 500 copies, and although it continued to be published for another 5 years, its circulation never exceeded this figure.

The camp of the Galician intelligentsia, cherished by the Viennese nanny, went, throwing away their Slavic kinship in a backhand and at random, with the enemies of the Slavs and their native people; he was imbued with hatred of the fraternal peoples, borrowed from the Germans the methods of mercilessly trampling the rights of the Slavic tribes, and even with weapons in his hands covered his native land with the corpses of his brothers. This camp became the favorite of Austria and remained its hireling until its collapse; even the Germans and Magyars stepped aside, only the Galician Ukrainians stood blindly under Austria."

People like Vavrik, who made up the “first camp of the Galician intelligentsia,” were such an undesirable element for the Habsburgs and the “second camp.” This was the emerging Ruthenian intelligentsia. Her influence was already considerable. In Eastern Galicia, 17 newspapers and 50 magazines were published Rusyn language(51 newspapers and 136 magazines in Polish, 8 newspapers and 7 magazines in German, 4 newspapers and 4 magazines in Hebrew languages) . If Rusyn publications (46 out of 67 were published in Lviv), such as “Galichanin”, “Carpathian Rus” were published using subscription funds, then Ukrainian ones (“Dilo”, “Ruslan”) used subsidies from the Austrian Foreign Ministry.

Already before the First World War, Vienna’s course was outlined towards the destruction of the Ruthenian intelligentsia. At the trials carried out against her by the Austrian and Hungarian authorities with the help of provocateurs in December 1913 in Marmaros-Sziget and in March 1914 in Lvov, the main evidence of the malicious intent of the accused and their connection with Russian intelligence were liturgical books printed in Russia and St. Scripture, and even confiscated during a search (!!!) " ". Of course, all non-Russophiles felt at ease in a free and European Austria, which some modern Ukrainian politicians so love to praise.
Before the war, Eastern and Western Galicia became centers of the Polish “Sokol” movement, within the framework of which local youth underwent intensive military and partially sabotage training. The centers of Sokol organizations were the Krakow, Tarnovsky, Ryashevsky, Peremyshl, Lvov, Stanislavovsky and Tarnopol districts; the number of organizations reached 40,000 people. In addition to the “falcons,” which by 1914 had been operating in Galicia for 48 years, there were also rifle unions, rifle squads, a military union, and a military union named after Kosciuszko - all of these were Polish organizations. In addition to the Polish ones, there were two similar types of Ukrainian nationalist organizations in Galicia, the so-called. "Mazepa" - "Russian Falcon" and "Sich". In total, by the summer of 1914, these organizations united 2,383 branches and about 135,000 members. It was a well-organized force, whose negative attitude towards Russia could not be doubted. Its existence was allowed by the Austrian authorities precisely for the purpose of countering Russian influence in peacetime and the Russian army in wartime. Since the beginning of the war the most mass repression were directed by Vienna against the Serbian population in Bosnia and the Rusyn population in Galicia. The goal was primarily their spiritual and intellectual elite. The Austrian administration actually used a regime of military occupation against its own subjects, and a very brutal one at that. She acted systematically, widely using the practice of taking hostages, administrative expulsions, arrests, and denunciations. A reward of 50 to 500 crowns was paid for denunciation of a “Muscophile” in Galicia. At the slightest desire, there was a great opportunity to earn money.

At the beginning of the war, Polish and Ukrainian nationalist organizations held mass demonstrations in support of the government in Lvov and a number of cities in Galicia. It was from these circles that informers against the “Muscophiles” and their executioners were recruited. The “Mazeppians” were especially active, having the opportunity to physically destroy their opponents and burn out the consciousness of kinship with the Russian people from the Ruthenians. “The thirst for Slavic blood,” recalled one of the prisoners of Telerhof and Terezin, “confused the thoughts of the military and secular subjects of the Habsburg monarchy. Our brothers, who converted to Rus', became not only its servants, but also the most vile informers and executioners of their native people.”

In order to get a true picture of what happened in Galicia in August 1914, it is worth reading an excerpt from a classic novel about Austria-Hungary, written by its great admirer. Joseph Roth, however, was not a cannibal, as can be judged from the following lines of his: “Numerous and very contradictory orders were received from the army headquarters .... in the churchyards of villages and villages, shots were heard from hasty executors of rash sentences, and a gloomy drumbeat accompanied the monotonous , the court decisions read out by the auditors; the wives of the executed, screaming for mercy, lay in front of the officers' boots stained in mud, and flaming, red and silver fire burst out from huts and barns, sheds and stacks. The war of the Austrian army began with field courts. They were hanging for whole days real and imaginary traitors in the trees of church yards, terrifying all the living. And the living ran away in all directions."

Of course, under such circumstances, very favorable opportunities arose for the Ukrainians to deal with the Rusyns and seize their property. It wasn't just about the press. Nationally oriented elements loyal to the Habsburgs had something to profit from. So, for example, the Prosvita association in 1909 had about 28 thousand members, 2,164 reading rooms, 194 choirs, 170 amateur troupes, etc. in Galicia. But most of all local authorities irritated the Orthodox Church. In pursuing her, they did not restrain themselves with practically anything (it must be taken into account that up to 77% of local officials were Poles).

However, in the matter of persecuting Orthodoxy, the Austrians did not limit themselves to their own territory. During the invasion of Russian territory, Podolia, the Austrians carried out mass arrests of Orthodox priests, took them away as hostages, destroyed monasteries and churches (according to Archbishop Nicholas of Warsaw, 20 churches in his diocese were damaged in this way, the pogroms were accompanied by mockery of objects of church service) . But the most massive repressions were directed by Vienna against the “compatriots”. Executions were often massive and public, often carried out on the spot, without any semblance of a trial.

However, when it came to arrest and trial, the situation hardly changed. "Be arrested and taken to court-martial, who sat in every town, wrote a Russian journalist from Lvov after its capture, was considered happiness, because in most cases the executioners executed on the spot. They executed doctors, lawyers, writers, artists, without considering either position or age." Women and children were executed; the Austrians acted especially harshly after the defeat, when their defeated units fled from the Russian army. Very characteristic story I had to hear the commander of the XXI Army Corps, General. Ya.F. Shkinsky in the village. Dzibulki near Lvov. A local priest and his daughter were arrested and sentenced to death penalty on charges of treason. The father’s fault was that he belonged to the Orthodox Church and had significant authority among the parishioners; the daughter’s fault was that she taught Russian songs to the children. Only the arrival of Russian troops saved them from hanging.

According to the recollections of those who survived these events, it was a “genuine, living pogrom” of all those who called themselves Russians in Galicia. A significant part of those arrested were sent to the Terezin and Telerhof concentration camps, where they were systematically subjected to torture, abuse and extermination. At the end of August 1914, 2,300 people were collected in Telergof alone; at the end of November, the number of prisoners reached about 7 thousand people, including children under 10 years old. People were brought in freight cars of 80-100 people each, after a long journey in which they were given almost no food or water. Hundreds of people died from beatings, diseases, and poor nutrition.

The most active role in these vile persecutions was played by activists of Polish and Ukrainian nationalist organizations. With the connivance of the authorities, people arrested on suspicion of sympathizing with Russia, when escorted through the city streets, were openly mocked and mocked, beaten and various kinds torment. The repressions only strengthened Russophile sympathies, which sometimes manifested themselves at the front among the Slavic units. It is typical that captured wounded Rusyns turned to Russian priests with a request for communion.

The exception was the nationalists. However, their propaganda was generally unsuccessful. The Russian army entering Galicia was greeted very sympathetically in the villages, and in the cities they sometimes tried to fire at it. It should be noted that these cases occurred precisely in cities where the Polish and Jewish elements predominated, and the influence of nationalists was very significant. In addition, elements sympathetic to Russia were intimidated by the terror of the Austrian authorities at the beginning of the war. In Lvov, for example, before its evacuation, up to 8 thousand people suspected of “Muscophilia” were arrested. The city magistrate and police were controlled by Poles, most of whom were hostile to Russia.

Immediately after the capture of Lvov by Russian troops, the most active activity was launched here by a State Duma deputy Count V.A. Bobrinsky. Even before the war, he consistently spoke out in defense of the Russophile elements of Galicia, who defended their right to preserve their ethnic and cultural identity. Through his efforts, a search was launched in prison for arrested Russophiles and their immediate release. It is not surprising that single shots fired at Russian soldiers in cities did not affect the overall picture. In the rear of the Russian army it was absolutely safe in the most “Mazepa” places. M.M., who visited them. Prishvin noted that “... there were almost no troops anywhere, not even patrols, and everywhere it was as if you were traveling through your native land, capable of bearing the cross of the Tatar and any other yoke.”

The occupation of Eastern Galicia and its administrative center raised the question of the management of these territories. On August 22 (September 4), the Supreme Commander-in-Chief issued an order to form here “a special governor-general with its subordination through the chief supply officer Southwestern Front, Commander-in-Chief of the Armies of the Southwestern Front." On the same day, Lieutenant General Count G.A. Bobrinsky was appointed to the post of Governor General with residence in Lvov.

On September 4 (17), 1914, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief signed an appeal to the peoples of Austria-Hungary, which stated that Russia’s goal in the war was to restore “law and justice,” achieve “freedom” and “people’s desires.” There were no exact promises from the address, but it ended as follows: “The Austro-Hungarian government has for centuries sowed discord and enmity between you, for its power over you was based only on your discord. Russia, on the contrary, strives for only one thing, so that each of you could develop and prosper, preserving the precious heritage of their fathers - language and faith, and, united with their brothers, live in peace and harmony with their neighbors, respecting their identity. Confident that you will do your best to help achieve this goal, I urge you to meet the Russian troops , as true friends and fighters for your best ideals."

The actions of the Russian authorities did not contradict the spirit of this call. The war devastated a significant part of Galicia, refugees flocked to Lviv - mostly women, children and old people. For better organization To help the population and refugees in Lvov, the Main Charitable Committee was created, which created branches in other cities of the General Government.

By order of the Governor General, at the end of September, food worth 60 thousand rubles was delivered to the city. - salt, sugar, corned beef, flour, cereals, rice. All this was distributed to the poorest population. Charity canteens were organized in Lviv and the provinces, and food aid was distributed to refugees. In October 1914 alone, food products worth 100 thousand rubles were distributed. Considering the fact that the exchange rate of Russian money for Austrian money in September 1914 was established at the ratio of 0.3 rubles. for 1 crown, this was a very significant amount. Financial assistance was also provided to the families of Austrian officials (in Lvov alone there were 12 thousand of them), and shelters for orphans were organized. In November 1914, 19,537 people in need received various types of assistance in Lvov; 16 thousand pounds of flour, 1.5 thousand pounds of cereal, 12 thousand packs of canned coffee, etc. were received for distribution. During the same time, 40 free canteens were organized in Lviv, providing 40 thousand free lunches per day.

The occupation authorities in Galicia had another problem. In the autumn of 1914, the picture of Austrian prisoners walking in different directions in civilian dress was quite common on its roads. These were Rusyns who left the Austrian army during the retreat and went home. Many were later detained there. Escapes of prisoners were also frequent. Their transfer was not organized in the best way. Sometimes the distance during transitions exceeded 25 versts (slightly less than 27 km), tired people lagged behind the columns, with a small number of escorts and the absence of a harsh attitude towards the stragglers, escape was not particularly difficult, especially for local residents who had somewhere to run.

A way out of a very ambiguous situation was found on August 12 (25), 1914, after the capture of Tarnopol. Then, on the recommendation of State Duma deputy Count V.A., who was present at the headquarters of the 8th Army. Bobrinsky, Brusilov decided to release the captured Galicians, who agreed to swear allegiance to Russia and its emperor. Later they began to use a more traditional form - on my word of honor not to fight against the Russians.

In all of Galicia controlled by the Russian authorities, during their entire stay there, 1,200 arrests and about 1,000 searches were carried out. As such, there was no resistance to the Russian troops and authorities; major figures from the Jewish, Polish party and the Jesuits left the city along with the Austrian units. However, in Lvov, a small terrorist group that was preparing an assassination attempt on Governor General Bobrinsky and Russophile-minded public figures was discovered and neutralized. During Russian control over the four provinces of Eastern Galicia, 1,568 people were expelled from it. The most famous of them was the Uniate Metropolitan Sheptytsky. Before his tonsure - a Polish count and an Austrian hussar officer - he constantly took anti-Russian positions before the war, and after the arrival of Russian troops he publicly called on his flock during a service in St. George's Cathedral in Lvov to remain faithful to Franz Joseph. A search of his residence yielded evidence of subversive propaganda. As a result, the Metropolitan Count was arrested and expelled from Galicia to Kyiv.

In general, it is unlikely that the total number of those expelled by the Russian authorities can be called a significant figure for the military control of a population of about 4 million people, especially considering the complex ethnic, social and religious state of the region. The following were deported to the internal provinces under police supervision: Jews 38% - 585 people; Rusyn-Galicians (who escaped from captivity) - 29% - 455 people; Poles 25% - 412 people; Germans and Hungarians 5% - 76 people; Russian subjects 2% - 28 people; Italians, Greeks and Czechs 1% - 12 people) At the same time, during the same period, 4,290 prisoners of war, natives of Galicia, Orthodox and Uniates were released on their word of honor not to fight against Russia. It should also be noted that the above number of deportees and arrests occurred during the period from September 1914 to June 1915 ( chronological framework due to the time Lviv was under Russian rule). Austrian repressions at the beginning of the war not only exceeded these figures in terms of deportees (at the same time, the Russian authorities did not exile them to concentration camps and did not execute them) - these repressions were very intense, since they occurred literally for 2 months - August and September 1914, while the Austrians and their assistant executioners were not expelled from Eastern Galicia.

In the spring of 1915, the Austro-German armies launched a counteroffensive. The Russian army was forced to retreat. Most of Galicia returned again to the rule of Austria-Hungary, along with which its craftsmen returned here. They did not sit idle and furiously settled scores with their enemies. The repressions against Russophiles and the Orthodox Church, unleashed at the beginning of the war, were not stopped. Total as a result of the genocide unleashed by the Austrians in 1914-1918 in Galicia, Carpathian Ruthenia and Bukovina, more than 150,000 died civilians.

The victims of Vienna's cultural policy were still not only Habsburg subjects. During the Austrian occupation of 1915-1916. The Orthodox population of Russian Volyn suffered extremely badly. With visible special pleasure, the Austro-German-Hungarian-Polish units mocked the shrines revered by people (the Czechs and Slovaks behaved somewhat better). So, in particular, in the Pochaev Lavra liberated on June 3 (16), Russian troops were confronted with the results of European management: a lot of metal utensils were taken out of the monastery for melting down, a cinema was set up in one of the churches, a restaurant in another, a barracks in the third, etc. .d.

The Cossack Graves monastery in Dubensky district near Berestechok was destroyed, and the ossuary where the remains of the Cossacks killed in battle with the Poles were kept was destroyed. This practice was generally highly characteristic of the Austrians - churches were systematically desecrated. In the territory liberated during the first days of the offensive of the Southwestern Front alone, up to 15 completely destroyed churches were counted, including in areas where there were no battles. The nationalists who “defended” Ukraine in the ranks of the Austro-Hungarian army were not annoyed by this kind of filth - after all, they had the opportunity to shoot at the “Muscovites”.

The people liberated by Russian troops during the Brusilov offensive behaved differently. It is not surprising that in the summer of 1916 the Ruthenian population was glad to see Russian troops again. A.M., who took part in these events. Vasilevsky recalled: “The local residents, who were then called Rusyns, greeted us with open arms and told us about their difficult lot. The Austrian authorities, who looked at them as strangers, furiously persecuted everyone whom they could suspect of “Russophilism.” A significant part of the local Slavic intelligentsia was arrested and driven into the Telerhof concentration camp, about which there were terrible legends."

Alas, these legends turned out to be true. Here, in this concentration camp, on the gallows and at the execution walls, the ideology of the fathers of those who, out of habit, went into executioner service with Hitler, was forged. Now they are called heroes of Ukraine, but meanwhile their first victims were the Rusyns, who did not want to become Ukrainians like these executioners. Not Poles, not Jews, and not citizens of the Soviet Union - Galician Russophiles - their blood flowed first. And as a result, Galicia became what it is. And as a result, probably inspired by this experience, nationalist ideologists during and after called for the destruction of half of the Ukrainian people - it doesn’t matter, the main thing is that those who think correctly remain.

It was an experience that, apparently, many dream of using today. Such “heroes” of Ukraine as Shukhevych and Bandera are the best proof of this. Katy, “ale in embroidered sorotsi” - the last circumstance explains everything. According to relics and oil. Apparently, Yanukovych has not given up on the “shanuvanny” of traitors and is one of them. Accomplice. Coward. Compromiser.

1 . Galicia, - ist. name of the territory zap. Ukrainian lands (modern Lvov, Ivano-Frankivsk and Ternopil regions of the Ukrainian SSR), in the end. 18 - beginning 20th centuries also applied to part of the Polish. lands. In the 9th-11th centuries. G. was part of Kievan Rus, then - the Galician-Volyn principality. In 1349 it was captured by Poland and, by agreement with Lithuania (1352), became part of it. The people of G. together with all Ukrainians. people fought against foreign and internal enslavers, actively participated in the liberation. war of 1648-54 Ukrainian. people against the oppression of the Polish gentry. However, after the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, Georgia remained part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1658, a peasant uprising broke out in Dolinsky, in 1670 - in Drohobych, in 1672 - in Zhidachevsky and Stryisky districts. The oprishki movement, which originated in the 16th century, grew. and reached a wide scope in the 1st half. 18th century (see O. Dovbush). In 1772, after the first partition of Poland, Germany came under Austrian rule. As part of the Austrian Empire, the province of Galicia was created, uniting not only Ukrainian, but also Polish lands. Polish and Ukrainian The peasantry fought against the oppression of the landowners (the cross uprising of 1819, 1824, 1832, the Galician uprising of 1846, etc.). Against serfdom and nationalism. oppression was advocated by democratic writers, champions of the unity of glory. peoples M. Shashkevich, I. Vagilevich, Y. Golovatsky. Under the influence of the 1848 Austrian revolution. The government abolished serfdom in Germany. As part of Austria-Hungary, Germany remained in a colonial position. The industry developed poorly. To the beginning 20th century existed approx. 600, prem. small, factories and factories with 40 thousand industrial units. workers. In the village In the 20th century, large landowner latifundia remained (by the beginning of the 20th century, about 40% of all land). 95% of the peasants were poor and middle peasants. During World War I, Georgia became an arena for war. actions between Austro-German. bloc and Russia. The economy of Georgia was destroyed, the social and national economy became even stronger. oppression. In Oct. 1918, after the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Ukrainian. bourgeois nationalists created a counter-revolution in Lvov. National I'm glad. On Nov. 1918 the so-called Western Ukrainian people republic (ZUNR). Workers and peasants led by the Communist Party of the East. G. (formed in February 1919) fought against the counter-revolutionaries. nationalist Produced by ZUNR. In July 1919, lordly Poland occupied the East. G. In the summer of 1920, the Red Army, developing a successful offensive against the White Poles, liberated 20 counties in the East. G. On September 1920 Poland again captured the entire East. G. In 1939 Sov. The army liberated the West. Ukraine, which was then reunited with the Ukrainian SSR. Lit.: Khrushchev N. S., Ten years of Ukrainian reunification. people in a single Soviet state, K., 1949; Kompaniets I.I., Revolution. movement in Galicia, Bukovina and Transcarpathian Ukraine under the influence of the ideas of the Great October Revolution (1917-20), K., 1957; Draw a story? Lvova, Lviv, 1956; Gerasimenko M.P. and Dudikevich B.K., The struggle of workers in Zahidno? Ukraine for the rise of the Radyanskaya Ukraine, K., 1960; Kravets M. M., Drawing a worker’s rule in Western Ukraine in 1921-39 pp., K., 1959. I. I. Kompaniets. Kyiv. 2 . (Galizien) - a province of the Habsburg Empire in 1772-1918. Official name - Kingdom of Greece and Lodomeria with the Grand Duchy of Krakow. Formed after the transition to Austria, Poland. and Ukrainian lands as a result of the 1st partition of Poland (1772). The borders of Georgia changed several times. In 1786-1849 it included Bukovina, and in 1795-1809 - a vast territory. between pp. Pilica and Zap. Bug (so-called New (or Western) Galicia). In 1809-15, the Ternopil district was separated from G. (part of Russia), and in 1809-46 - the territory. Krakow and its environs, which formed the Krakow Republic in 1815. In 1918 ter. G. became part of Poland.

Galicia (Ukrainian Galicina, Polish Galicja, German Galizien) is a historical region in Eastern Europe, which at various times was (in whole or in part) part of Kievan Rus, Poland, Austria-Hungary, and the USSR. The main cities are Lviv, Krakow (Western Galicia).
Story

In 981 it was included by the Kyiv prince Vladimir the Great into Kievan Rus. In 1087, the independent Principality of Galicia was formed. In 1200 it became part of the united Galician-Volyn principality. The central (capital) cities of Galicia at different times were Galich (until ~1245), Chelm (Hill), Lviv (from 1272).

In 1349, under the name Kingdom of Rus', it became part of the Polish Kingdom, maintaining autonomy, which was later abolished - the kingdom became part of the Belz Voivodeship.

Twice, in 1648 and 1655, Lviv was taken by storm by Bogdan Khmelnytsky.

As a result of the first partition of Poland in 1772 it became part of the Habsburg possessions - (later Austria-Hungary) - under the full name Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Grand Duchy of Krakow and the Duchies of Auschwitz and Tzator with its capital in the city of Lviv (the official name at that time was Lemberg).

During the First World War, active military operations took place on the territory of Galicia. A legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen was formed in Galicia, who fought on the side of the Austrian army. By the fall of 1914, during the battle for Lviv, Russian troops occupied almost the entire Ukrainian part of Galicia, the Galician Governor-General was formed (with its center in Lviv), which ruled the region until the summer of 1915, when the region was abandoned as a result of the German offensive. In 1916, the eastern part of Galicia was affected by the Brusilov breakthrough.

After the First World War, the territory of Galicia and Bukovina was proclaimed Western Ukrainian People's Republic , which in 1919 reunited with the Ukrainian People's Republic.

This was followed Soviet-Polish War 1919-1921, during which a short time(July-September 1920) was proclaimed Galician Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR.

Based on the decision of the Entente Council of Ambassadors and forced Riga Treaty In 1921, Western Ukraine (Galicia) became part of Poland.

The Polonization policy pursued by the Polish state caused a sharp rise in the Ukrainian national liberation movement between the two world wars.

In September 1939, after the German attack on Poland, which marked the beginning of World War II, Soviet troops were introduced into the territory of Western Ukraine. In accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Eastern Galicia and Western Volyn were annexed to the USSR and became part of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1939-1941, a policy of collectivization and dispossession was carried out here, as a result of which thousands of wealthy peasants were repressed and deported to Siberia.

In 1941-1944, the territory of Western Ukraine was occupied by fascist German troops, declared the district of Galicia and became an arena of clashes between the most diverse military-political and national forces pursuing incompatible interests - German, Soviet, Hungarian, Romanian troops, Ukrainian division SS "Galicia" Soviet partisans and sabotage groups, UPA detachments, underground OUN organizations, units of the Polish Home Army, Ukrainian and Polish civilians who were subjected to ethnic cleansing both during the war and after it. The end of the war did not lead to the establishment of peace. Active partisan warfare and the underground struggle of the UPA and OUN against Soviet power continued almost until the mid-1950s.

With the end of hostilities against fascist Germany The Soviet leadership was able to concentrate a significant number of army units and state security forces in Western Ukraine to fight the underground, which was actively opposing attempts to strengthen Soviet power, and gradually break its resistance. Tens of thousands of Bandera members were killed or captured. It is obvious that a large number of civilians who provided assistance to the rebels were also subjected to repression (in particular, deportation to Siberia). The social support base for the rebels gradually faded away. This was facilitated by the brutal methods of reprisal of “fighters for the independence of Ukraine” against Soviet, party and collective farm activists, “apostates and traitors” from their own ranks. By the mid-1950s, the anti-Soviet underground in Western Ukraine was practically eliminated, but the population’s dislike of communist power and anti-Russian sentiments persisted for decades.
Ethnic composition
The main population groups before World War II were Ukrainians (including Rusyns), Poles, Jews, Germans; after the war, mainly Poles lived in western Galicia (see Operation Vistula). In modern eastern Galicia, the main population is Ukrainians, the second largest national group is Russians.
Modernity
In the modern Ukrainian language, the concept of “Galicia” and “Galician” exists and is actively used - that is, a resident of eastern Galicia - the territory of what is now Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk and most of the Ternopil regions.
see also
Galicia-Volyn Principality
Red Rus'
Celts
Thalerhof

Links, literature
Map of Galicia (1800)
N. Pashaeva, Essays on the history of the Russian Movement in Galicia in the 19th-20th centuries.
Philip Svistun, Carpathian Rus' under Austrian rule
Philip Svistun, Carpathian Rus' under the rule of Austria. Part two (1850-1895)
K. Levitsky, History of the political thoughts of Galician Ukrainians 1848-1914. I remembered it in retrospect.
N. Pashaeva, I. G. Naumovich as a public, political and religious figure of Galicia in the second half of the 19th century
Buzina, Oles, Talerhof concentration camp for the wrong Galicians
Galicia on Ukrainian Pages
Galicia in the Little Russian People's Historical Library
Wikipedia