Today, various forms of communication and communication are taught in many Russian universities. And not only because for a number of specialties, the study of norms, rules and communication styles is mandatory in accordance with the State Educational Standard. First of all, mastering knowledge and communication skills is dictated by practical needs real life. The processes of globalization, democratization of public life, openness and accessibility of the latest achievements of world culture allow a huge number of people to learn a lot of new things about the behavior and way of life of other peoples. New knowledge is acquired on tourist trips, at scientific conferences, symposiums, from media reports, personal meetings, i.e. through various forms of human communication.
The interest in communicating with other peoples and their cultures in our country is great, and the choice of necessary teaching aids Russian authors on communication issues are extremely scarce. This makes the appearance of this textbook very relevant and
Timely.
The textbook represents one of the first attempts to develop a curriculum on intercultural communication (ICC) for Russian universities. It is the result of collaboration between teachers of the department of Kaluga State Pedagogical University named after. K.E. Tsiolkovsky and teachers of the Department of Intercultural Communication of the Institute of German and Comparative Ethnology of the University of Munich, which became possible thanks to the financial, organizational and technical support of the Volkswagen Foundation (Germany). During the implementation of the joint project, its Russian participants received the first practical skills in intercultural communication and were partially able to reflect the experience gained in this work. The main scientific and methodological base of the manual consists of the most famous and widespread American and German, as well as domestic scientific and educational publications on intercultural communication, which are listed in the bibliography. In the proposed book, based on the achievements of American and German science in the field of intercultural communication,
6 Preface I
tion, the authors tried to systematically and clearly present modern ideas about intercultural communication and the possibilities of mastering its skills. Of course, not all sections realize the stated goal to the same extent. The advantage of the book is its saturation with theoretical principles and practical materials on all the issues and topics presented. Readers will find in it answers to questions about the features of intercultural communication, ways to overcome communication barriers, forms of behavior in certain situations of intercultural communication. However, the authors express regret that a huge part of the material devoted to specific intercultural situations, practically useful for the interested reader, turned out to be unclaimed in this edition due to its limited volume.
The authors express their heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Juliana Roth, thanks to whose initiative and active participation this joint project was made possible and successfully implemented. Words of gratitude are addressed to Professor of the University of Munich Alois Moosmüller and assistant Galina Kopteltseva for their help and practical contribution to the implementation of the project. The authors also express special gratitude to the Volkswagen Foundation for financial and technical support of the project.
Cand. Philosopher Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Cultural Studies, Kaluga State Pedagogical University. K.E Tsiolkovsky T.G. Grushevitskaya- Ch. Section 4 I; Ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sections. II; Ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sections. V; Ch. 1, 2, 3, 4 sections. VI.
Cand. social Sciences, senior lecturer at the Department of Philosophy and Sociology, Kaluga State Pedagogical University. K.E. Tsiolkovsky V.D. Popkov - Ch. 5, 6 sections VI).
Section IV co-written ^ A.P. Sadokhin And V.D. Popkov. The general edition of the textbook has been completed A.I. Sado-hinim.
Introduction
Rationale for the course. At the turn of the second and third millennia, it is becoming increasingly clear that humanity is developing along the path of expanding the interconnection and interdependence of various countries, peoples and their cultures. This process covered various areas public life all countries of the world. Impossible to find today ethnic communities, which would not have experienced the influence of both the cultures of other peoples and the broader social environment existing in individual regions and in the world at large. This was reflected in the rapid growth of cultural exchanges and direct contacts between government institutions, social groups, social movements and individuals different countries and cultures. Expanding interaction between cultures and peoples makes it especially topical issue about cultural identity and cultural differences. Cultural diversity modern humanity is increasing, and its constituent peoples are finding more and more means to preserve and develop their integrity and cultural identity. This tendency to preserve cultural identity confirms the general pattern that humanity, while becoming more interconnected and united, does not lose its cultural diversity. In the context of these trends in social development, it becomes extremely important to be able to determine the cultural characteristics of peoples in order to understand each other and achieve mutual recognition.
The process of interaction between cultures, leading to their unification, causes in some nations a desire for cultural self-affirmation and a desire to preserve their own cultural values. Whole line states and cultures demonstrates its categorical rejection of ongoing cultural changes. They contrast the process of opening cultural borders with the impermeability of their own and an exaggerated sense of pride in their national identity. Different societies react to outside influences in different ways. The range of resistance to the process of merging cultures is quite wide: from passive rejection of the values of other cultures to active opposition to their spread and approval. Therefore we are
8 Introduction
We are witnesses and contemporaries of numerous ethnoreligious conflicts, the growth of nationalist sentiments, and regional fundamentalist movements.
The noted processes, to one degree or another, have found their manifestation in Russia. Reforms of society led to serious changes in the cultural appearance of Russia. Over the past few years, completely new social groups have appeared: entrepreneurs, bankers, political leaders various movements, Russian employees of foreign companies, etc. A completely new type of business culture is emerging, a new idea of the social responsibility of the business world to the client and society is being formed, and the life of society as a whole is changing. The process is developing extremely difficult and painfully, as it faces a huge number of obstacles and restrictions from the state, mistrust of the authorities, incompetence and voluntarism. One of the ways to overcome existing difficulties is to establish an effective communication system between different community groups and power. This system should be based on the principles of equal access to necessary information, direct communication with each other, collective decision-making and effective work of employees. To this it must be added that diverse international contacts of managers and entrepreneurs at all levels have shown that success in any type of international activity largely depends on the degree of training of Russian representatives in the field of intercultural communication.
And finally, the end of the Cold War between East and West significantly expanded trade and economic relations between them. In every country, the number of people with economic contacts outside their culture is growing year by year. Currently, there are more than 37 thousand transnational corporations in the world with 207 thousand branches, employing several tens of millions of people. For your effective activities they must take into account the cultural characteristics of their partners and host countries. Convincing evidence of the interconnection of the world economy was the crisis situations of recent years in Russia (1998), Mexico and Brazil (1999), which disrupted the existing economic order and led to a new balance of power on the world stage.
The result of new economic relations there has become widespread availability of direct contacts with cultures that were previously
^=^~^
Foxes are mysterious and strange. With direct contact with such cultures, differences are recognized not only at the level of kitchen utensils, clothing, and diet, but also in different attitudes towards women, children and the elderly, in ways and means of doing business.
Becoming participants in any type of intercultural contacts, people interact with representatives of other cultures, often significantly different from each other. Differences in languages, national cuisine, clothing, norms of social behavior, and attitudes towards work performed often make these contacts difficult and even impossible. But these are only particular problems of intercultural contacts. The main reasons for their failure lie beyond the obvious differences. They are in differences in worldview, that is, a different attitude towards the world and other people. The main obstacle to successfully solving this problem is that we perceive other cultures through the prism of our culture, so our observations and conclusions are limited by its framework. With great difficulty we understand the meaning of words, deeds, actions that are not characteristic of ourselves. Our ethnocentrism not only interferes with intercultural communication, but it is also difficult to recognize, since it is an unconscious process. This suggests the conclusion that effective intercultural communication cannot arise on its own; it needs to be purposefully learned.
^ Formation and development of the ICC in the USA and Europe. The formation of intercultural communication as academic discipline was initially determined by the purely practical interests of American politicians and businessmen. After World War II, the sphere of influence of American politics, economics and culture actively expanded. Government officials and businessmen working abroad often found themselves helpless and unable to understand situations of misunderstanding that arose when working with representatives of other cultures. This often led to conflicts, mutual hostility, and resentment. Even perfect knowledge of the relevant languages could not prepare them for difficult work Abroad. Gradually, an awareness arose of the need to study not only languages, but also the cultures of other peoples, their customs, traditions, and norms of behavior.
At the same time, the United States developed an assistance program for developing countries. Within the framework of individual projects of this program
10 Introduction
A large number of Peace Corps experts and activists visited various countries. Often they encountered misunderstandings and conflicts there, which ultimately led to the failure of their mission. Managers and employees found themselves ill-equipped to deal with practical issues with people from other cultures. It became clear that the preparation they had undergone before leaving was insufficient. The numerous failures of Peace Corps activists raised the question of special training, in which the main attention had to be paid to developing practical skills and intercultural communication skills, rather than simply informing about the cultural characteristics of a particular country.
In response to this situation, the US government passed the Overseas Service Act in 1946 and created the Overseas Service Institute, headed by linguist Edward Hall. Scientists of various specialties were attracted to work at the institute: anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, linguists, etc. However, all their attempts to understand and explain the behavior of representatives of other cultures were then based more on intuition than on knowledge and experience. Therefore, at first the efficiency of their work turned out to be low. The main conclusion that was made by the institute’s specialists was that each culture shapes unique system values, priorities, behavior patterns, and therefore its description, interpretation and evaluation must be carried out from the standpoint of cultural relativism.
In the course of their work, the institute staff were surprised to find that government officials showed no interest in studying theoretical issues culture and communication, but expressed a desire to receive specific advice, recommendations and instructions on practical behavior in another country. Since Hall invited people from different languages and cultures to work at the institute, this circumstance allowed him to observe and study cultural differences in practice. For example, he noticed that Italians often stand close to each other when talking, or that Greeks gesticulate a lot when communicating. Conversely, the Chinese use few gestures when communicating. Hall confirmed his observations through consultations with representatives of various cultural groups and gradually included them in the educational programs of the institute. To this day, most American textbooks on intercultural communication emphasize
Focuses his attention on practical instructions and recommendations when communicating with representatives of other cultures.
Probably, the birth date of intercultural communication as an academic discipline should be considered 1954, when the book by E. Hall and D. Trager “Culture as Communication” was published, in which the authors first proposed the term for widespread use “intercultural communication,” which, in their opinion, reflected a special area of human relations. Later, the main provisions and ideas of intercultural communication were more thoroughly developed in the famous work of E. Hall “The Silent Language” (“Mute Language”, 1959), where the author showed the close connection between culture and communication. Developing his ideas about the relationship between culture and communication, Hall came to the conclusion about the need to teach culture (“if a culture is studied, this means that it can be taught”). Thus, Hall was the first to propose making the problem of intercultural communication not only a subject of scientific research, but also an independent academic discipline.
The process of establishing intercultural communication as an academic discipline began in the 1960s, when this subject began to be taught in a number of US universities. This circumstance significantly changed the content training course intercultural communication. In the 1970s, the purely practical nature of the course was supplemented with the necessary theoretical generalizations and took the form of a classic university course, combining both theoretical principles and practical aspects of intercultural communication.
On the European continent, the formation of intercultural communication as an academic discipline occurred somewhat later than in the United States and was caused by other reasons. The creation of the European Union opened borders for the free movement of people, capital and goods. European capitals and large cities began to intensively change their appearance due to the appearance of representatives of different cultures and their active inclusion in the life of these cities. Practice has raised the problem of mutual communication between speakers of different cultures. Against this background, the interest of scientists in the problems of intercultural communication gradually developed. Following the example of the United States, in some Western European universities at the turn of the 70-80s of the last century, departments of intercultural communication (universities) were opened.
12 Introduction
Cities of Munich, Jena). In 1989 University of Munich a new specialization was opened - “intercultural communications”. Based on the American experience of teaching intercultural communication, they developed their own educational programs based on materials from folklore, ethnology and linguistics.
^ Formation of the ICC in Russia. IN national science and the education system, teachers initiated the study of intercultural communication foreign languages, who were the first to realize that for effective communication With representatives of other cultures, knowledge of a foreign language is not enough. The practice of communicating with foreigners has proven that even deep knowledge foreign language does not exclude misunderstanding and conflicts with native speakers of this language. Therefore, the teaching of foreign languages in many universities has been supplemented by the subject “Country Studies,” which introduces students to the history, customs, traditions, and social organization of the country of the language being studied. However, as practice has shown, only classroom (theoretical) acquaintance with the relevant culture is not enough for conflict-free communication with its representatives. Today it has become obvious that successful and effective contacts with representatives of other cultures are impossible without practical skills in intercultural communication. A number of Russian universities have included a new discipline in their curricula - “Intercultural Communication”. The introduction of this discipline is due, first of all, to the need to prepare students for effective intercultural contacts at the level of everyday interpersonal communication. For this, knowledge about the nature of intercultural misunderstanding is not enough; it is necessary to develop practical skills and abilities that would allow one to freely understand representatives of other cultures.
Currently, intercultural communication is only beginning to establish itself as an academic discipline in Russian universities. The initiator and undisputed leader in this process is the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Moscow State University, where intercultural communication has been taught for several years and where a number of lecture courses and programs on various aspects this direction. The initiative of the faculty found support in a number of other Moscow universities: Peoples' Friendship University, State Linguistic University, Russian
Skom State Humanitarian University. The experience of teaching intercultural communication at these universities shows that the most effective is a combination of lecture and practical forms of classes. Practical exercises have proven particularly effective, during which students have the opportunity to experience feelings and emotions that arise in real situations of intercultural communication, discuss and analyze their own behavior and the behavior of their partners. Practical classes, as a rule, cause lively discussions, significantly increase the motivation and interest of students in the subject, and eliminate the psychological barrier in the interaction between students and the teacher.
^ Intercultural communication as an academic discipline. From the beginning of its emergence, intercultural communication was formed as an interdisciplinary discipline. When creating the Institute for Foreign Service, Edward Hall recruited anthropologists, linguists, psychologists, and sociologists to work. The first educational programs and methods for teaching intercultural communication were borrowed from various sciences. This initially gave intercultural communication an eclectic character. However, this eclecticism had the most positive impact on the content of the intercultural communication course, since its interdisciplinary nature made it possible to rethink many traditional ideas and methods and opened up new aspects of research into the problem of intercultural contacts. The institute's employees were specialists in various sciences, and in their work they relied primarily on the achievements of their sciences. It is natural that everything useful achievements various areas scientific knowledge was gradually integrated into independent discipline with its own subject and method.
Based on the American experience of teaching intercultural communication, learning programs and in a number of Western European universities. These programs are also interdisciplinary in nature, since they are based on the achievements of folklore, ethnology, linguistics and other related sciences.
Of all the cultural sciences, the largest amount of theoretical and methodological knowledge and practical experience in the field of ICC research has been accumulated by folkloristics and ethnology. Therefore, two directions of intercultural research have emerged
14 Introduction
Communications. The first of them, based on folklore. tic, is descriptive in nature. Its objectives are to identify, describe and interpret the everyday behavior of people in order to explain the underlying causes and determining factors of their culture.
The second direction, which is cultural and anthropological in nature, has various types of research as the subject of its research. cultural activities social groups and communities, their norms, rules and values. Social differentiation society (family, school, church, industry, etc.) gives rise to its own norms and rules of behavior in each group. Knowing them allows you to quickly and effectively resolve situations of intercultural misunderstanding, normally organize the work process in multinational teams, etc.
Methodological approaches of other disciplines (psychology, pedagogy, sociology, communication theory, etc.) always turn out to be more limited in scope. They, as a rule, are aimed at considering specific aspects of intercultural communication and in their initial premises are often based on the theoretical and methodological principles of ethnology. However, despite the differences in methodological approaches and aspects of intercultural communication research in various sciences, most scientists are of the opinion that the main goals of research in the field of ICC are:
systematic presentation of the main problems and themes of inter-
cultural communication, mastery of basic concepts -
mi and terminology;
development of cultural sensitivity, ability to
correct interpretation of specific manifestations of communication
positive behavior in different cultures;
formation of practical skills and communication skills
with representatives of other cultures.
Many years of teaching experience and numerous research works in this area allow us today to highlight the scientific and methodological features and organizational problems of teaching this course.
The founder of intercultural communication, E. Hall, meant by its teaching intercultural learning, based on the practical use of the facts of intercultural communication between people that arise during direct contacts with speakers of other cultures. He understood the educational process as a process of analyzing specific examples of intercultural communication, as a result of which the intercultural competence of students expands and difficulties in everyday communication with people from another culture are overcome. A number of Western scientists (G. Collier, V. Gudikunst and R. Hammer, M. Page and J. Martin, M. Hoopes, M. Bennett, etc.) described own experience teaching intercultural communication and proposed models for organizing intercultural learning, among which the most famous are the models of Hoops and Bennett.
Acquaintance with the works of Western scientists allows us to conclude that intercultural learning differs from other educational areas in several respects. The main difference is that the necessary knowledge and skills are acquired primarily through direct cultural contacts. This often requires complete or partial abstraction from the usual system of interpretation of various cultural phenomena and entails significant cognitive and affective changes. These changes can be demonstrated by the example of the culture of taste ideas: at the cognitive level, it is believed that the proposed unusual dish is different national cuisine must try. At the emotional level, this proposal can cause a strong emotional reaction and unbalance the communication participants. Obstacles of this kind in most cases arise unexpectedly, most often when confronted with elements of a foreign culture.
According to some Western scientists, learning intercultural communication can give rise to contradictions with one’s own cultural identity: there is a fear of losing orientation in the usual sociocultural space, losing identity and losing the support of one’s group. The intercultural process
16 Introduction
Tourist training must take into account the possibility of the emergence of this kind of contradictions. A natural method against the occurrence of such situations is the principle of openness and controversy in organizing the learning process. The latter should be perceived by students as a search process, in which both cognitive and emotional levels consciousness.
Taking into account these features and contradictions, the experience of teaching intercultural communication at the University of Munich, as well as based on the study of special American and German educational literature, a training course on ICC was created at the Kaluga State University pedagogical university them. K.E. Tsi-olkovsky. According to the plans of its authors, this program was initially given a cultural and anthropological character. Two pilot training courses at KSPU and a visit training sessions on ICC at the University of Munich made it possible to develop the structure of the training course presented here, define its content in basic terms, specify the topics and test the methodology practical classes.
In the proposed version, the MCC course is designed for two semesters (72 hours of classroom training) with equal ratio lectures and practical classes (36 hours for each type). The authors sought to cover a variety of aspects of intercultural communication and thereby form a general and systematized idea of ICC. The program allows for the possibility of changes in accordance with curriculum universities and use in educational process regional characteristics of a particular culture.
ChapterI
Cultural and anthropological foundations of intercultural
COMMUNICATIONS
Man is created for society. He's incapableand does not have the courage to live alone.
W. Blackstone
Chapter1 ^ WHAT IS CULTURE?
Ordinary and scientific understanding culture. Local cultures. Itsdiversity and originality of culture. Culture and communication. Not-necessity and conditions effective interaction crops Kul-tour and behavior. Determinants of behavior in the process of communicationtions. Empathy and its role in intercultural communication. Meaningcultural values and norms in the ICC. Main types of cultural norms(mores, customs, traditions, rituals)
^ 1L. From everyday understanding of culture to scientific understanding
In modern humanities, the concept of “culture” is one of the fundamental ones. It is natural that it is central in intercultural communication. Among the huge number of scientific categories and terms, it is difficult to find another concept that would have such a variety of semantic shades and would be used in such different contexts. For us, such phrases as “culture of behavior”, “culture of communication”, “culture of feelings”, etc. sound quite familiar. In ordinary usage, the term “culture” serves as an evaluative concept and expresses a certain set of human personality traits, which would be more precisely call it not culture, but culturality. In science we usually talk about “cultural systems”, “cultural dynamics”, “typology of cultures”, etc.
Modern studies devoted to the definitions of culture have shown enormous, ever-increasing interest in this concept. Thus, according to the calculations of American cultural anthropologists A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhohn, from 1871 to 1919. Various sciences gave seven definitions of culture, from 1920 to 1950 their number increased to 150. Currently, there are more than 500 different definitions of culture. Kroeber and Kluckhohn divided all these definitions into 6 classes (types).
1. Descriptive definitions that interpret culture as the sum of all types human activity, customs, beliefs.
Gmya 1. 4 tois culture? 19
2. Historical definitions that connect culture with
traditions and social heritage of society.
3. Regulatory definitions that consider cultural
ru as a set of norms and rules that organize human
behavior.
4. Psychological definitions, according to which
culture is a set of forms of acquired
behavior arising as a result of adaptation and culture
human adaptation to environmental living conditions.
5. Structural definitions that represent culture
as various kinds models or a unified system of interconnection
known phenomena.
6. Genetic definitions based on understanding
culture as a result of adaptation of human groups to the environment
its habitat.
This diversity of definitions, interpretations and interpretations does not confuse scientists. It is due to the fact that culture represents
I is an extremely complex and multifaceted phenomenon that expresses all aspects of human existence. It includes everything that is created by the human mind and hands. Therefore, culture is studied by a number of sciences: semiotics, sociology, history, anthropology, axiology, linguistics, ethnology, etc. Each of the sciences singles out one of its sides or one of its parts as the subject of its study, and approaches its study with its own methods and methods, while formulating their understanding and definition of culture.
In everyday life, the concept of “culture” is used in at least three meanings. Firstly, culture refers to a separate sphere of social life, which exists in the form of a system of institutions and organizations involved in the production and dissemination of spiritual values (societies, clubs, theaters, museums, etc.). Secondly, culture is understood as a set of values and norms inherent in a large social group, community, people or nation (elite culture, Russian culture, youth culture, etc.). Thirdly, culture is interpreted as an expression of a high level of a person’s achievements in any activity (culture of life, a cultured person in the meaning of “well-mannered and educated”, etc.). Everyday ideas about culture often come down to its identification with artistic culture (art) or with society.
the level of education and upbringing of a person. However, the most common everyday meaning of the concept of “culture” is its understanding as a set of material objects, objects, ideas, images created by man throughout his history. In this interpretation, culture appears as the sum of all the achievements of mankind, as a “second nature” created by man himself, forming the human world itself, in contrast to wild nature.
It is this understanding of culture that was formulated by Kroeber and Kluckhohn, who believed that “culture consists of expressed and hidden patterns of thinking and behavior, which are a specific, isolating achievement of human communities, embodied in symbols with the help of which they are perceived and transmitted from person to person and from generation to generation. It is also necessary to include here those achievements that are manifested in the material goods created by a cultural society. The core of any culture is ideas... and especially values transmitted through tradition. Cultural systems can be considered, on the one hand, as a result actions taken, on the other hand, as one of the foundations for action in the future” (Kroeber A., Kluckhon S; 161). According to this definition, culture is a complex phenomenon that includes both material and social phenomena and various forms of individual behavior and organized activity. Culture as special area human activity cannot be seen, heard, felt or tasted. In reality, we can observe a variety of its manifestations in the form of differences in human behavior and certain types of activities, rituals, traditions. We see only individual manifestations of culture, but we never see it as a whole. By observing differences in behavior, we begin to understand that they are based on cultural differences, and this is where the study of culture begins. In this sense, culture is only an abstract concept that helps us understand why we do what we do and explain differences in the behavior of representatives of different cultures.
With this methodological approach, culture as a subject of study of cultural anthropology appears in the form of a set of results of the activities of human society in all spheres of its life, constituting and determining the way of life
Nation, ethnicity, social group in any specific historical period of time. Cultural anthropology studies the development of culture in all its aspects: lifestyle, perception of the world, mentality, national character, everyday behavior, etc. On this basis, cultural anthropology also studies the human ability to develop culture through communication, through communication, and considers the entire diversity of human cultures, their interactions and contacts.
Cultural anthropology considers culture as a product of the joint life activity of people, a system of agreed upon ways of their collective existence, ordered norms and rules for satisfying group and individual needs, etc. The fact is that the long-term coexistence of groups of people in the same territory, their collective economic activity, defense from attacks form their common worldview, a common way of life, manner of communication, style of clothing, specifics of cooking, etc. . As a result, an independent cultural system is formed, which is usually called ethnicwhat culture of a given people. But it is not a mechanical sum of all acts of human life. Its core is a set of “game rules” adopted in the process of their collective existence. Unlike human biological properties, they are not inherited genetically, but are acquired only through learning. For this reason, it becomes impossible for the existence of a single universal culture, uniting all people on Earth. Thus, despite its obvious reality, culture appears in a sense as an abstract concept, because in reality it exists only in the form of many cultures different eras and regions, and within these eras - in the form of cultures of individual countries and peoples, which are also commonly called lo-cal And ethnic cultures.
The presence of local cultures is a natural form of existence of all human culture as a whole. Thanks to the interaction of local and ethnic cultures, a system of communication arises, various styles and types of behavior, value orientations are supported, and their ethnic identity is preserved. This communication proceeds both through mutual clarification of relationships, feuds, conflicts, and through mutual adaptation and understanding of the cultural identity of neighbors. As a rule, the nature of intercultural contacts is determined by the degree of closeness
Ti and kinship of interacting cultures. The fact is that some of the local cultures are similar to each other due to their genetic relatedness and the similarity of the conditions of their origin. Other cultures differ from each other as much as the living conditions of the peoples who gave birth to these cultures differ. In all the diversity of local cultures, there is not a single “nobody’s” culture. Each culture embodies the specific experience of the social practice of a specific historical community. And this experience gives each culture unique features and determines its originality.
Cultural originality can manifest itself in a variety of aspects of human life: in the satisfaction of biological needs, natural behavioral habits, types of clothing and housing, types of tools, methods of labor operations, etc. For example, ethnographers have long noticed that peoples living in similar conditions and in proximity to each other build houses differently. Russian northerners traditionally place their houses with their end facing the street, while Russian southerners place it along the street. Balkars, Ossetians, and Karachais live in the Caucasus in close proximity to each other. But the first build stone one-story houses, the second - two-story, and the third - wooden houses. Previously, among the Uzbeks, it was possible to determine from just a skullcap what area a person came from, and from the clothes of a Russian peasant woman of the 19th century. it was possible to determine exactly in which area she was born.
Thus, human culture consists of various local cultures, the bearers of which are peoples. Each people is an independent form of ethnic communities, or, as is commonly called in ethnology, a separate ethnic group. Ethnic groups exist as stable intergenerational communities of people. People naturally unite into ethnic groups for a variety of reasons, including on the basis of a common historical destiny, common traditions, peculiarities of life, etc. However, the most important unifying factors are common territory and common language.
The uniqueness of any culture is completed in the cultural picture of the world, which is gradually formed in the process of the emergence and existence of the culture itself. The cultural picture of the world is the result of the fact that in different cultures people perceive, feel and experience the world in their own way and
They themselves create their own unique image of the world, an idea of the world, called “pictures of the world.” The cultural picture of the world is a totality rational knowledge and ideas about the values, norms, morals, mentality of one’s own culture and the cultures of other peoples. This knowledge and ideas give the culture of each nation its originality, making it possible to distinguish one culture from another.
The cultural picture of the world finds its expression in different attitudes towards certain cultural phenomena. So, for example, in Madagascar, a funeral reflects an assessment of the status a person achieved during his lifetime and respect for the deceased. Therefore, thousands of people flock to say goodbye to some, while only a few come to others. For some peoples, farewell to the deceased lasts for whole weeks. And, on the contrary, in modern Russia or the USA, a funeral takes only a few hours. Different attitude to the same event among different peoples can only be explained by differences in their cultural pictures of the world, in which this event has different value and meaning.
1.1.1. Culture and communication
No culture exists in isolation. In the process of her life, she is forced to constantly turn either to her past or to the experience of other cultures. This appeal to other cultures is called “interaction of cultures.” In this interaction, the obvious fact is that cultures communicate in different “languages”. The fact is that each culture, in the process of its development, creates different systems of signs, which are its original carriers. The creation of signs is a purely human feature. The signs and signals existing in animals are associated only with the behavior and characteristics of life of a particular species. These signs were not created by animals on purpose; they were formed during the evolution of the species and are transmitted genetically. Only a person consciously creates his own signs; they are not innate for him, since they represent a form of existence of human culture. However, this human ability simultaneously creates the problem of understanding and perceiving foreign cultures.
Throughout its history, humanity has created a huge number of signs of behavior, without which it is impossible to
Not a single type of activity is possible. For a person, possession of these signs and sign systems means his inclusion in relationships with other people and in culture.
Depending on the purpose, several types of signs have been created and are used.
Copy signs that reproduce various phenomena
reality, but they themselves are not this reality
(photos).
Signs-attributes that carry some information about the pre-
mete (patient's temperature).
Signs-signals containing information on the contract
knowledge about the subjects they inform about (school
call).
Signs-symbols that carry information about an object based on
ve isolating from it some properties or characteristics (state
national coat of arms).
Language signs.
All the numerous signs and sign systems, which exist in human society, constitute the culture of a particular time, of a particular society. Each sign contains some meaning that was expressed and recorded in this sign by previous generations. This implies that any sign has its own form and content. The content of the signs represents complex, multifaceted, concentrated information for those who are able to read it. Moreover, the culture of each society can exist only through the continuity of generations. However, cultural memory cannot be transmitted genetically. All knowledge, abilities, skills, forms of behavior, traditions and customs live only in the cultural system. Therefore, the preservation of culture is associated with the need to preserve and transmit cultural information to each generation. Its transmission is carried out through the transmission of signs from one generation to another, as well as from one culture to another. The interaction of cultures plays a vital role for the existence and development of the culture of any nation.
Numerous studies of issues of interaction between cultures indicate that the content and results of diverse intercultural contacts largely depend on the ability of their participants to understand each other and reach agreement, which is mainly determined by the ethnic culture of each of the interacting parties , the psychology of peoples, the dominant values in a particular culture. In cultural anthropology, these relationships between different cultures are called “intercultural communication,” which means the exchange between two or more cultures and the products of their activities, carried out in various forms. This exchange can take place both in politics and in interpersonal communication people in everyday life, family, informal contacts.
Contacts and relationships between cultures arise as a result of various reasons, which can be listed for quite a long time. IN modern conditions The rapid development of intercultural communication occurs in various spheres of human life: tourism, sports, military cooperation, personal contacts, etc. The social, political and economic changes on a global scale led to an unprecedented migration of peoples, their relocation, mixing and collision. As a result of these processes, all more people are crossing the cultural barriers that previously separated them. New cultural phenomena are being formed, the boundaries between one’s own and someone else’s are being erased. The resulting changes cover almost all forms of life and receive mixed assessments in different cultures. These assessments are most often determined by the characteristics of interacting cultures.
There are significant differences between cultures in how and what means of communication are used when communicating with members of other cultures. Thus, representatives of individualistic Western cultures more attention pay attention to the content of the message, to what is said, and not to how it is said. Therefore, their communication is weakly dependent on the context. Such cultures are characterized cognitive style exchange of information, in which significant demands are made on fluency of speech, accuracy in the use of concepts and logic of statements. Representatives of such cultures strive to develop their speech skills. This type of communication is characteristic of American culture. Most Americans in
26 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the ICD
In everyday communication they use small talk (short conversation): they ask each other questions to which they do not expect to receive answers (“How are you?”, “It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?”, etc.). The individualism of American culture forces them to speak clearly and clearly, to immediately put forward their arguments in order to provoke a response from their opponent.
On the contrary, in collectivist cultures of the Eastern type, when transmitting information, people tend to to a greater extent pay attention to the context of the message, to whom and in what situation the communication takes place. This feature is manifested in giving special significance to the form of the message, to how it is said, and not to what is said. On this basis, communication in conditions oriental cultures characterized by vagueness and non-specificity of speech, an abundance of approximate forms of expression (such as “probably”, “maybe”, etc.). That is why the Japanese usually talk “around the bush” in business relationships, talking for a long time about everything, but not about the main subject of communication. This strategy allows them to better learn about their partners' intentions in order to tune in to the main topic, or to resist without compromising the dignity of their partners. A large number of observations and studies in the field of intercultural communication allows us to conclude that its content and results also largely depend on the values, norms of behavior, attitudes, etc. prevailing in any culture. In the relationship between culture and communication, their mutual influence on each other occurs. For example, each culture has its own ideas about politeness. In many Arab countries, it is considered extremely impolite to ask a transaction partner about something unless you are sure that he can give an accurate answer. While Americans say what they think, it is important for Japanese or Arabs not to let their partner blush because he was asked something that he could not answer. Therefore, in Japan, as well as throughout the Arab world, it is considered extremely impolite to definitively answer “no” to someone. If a person does not want to accept the invitation, then he answers that he does not know, because he has a lot to do. In the West, they also try to avoid specific answers in this way, but there they still more often give and expect specific answers. In Asian; In many cultures, such direct behavior can be a reason to end a relationship. But in straightforward American
Chapter 1. What is culture? 27
There is a cultural taboo that prohibits naming another person’s physical imperfections. This is probably due to the constant desire of Americans to always be in great shape and look young.
Voluntarily or unwittingly, throughout their lives people become members of certain sociocultural groups. Each such group has its own microculture (subculture) as part of the mother culture and has both similarities and differences with it. Differences may be caused by social sentiments, education, traditions and other reasons. Subcultures are based on the mutual self-perception of their members, determined by the racial, religious, geographical, linguistic, age, gender, labor, and family background of their members. And depending on this type of affiliation, they adhere to one or another model of behavior. The determining factor in communicative behavior can be membership in any social organization that has its own norms, rules, principles and models of communication. Each organization has its own set of traditions and rules, which directly or indirectly prescribe to the members of this organization forms of communication with each other and with representatives of other organizations. For example, an organization that puts its reputation first will experience a certain discomfort when communicating with an organization for which other characteristics are more important. In this case, organizational norms have a great influence on the communication style of organization members, their self-esteem, and the effectiveness of interaction with representatives of other organizations.
Culture not only influences communication, but is itself influenced by it. Most often this happens in the process of inculturation, when a person, in one form or another of communication, assimilates the norms and values of a culture. We study our culture in various ways, using various sources. For example, an American child whose grandfather explains that if you are introduced to someone, you need to shake hands, forms his own culture. An Indian child growing up in a home where women eat after men also shapes his culture. The Jewish teenager, who serves as a guide in the Jewish Passover ceremony, assimilates the culture of his people and at the same time participates in its development and preservation. French boy who
28 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of MCSCH
Rum is given cider at dinner, also assimilates the traditions of his cult-! ry. A little Egyptian who is being explained what behavior is! his uncle brought shame to the family, shapes values and norms! your behavior. Thus, by reading, listening, observing, exchanging opinions and news with familiar or unfamiliar people, we influence our culture, and this influence becomes i - | possible through some form of communication. I
L2. Culture and behavior
Human behavior is the product of millions of years of evolution, it is both genetically determined and conditioned by our | belonging to any group, gender, age, personal life experience, level of education and many other factors. Despite these differences, people in all cultures engage in the most different relationships, in the context of which they meet, exchange opinions, perform some actions, etc. The meaning of each specific action often needs to be understood, because it does not always lie on the surface, and most often | hidden in traditional ideas about what is normal, which are also different in different cultures and sociocultural groups. 1 This difference can be seen in the example of widespread | Many cultures have traditions of exchanging gifts.
Many German entrepreneurs recall that during their first 3 contacts with partners from Asian countries, they were given various gifts, which were noted in the protocols as suve- | nirs. German businessmen are generally not ready to accept | gifts, especially upon first contact, and even from complete strangers. Most often, these gifts served as the basis | to draw conclusions about the selfish motives of partners’ behavior. The question of the role of gifts for representatives of Asian culture had a completely different meaning. According to their ideas, business relationship must first of all be based on interpersonal \ relationships. Therefore, long-term relationships in the future! It starts with building strong personal relationships. For this at first the partner is thoroughly checked for reliability and compliance with value ideas. Once it becomes clear that the partners are suitable for each other and have long-term interests, the initially established relationship will support
Glava 1 . What is culture? 29
They are exchanged through a continuous exchange of signals and unique “investments” (gifts, souvenirs). According to the Asian model of behavior, the establishment of personal relationships in business contacts is considered a necessary condition for them. For the success of business contacts in the Asian model, along with personal relationships, it is necessary to form a system of mutual obligations (you - to me, I - to you). It is important as a prerequisite for each subsequent stage of communication. Such a system of relationships should be created at the very beginning of business relations. Therefore, it cannot be the last link of communication, as in the West. In the West they try to avoid any actions that might look like a bribe. Invitations and gifts are considered unwanted influence or even an attempt at bribery. The Western model of business behavior is based on strict and categorical ethics, which does not allow any exceptions.
In the above example, two opposing value systems confront each other: the Western desire for autonomy and the Asian system of mutual dependence. While in the Western culture of entrepreneurship the behavior of participants is determined by the requirements of economic rationality, in Asia, on the contrary, relations of mutual dependence are of decisive importance. This example shows that there is no universal “normal behavior”. The rules of the culture to which we belong are also relative and do not have universal validity. To understand the behavior of a representative of another culture, you need to find out what behavior is traditional for this culture. If the rules of behavior of another person and your own are incompatible, you need to begin developing general rules of behavior.
History knows a huge number of facts when attempts by different cultures to establish mutual contacts and relationships ended unsuccessfully. Most often, failures were explained by personal reasons, shortcomings of the other party, or simply language misunderstanding. Cultural differences were rarely cited as a reason for poor communication. This is explained by the fact that reasons of this kind most often remain hidden from the interacting parties.
The fact is that people’s behavior in the communication process is determined by a number of factors of varying degrees of significance and influence. Firstly, this is due to the peculiarity of the mechanism
30 Chapter I . MKfj
Inculturation, according to which the development of mankind! of one’s native culture is carried out simultaneously both at the conscious and unconscious levels. In the first case, ET occurs through socialization through education and howl! nutrition, and in the second - the process of a person mastering his sack! tours happen spontaneously, under the influence of various everyday thoughts! situations and circumstances. Moreover, this is part of human culture! as special studies show, is no less significant and important in his life and behavior than conscious! Part. In this respect, the culture can be compared to a drifting iceberg, which has only! a small part, but the main part of the iceberg is hidden under water. This invisible part of our culture is located mainly in the subconscious and manifests itself only when extraordinary, unusual situations arise during contacts with other cultures or their representatives. The subconscious perception of culture has great importance for communication, because if! the behavior of communicants is based on it, then it becomes especially difficult to force communication participants to create other frames of perception. They are not able to consciously determine the process of perceiving another culture.
The image of an iceberg allows us to clearly understand that most J models of our behavior, which are products of culture, are applied by us automatically, just as we automatically perceive the phenomena of other cultures, without thinking about the mechanisms of this perception. For example, in the American cul-1. In general, women smile more often than men; this type of behavior was learned unconsciously and became a habit. To this day, 1 Jews lean back while reading the Torah, imitating the pose of a camel rider. This manner arose many centuries ago, its meaning has long been lost, but the movement itself remains and is passed on from generation to generation as an element of culture. Many such behavior patterns are unconscious in nature, both in their origin and in their expression.
Secondly, an equally important factor determining the communicative behavior of people is the situation, which Hall I defined as “cultural glasses”. It consists in the fact that pain- | Most people view their own culture as the center and measure of all things. Normal person usually does not realize that his behavior patterns and ways of perceiving are colored by his own
Glava 1. What is culture? 31
Native culture and that people of other cultures have different points of view, value systems and norms.
The everyday behavior of most people is characterized by naive realism. They proceed from the fact that the world is the way they imagine it and consists of countless taken-for-granted things, objects, people, events that are perceived as natural and normal. As a rule, people are not aware of the relativity of their worldview. This often gives rise to the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. Then other cultures are undervalued compared to one's own. Everything that deviates from one’s own norms, habits, and types of behavior is considered base, ugly, and immoral. Such consciousness of the superiority of “one’s own” forms a corresponding model of arrogant behavior with a disdainful attitude towards other cultures.
Thirdly, people’s behavior in the communication process is also determined by the environment and the circumstances of communication. Our actions are not the same in different situations. The location of a person (classroom, restaurant, office) imposes a certain line of behavior. Consciously or unconsciously, we adhere to the appropriate rules of behavior accepted in a given culture. For example, forms of behavior in religious temples in different cultures differ quite significantly. Thus, in Mexico, men and women go to church together and stand silently during the service. In Iran, on the contrary, men and women do not walk together and sing psalms during services. The circumstances of communication also dictate their requirements for the behavior of participants. Contacts between people can occur for a variety of reasons: an award ceremony, a production meeting, sport games, dancing, funeral service. In each case, circumstances oblige one to behave differently. For example, for one culture, silence and solitude are the norm at a wedding, but in Jewish, Russian and many other cultures this event is accompanied by loud music, dancing and fun.
Fourthly, communicative behavior is determined by the amount of time and part of the day in which communication occurs. When there is a lack of time, people tend to end the conversation and end the contact in order to do something more important and necessary. In American culture, the time factor is of particular importance. All actions and actions are strictly prescribed there.
32 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the ICC]
In terms of time and for each of them, its corresponding amount is allocated. As Hall noted: “For Americans, time allocation is an indicator of how people relate to each other, how important things are to them, and an indicator of their position in society.” Each instance of communication occurs at some time of the day, which also affects his character. In order to understand this, try to answer the question for yourself: will you react the same way to phone call at 2 o'clock in the afternoon and at 2 o'clock in the morning?
Practically intercultural communication individual level represents a clash of different views on the world, I in which the partners are not aware of the differences in views, consider their vision of the world to be “normal”, and see the world from their point of view. The behavior of communicants is characterized by a situation where something taken for granted on one side meets something taken for granted on the other. At first, as often happens, open misunderstanding is revealed, that is, the realization that “something is wrong here,” that opinion and understanding do not coincide. At the same time, one’s “something that goes without saying” is not questioned, but an ethnocentric position is taken and stupidity, ignorance or malicious intent is attributed to the partner.
And at the same time, every person can probably remember situations from his life when there was communication with other people! clear, understandable and easy. This is communication with loved ones, with close friends, when everything happened by itself, without stress or thought. In such situations, there is a natural desire to understand the other person, not to offend him, not to do something wrong, etc. This type of communication and understanding of a person is called empathy. Empathy is based on the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to look at everything through his eyes, to feel his condition and to take all this into account in one’s behavior and actions. It involves greater sensitivity, sensitivity to the partner’s condition. Each type of communication is characterized by special relationships between partners, their focus on each other. In this regard, the specificity of intercultural communication lies in the desire to understand what the partner is thinking about, the reasons for his experiences, his point of view and way of thinking. Therefore, in intercultural communication, in order to understand the communicative behavior of representatives of another culture, it is necessary to consider his within the framework of their culture, and not your own, that is, here you should show more empathy than sympathy.
IfMBA 1- What is culture? 33
Sympathy has become widespread in a variety of forms
communication, and it implies that a person has mentally become
puts himself in the place of another. But with sympathy they use their own
own ways of interpreting other people's behavior.
According to Bennett's theory, if we follow the "golden rule"
morality" (“treat people as you would want them to
treated you") when communicating with speakers of other cultures,
then we show sympathy because we consider
the acceptability of their behavior from their point of view.
The specificity of intercultural communication lies in the fact that the empathic approach becomes decisive in it, i.e. mental, intellectual and emotional penetration into inner world another person, in his feelings, thoughts, expectations and aspirations. Empathy is based on the assumption that, under the same circumstances, all people experience the same feelings and sensations and this allows them to understand other points of view, ideas and differences. cultural phenomena. On this basis, a person’s ability arises to imagine himself in the place of another person, to accept his worldview, to understand his feelings, desires, and actions. Everything here is based on the experience of another person, and not our own. In this regard, Bennett offers an alternative to the “golden rule of morality” - the “platinum rule”, which expresses the essence of the empathic approach: “do unto others as they would do unto themselves.” There is no need to prove that the use of sympathy in interactions with representatives of other cultures inevitably leads to misunderstanding. And, conversely, the use of empathy with its
I the desire to understand the problem of cultural differences from the inside and find the necessary ways and means for mutual understanding dramatically increases the likelihood that understanding will arise between partners. To do this, you just need to remember and adhere to the basic characteristics of empathy:
listen carefully to what they say to you;
strive to understand how other people feel;
have a genuine interest in what should be done
say others;
show empathy for the needs of others;
have the ability to understand another's point of view.
UIu hu intercultural communication
34^_ Chapter I . 1
Yam each other. One of them is the tuning method, which many people often intuitively use when trying to understand the state of another person. It lies in the fact that you need to try one at a time to adjust as closely as possible to your partner through! imitation of his external behavior: take a pose similar to his, adopt the tempo of speech characteristic of him at the moment, etc.!| If you manage to do this, then his experiences are revealed and a feeling of understanding of the partner arises.
1.3. Cultural norms and cultural values
1.3.1. The essence of cultural values and their place in intercultural communication
From early childhood, every child masters their native language! and assimilates the culture to which it belongs. This happens in the first process of communication with loved ones and strangers, in the home environment, using verbal and non-verbal communication methods. scheniya. In everyday life, a person himself determines whether something is useful or harmful for himself. various items and I phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of good and evil, truth and | error, just and unjust. Category valuablesti is formed in human consciousness by comparing different ones! phenomena. By comprehending the world, a person decides for himself what is for him! seems important in life and what is not, what is essential and what is unimportant, what he can do without and what he cannot do without. As a result of this, his value attitude towards the world is formed, in accordance with which all objects and phenomena are considered! them according to the criterion of importance and suitability for his life. Every! the object receives its assessment and represents a certain price! ity, on the basis of which the corresponding to it is formed! attitude. As a result, a person’s general value attitude towards the world is formed, in which certain phenomena of life! people have a certain meaning and significance for them.
The role of values in life as individual, and society as a whole is extremely large. In accordance with them pro-! the selection of information in the process of communication is established! social relations, affects are formed (emotions and feelings
GlAva L What is culture? 35
Stva), interaction skills, etc. Thus, value is not a thing, but a relationship to a thing, phenomenon, event, process, etc. Values are of great importance in any culture, since they determine a person’s relationship with nature, society, the immediate environment and himself. Based on this understanding, K. Kluckhohn and F. Strodbeck defined values as “complex, grouped principles in a certain way that give harmony and direction to the various motives of human thinking and activity in the course of solving common human problems” ( Kluckhon S, Strodbeck F.; 157).
In human consciousness there are simultaneously many values, therefore it is quite justified to talk about a system of values, since values do not exist chaotically, they are ordered in a certain way in relation to each other. Mastering the values of the surrounding world, a person relies on the traditions, norms, and customs established in his culture and gradually forms a system of fundamental and generally accepted values that serve as a guide in his life. On this basis, each culture develops its own value system, reflecting its specific position in the world. A value system usually represents a hierarchy in which values are arranged in order of increasing importance. Thanks to this system, the integrity of a given culture, its unique appearance, and the necessary degree of order and predictability are ensured.
If we consider value as the significance of something for a person and society, then this concept is filled with subjective content, since there are no phenomena in the world that are equally significant for all people without exception. There are values of a personal nature, values inherent in a certain gender or age, values of any large and small groups of people, of different eras and states, and so on, right down to universal values. For this reason, in science it is customary to systematize all cultural values into two main groups. Firstly, it is a collection of outstanding works of intellectual, artistic and religious creativity. This group also includes outstanding architectural structures, unique works crafts, archaeological and ethnographic rarities. Secondly, the principles of joint coexistence of people that have justified themselves and proven their effectiveness in practice were classified as cultural values: morals, customs,
36 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundationsMKl|
Stereotypes of behavior and consciousness, assessment, opinion, interpretation | tions, etc., which lead to the integration of society, to the growth of mutual! understanding between people, their complementarity, solidarity! ty, mutual assistance, etc. Both groups of cultural values in practice form the “core” of any culture and do not define it! repeatable character.
In the process of intercultural contacts, a huge difference is revealed between how the same values are perceived! ties with people of different cultures. Among the enormous number of diverse perceptions, it is nevertheless possible to single out a group of such! which coincide both in the nature of the assessments and in content. Ta| What kind of values are called universal, or about! humane. Their universal character is due to the fact that! that the main features of such values are based on biology! what human nature and the universal properties of social interaction! modalities. For example, there is not a single culture in the world where | murder, lying and theft would be assessed positively. In each! Every culture has only its own limits of tolerance. phenomena, but their overall negative assessment is unambiguous.
Considering culture as a value system is logical! The question arises about the forms of their existence and areas of distribution! nia. In cultural anthropology, it is customary to distinguish four fundamentals! ny spheres of cultural values: everyday life, ideology, religion and xyl pre-cultural culture. In the context of intercultural communication! Of these spheres, the most important is the sphere of life, which represents historically the first sphere of the emergence and existence of cultural values.
Despite the presence of ideology, religion and art, everyday culture remains fundamental to the formation today! development of personality, since this formation begins in childhood! state, when a person is not capable of mastering the cultural values of ideology, religion and art. The specificity of everyday culture is that it develops those values that are fundamental for intercultural communication. It is everyday life that is the keeper historical memory culture, since it is much more stable than ideology and pel league and changes much more slowly than them. Therefore, everyday culture to a greater extent contains “eternal”, universal and ethnic values. In addition, everyday values are the basis for the existence of ideologists™
GlAva 1 . What is culture? 37
Religions and arts. The norms and values of everyday culture are self-sufficient. This means that, using only the values of everyday culture, a person can have stable guidelines for life in the conditions of the corresponding culture. Additional importance to everyday culture in intercultural communication is given by its spontaneous nature. The values of everyday culture are born in the process of everyday practice and have a utilitarian orientation. Therefore, they do not need justification or proof; the bearers of a given culture perceive them as natural and self-evident. They turn out to be quite sufficient to introduce a person to culture.
Cultural values, as already noted, in the life of every person have different meaning. Therefore, some people are adherents of the values of the collective, while others are adherents of the values of individualism. Thus, a person in the United States first of all considers himself an individual, and only then a member of society, while in many other countries, such as Japan, people first of all consider themselves a member of society and only then an individual. When people with such different orientations enter into communication, especially business, situations of misunderstanding always arise. For example, by conducting business meeting with the Japanese, the Americans appoint an official responsible for their preparation and conduct, and if the negotiations are successful, this employee will be rewarded. This is impossible in a Japanese company; there is collective responsibility for the results of any business. That's why in Japan they never single anyone out from the crowd.
Which values are important to people and have great influence, and which are not taken into account, depends on the culture. Their structure and significance determine the uniqueness and characteristics of culture. Most of the features of one’s own culture, as a rule, are not realized and are taken for granted. Awareness of the values of one’s culture occurs only when meeting representatives of other cultures, when interaction of different cultures occurs and differences in their value orientations are discovered. It is in these cases that situations of misunderstanding, confusion, powerlessness and irritation arise, causing feelings of resentment, anger, alienation, and insult.
It is possible to eliminate situations of misunderstanding and achieve positive results in intercultural contacts only with the help of
38 ChapterI. Cultural and anthropological foundations of the ICC
sg^ ■
I have knowledge of the characteristics of the partner’s value orientations. This knowledge helps predict his behavior, goals, aspirations,! desires; it ensures success in communicating even with strangers*. For example, an American student met* an Arab girl who came with her brother to study in the USA. Let's say the young man knows the values of Arab society, in which case he knows that an Arab man considers it his duty to protect the virtue of his sister. In a relationship with a girl, his behavior should not contain even a hint of possible sexual contact. If an American boy does not know the values of Arab society, he will not hide the fact that he likes a girl, and with his overt hints in the presence of his brother he will unintentionally offend him.
1.3.2. Cultural norms and their role in culture
The life of a person in a society of his own kind is always subordinate certain rules which form an essential part of his lifestyle. In accordance with these rules, any culture has its own idea of "bad" and "good" behavior. In every culture, a system of self-obligations and prohibitions is formed, which prescribe how a person is obliged to act in a given situation, or indicate in no case to do something not self-inflicted. All this means that communication between people is clothed in various forms, subject to certain conventions and laws. The various modes of human communication are also dictated by cultural norms that dictate how people should O<оШ to communicate or address each other, juniors and seniors by age or rank, men and women, law-abiding citizens and criminals, natives and foreigners, etc. At the same time, official laws often play a smaller social role than the rules and prohibitions that have developed largely spontaneously.
Almost from the very beginning of human cultural activity, a need arises to regulate his behavior and communication with other people. The need for this is due to the fact that the material products of culture that are created by people only show the limits of their capabilities, but they do not determine how people should act in various relationships with each other. Therefore, along with the creation of cultural values, requirements for human behavior also began to be formed.
GlAva 1. What is culture? __ 39
Lovek, which regulated both the distribution of these values and various relationships between people. Initially they were rules governing human behavior, later in science they were called normal Initially, norms served as pointers to where, how, when and what people were supposed to do in everyday life. Various standards. had varying degrees of influence and significance in people’s behavior, and those that gained the greatest influence became generally accepted.
Throughout the history of mankind, various cultures have created a huge number of very diverse norms of behavior and communication. Depending on the method, nature, purpose, scope of application, boundaries of distribution, severity of implementation, the entire variety of behavioral norms was divided into the following types: traditions, customs, rituals, laws, mores.
One of the first regulators of human behavior was manners, which were intended to regulate the everyday behavior of people, ways of realizing values, assessing various forms of their relationships, etc. Of all cultural norms, morals are the most fluid and dynamic, since they are designed to regulate current events and actions. Morals are moral assessments of the admissibility of certain forms of both one’s own behavior and the behavior of other people. This type of cultural norms covers such forms of behavior that exist in a given society and can be subjected to moral assessment. Due to their nature, morals do not imply their immediate practical implementation, and responsibility for their violation is generally much less than in all other norms. This responsibility is relative, since the punishment for violating morals can vary from disapproving looks to the death penalty, but the most common punishment in this case is verbal reprimand. For example, if you slurp loudly during a social lunch, you may only get disapproving glances from people who hear you. But in some cultures, on the contrary, it is considered the norm to “sip” your soup, and this manner does not cause any reactions from others.
Among other types of cultural norms, the most widespread and influential are customs- generally accepted patterns of action that prescribe rules of conduct for pre-
40_ Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the ICC !
Proponents of the same culture. The influence of customs mainly extends to the area of people's private lives. According to their purpose, they are designed to regulate relationships and communications of an external nature, that is, relationships with loved ones and distant relatives, with friends and neighbors, public behavior a person outside his own home, everyday etiquette with friends and strangers, etc.
The regulatory role of customs lies in the fact that they prescribe strictly established behavior in certain situations. Customs arose in time immemorial as traditional forms of behavior that ensured cultural stability. The whole society was interested in their role, and it sought to preserve and cultivate them. Therefore, many customs remained unchanged over the centuries.
Each culture develops its own system of customs, extending to all aspects of everyday relationships. This or that custom is always associated with a corresponding specific situation. Therefore, the nature and main features of customs correspond to the way of life of society and its social class \ structure. For this reason, the same, at first glance, common ■ teas in different cultures acquire completely different contents. Examples here include differences in different cultures 1 in relation to wedding ceremonies and sexual intercourse.
The wedding ceremony involves many forms of manifestation. I Today in North America it is quite natural that a young man meets a young girl, they fall in love and get married. Surely such a wedding is not unusual; In many states a marriage certificate is required, and a simple marriage ceremony is inevitable, but even compared to other cultures this is a minimum of control. Among many peoples, it is customary for the heads of families to enter into a marriage agreement. Both among the ancient Greeks, and until recently in China, the bride and groom had no right to see each other before the wedding. In Western society, with its ideal of romantic love, a girl would be horrified by one thoughts of being sold to a future husband, without having the right to take personal part in this decision. In other cultures, on the contrary, sale brides are considered the norm: relatives set a price for bride, which the other party is willing to pay voluntarily. According to the customs of some African peoples, a girl cannot go out on street with her future husband before he buys her out.
GMBA 1 . What is culture? 41
Customs and norms of sexual relations are very diverse. Young people on the Samoan islands enjoy freedom and engage in numerous sexual relationships, of which only one leads to marriage. The majority of the male population in India, just like in some Western countries, adhere to a double morality: girls and women must remain “pure,” while boys and men have the right to cheat on them. This extends to Samoans, for whom sex is more of an art, and to Christians, who until recently considered not only sex, but also marriage unworthy.
During World War II, there was a widespread belief among American soldiers that English girls were extremely available. Oddly enough, for their part, the English girls argued that the American soldiers were too passionate. A study in which Margaret Mead took part led to an interesting explanation for this contradiction. It turned out that relationships between couples - from dating to sexual relations - both in England and America go through about 30 different stages of development, but the sequence of these stages is different in each culture. So, for example, in America kissing occurs quite early, somewhere on the 5th stage, but among the British it happens much later, somewhere on the 25th stage. The Englishwoman whom the soldier kissed did not feel deceived, i.e. she intuitively considered such a relationship to be right for herself, but she had to decide whether to break off the relationship at that moment or surrender to her partner. If she decided on the latter, then the American, for whom such a sequence of relationships is familiar, regarded the girl’s behavior as availability. Resolving such a conflict in a relationship by the partners themselves is impossible in practice, since such culturally conditioned forms of behavior are largely unconscious. A feeling arises in the mind: the partner is behaving incorrectly.
The formation of various regulators of human behavior occurred simultaneously with the development and complication of his relationships with the outside world. As cultural and social experience accumulated, stable forms of behavior began to emerge that prescribed the most rational actions in the relationships of different groups of people in appropriate situations. Having a rational character and repeatedly pro-
42 Chapter I . Cultural and anthropological foundations of the ICC ,
True in practice, they began to be passed down from generation to | generation, which gave them a traditional character and gave rise to new type of cultural norms - tradition. Initially, this word meant “tradition,” emphasizing the hereditary nature of the corresponding cultural phenomena. Currently appointment traditions comes down to the regulation of interpersonal and intergroup relations, as well as the transfer of social experience from generation to generation. In fact, tradition is a kind of oral “cultural texts” that accumulate a set of patterns of social behavior, established forms of social organization, regulation and communication.
Traditions take place in various areas of human life. Taken together, they represent a stable system of human behavior in various spheres of life and in different situations, while fulfilling their special role. The main feature of traditions is the emphasis on the use of such patterns and models of behavior, following which is a necessary condition for the social life of every person. This type of social regulation excludes the element of motivation for behavior: the norms that make up the tradition must be carried out automatically.
The full course of the discipline is presented in a concise and accessible form, highlighting the most important modern concepts of the sciences of inanimate and living nature. It is an expanded and revised version of the textbook recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for studying the course “Concepts of modern natural science.” For undergraduate and graduate students, graduate students and teachers of the humanities, for teachers of secondary schools, lyceums and colleges, as well as for a wide range of readers interested in various aspects of natural science.
* * *
The given introductory fragment of the book Concepts of modern natural science (A. P. Sadokhin) provided by our book partner - the company liters.
Introduction
Modern science unites more than a thousand different scientific disciplines, each of which contains special theories, concepts, methods of knowledge and experimental techniques. Achievements of science lay the foundations of a person’s worldview. In this process, one of the main places belongs to natural scientific knowledge, which is formed by a whole group of natural sciences, creating a holistic and adequate idea of the objective world.
At the same time, the modern level of development of society places increased demands on the level of professional training of specialists, in which natural science knowledge plays a significant role. Today, society needs specialists who are focused not only on solving utilitarian problems within the limits of the knowledge acquired during training. Modern requirements for a specialist are based on his ability to constantly improve his qualifications, the desire to keep abreast of the latest advances in the profession, and the ability to creatively adapt them to his work. The education system is faced with the task of training highly qualified specialists with fundamental, comprehensive knowledge about various processes and phenomena of the surrounding world. For this purpose, the curricula of higher educational institutions include such disciplines and lecture courses that should form a student’s broad ideological orientations and attitudes, help him more fully master the scientific picture of the world and his chosen profession. The course “Concepts of modern natural science” is designed to realize these goals.
This discipline does not imply a deep and detailed study of all natural laws and processes, phenomena and facts, methods and experiments. The purpose of the course is to familiarize yourself with the basic principles and current state of development of the natural sciences, which help to form an idea of the complete picture of the surrounding world, the place of man in it, and to understand the problems of social development.
The key word of the course is the concept of “concept” (from Lat. conception – understanding, explanation), which means a relatively systematic explanation or understanding of some phenomena or events. In relation to this training course, it assumes a popular, meaningful description of natural scientific knowledge that forms the overall picture of the world in the human mind. Various natural scientific ideas about the structure of the world represent the basic knowledge necessary to understand the world in accordance with the level of knowledge of each era. In addition, without natural science knowledge it is difficult to understand not only the development of technology and technology, but also the development of society and culture.
The course “Concepts of modern natural science” covers the main problems, ideas and theories of natural sciences, scientific principles of knowledge, methodology, models and results of modern natural science, which together make up the scientific picture of the world. In this regard, the objectives of the course include the formation of knowledge about interdisciplinary, general scientific approaches and methods, the development of systematic thinking in the course of analyzing the problems of modern natural science, expanding the cognitive horizons of students by going beyond the boundaries of their narrow professional interests.
As a result of studying the discipline, students should gain knowledge that allows them to take into account the fundamental laws of nature and basic research methods in their future professional activities, as well as information about the most important historical stages and paths of development of natural science.
The textbook was prepared in accordance with the State educational standard for higher professional education, which is included in the curricula for students of all humanities specialties. It is based on textbooks previously published by the author and courses of lectures given by the author at various universities.
The experience of teaching this discipline to students of various humanitarian specialties shows that one should not present the material of the natural sciences, delving into “technical details” if this is not justified by the general plan and methodological approach to the presentation of the subject. The author saw his main task as making the form of presentation of the material accessible to future specialists for whom natural science is not a professional discipline.
The range of humanitarian specialties in the higher education system is quite wide and diverse, so the author sought to give his work a universal character so that it would be useful for students of various humanitarian specialties - economists, psychologists, philosophers, historians, sociologists, managers, lawyers, etc. This orientation of the educational the manual assumes a conscious refusal to master physical and chemical formulas, memorize numerous rules and laws, and concentrate attention on the most important concepts of modern natural science, which are the foundation of the scientific picture of the world. The textbook is both a scientific and popular publication, providing a quick and accessible introduction to the problems of natural sciences for a wide range of readers.
The author expresses gratitude to the reviewers and fellow teachers for their valuable comments and recommendations made during the creation of the textbook, as well as to all interested readers for possible comments and suggestions.
The textbook is a comprehensive and systematic presentation of the main issues of cultural knowledge in accordance with the requirements of the state educational standard of higher professional education. The authors saw their main goal as presenting in a holistic form the content of modern cultural knowledge, showing the history of the development of cultural thought, considering the development of the cultures of the countries of the East, West and Russia from antiquity to the present, introducing readers to the categorical apparatus of this discipline, revealing the essence of the main problems modern cultural studies. Along with covering the fundamental facts of the cultural history of mankind, the authors tried to involve additional materials that should contribute to a more in-depth study of the topics presented in this course.
For students of higher educational institutions, it may also be of interest to humanities specialists, students of high schools, lyceums and colleges, as well as to a wide range of readers.
The main task of higher education is to train not just a specialist in some narrow field of production and management, but to form an individual capable of creatively solving the problems facing her and consciously making decisions on all issues that are vitally important to her.
Labor market research clearly shows that modern society does not need specialists who are capable of solving narrowly utilitarian problems only within the framework of the complex of knowledge and skills acquired during training. Today it is not enough to master the specialty written in the diploma; you need to be aware of the latest achievements in your professional field and be able to creatively apply them in your workplace. And this is accessible only to a comprehensively educated person, with a high level of general culture, who can find new, unconventional solutions to the problems facing him. The speed and unconventional thinking of specialists are determined not only by the volume of highly specialized knowledge, but also by their erudition and breadth of outlook.
Table of contents
From the authors 3
Chapter 1. Culturology in the system of humanities 5
1.1. The formation of cultural studies as a science 6
1.2. Interdisciplinary connections of cultural studies 8
1.3. Subject and tasks of cultural studies 11
1.4. The structure of cultural studies as a science 15
Chapter 2. The emergence and development of cultural thought 22
2.1. Pre-classical period of development of cultural studies 23
2.2. The classical period of development of cultural studies 27
2.3. Enlightenment and idealistic concepts of culture 35
Chapter 3. Non-classical period of development of cultural studies 45
3.1. Culturological concept of evolutionism. G. Spencer, E. Tylor 45
3.2. Theory of local civilizations. N.Ya. Danilevsky 48
3.3. Philosophy of life about culture. F. Nietzsche 56
Chapter 4. Culturological theories of modernity 63
4.1. Morphological concept of history by O. Spengler 63
4.2. Concept of Civilizations by A. Toynbee 67
4.3. The concept of cyclical development of culture P. Sorokin 73
4.4. Psychoanalytic concept of culture 3. Freud 81
4.5. The concept of the collective unconscious by K. Jung 84
4.6. Functional theory of culture by B. Malinovsky 87
4.7. Game concept of culture I. Huizinga 90
4.8. Passionary theory of culture by L. Gumilyov 94
Chapter 5. Culture as a subject of study 98
5.1. The concept of “culture” 98
5.2. Basic theories of culourogenesis 102
5.3. Culture and civilization 106
Chapter 6. Structure and functions of culture 114
6.1. Artifact, cultural form and cultural system 114
6.2. Material and spiritual forms of culture 116
6.3. World culture and national (ethnic) culture 122
6.4. Mass culture and elite culture 125
6.5. Counterculture and subcultures 131
6.6. Functions of culture 134
Chapter 7. Dynamics of Culture 145
7.1. Models (forms) of cultural dynamics 146
7.2. Types of cultural dynamics 157
7.3. Sources (mechanisms) of cultural dynamics 160
7.4. Factors of cultural dynamics 165
7.5. Modernization of traditional cultures 172
7.6. Globalization of culture of the modern world 175
Chapter 8. Genesis of culture 179
8.1. Culture and nature 180
8.2. Culture and language 185
8.3. Personal cultural identity 188
Chapter 9. Typology of cultures 199
9.1. Historical typology of cultures 200
9.2. Formational typology of cultures 201
9.3. Civilization typology of cultures 202
9.4. Linear typology of cultures by K. Jaspers 204
9.5. Modern concepts of cultural typology 206
Chapter 10. The culture of primitive society 211
10.1. Periodization and characteristic features of primitive culture 211
10.2. The formation of the culture of primitive society 214
10.3. Spiritual primitive culture 217
10.4. Artistic culture of primitive society 224
Chapter 11. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 231
11.1. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 232
11.2. Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia 238
11.3. Art of Mesopotamian civilizations 242
Chapter 12. Culture of the civilization of Ancient Egypt 248
12.1. The origins of the culture of Ancient Egypt 248
12.2. Culture of the Ancient Kingdom 250
12.3. Culture of the Middle Kingdom 254
12.4. New Kingdom Culture 256
12.5. Religion and Art of Ancient Egypt 260
Chapter 13. Unity and diversity of Indian culture 266
13.1. The culture of the Harappan civilization and the culture of the Aryans 267
13.2. Culture in the Mauryan era 274
13.3. Culture in the Gupta era 281
13.4. Culture of India during the Middle Ages and Modern times 286
Chapter 14. Traditional culture of China 294
14.1. The main stages of the development of the culture of Ancient China 295
14.2. Spiritual culture and religion of China 297
14.3. Art of Ancient China 303
14.4. Chinese culture of the Middle Ages 305
Chapter 15. Hebrew culture 317
15.1. Origins and beginning of Hebrew culture 317
15.2. History of the religion of the ancient Jews 319
15.3. Monuments of ancient Jewish culture 325
Chapter 16. Ancient culture of Ancient Greece 328
16.1. Periodization of the culture of Ancient Greece 328
16.2. Creto-Mycenaean culture 330
16.3. Culture of the Homeric period 333
16.4. Culture of the archaic period 335
16.5. Culture of the classical period 341
16.6. Hellenistic culture 350
Chapter 17. Ancient culture of Ancient Rome 356
17.1. Culture of the Republic Era 357
17.2. Culture of the Empire 363
17.3. Culture of the Late Empire 369
Chapter 18. Culture of Byzantine civilization 373
18.1. EVOLUTION OF Byzantine culture 374
18.2. Early period of Byzantine culture 375
18.3. "Dark Age" and "Macedonian Renaissance" 380
18.4. "Palaeologian Renaissance" 385
Chapter 19. Culture of civilizations of pre-Columbian America 391
19.1. Olmec culture 391
19.2. Culture of the Mayan civilization 393
19.3. Culture of the Aztec civilization 397
19.4. Culture of the Inca Civilization 400
Chapter 20. European culture of the Middle Ages 405
20.1. Features of the culture of the Middle Ages 406
20.2. Three types of culture of the Middle Ages 412
20.3. Artistic styles of the Middle Ages 422
Chapter 21. Arab-Muslim type of culture 429
21.1. Origins and foundations of Arab culture 430
21.2. Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages 434
Chapter 22. Traditional culture of Japan 445
22.1. Spiritual and religious foundations of Japanese culture 445
22.2. Artistic culture of medieval Japan 449
Chapter 23. Culture of the Renaissance 457
23.1. Prerequisites and features of Renaissance culture 457
23.2. Italian Renaissance Culture: Intelligence, Harmony and Power 464
23.3. Northern Renaissance 478
Chapter 24. European culture of modern times 486
24.1. Characteristic features of the era 487
24.2. Culture and art of the 17th century. Classicism and Baroque 491
24.3. Culture and art of the 18th century. Rococo and sentimentalism 502
Chapter 25. Main directions of European artistic culture of the 19th century. 507
25.1. Socio-historical features of the era 508
25.2. Romanticism 510
25.3. Critical realism and the principle of the typical 513
25.4. Impressionism and post-impressionism 518
25.5. Symbolism and decadence: artistic consciousness and creative method 522
History of Russian culture 528
Chapter 26. Russian culture of the era of Kievan Rus 529
26.1. Origins and conditions for the emergence of Russian culture 529
26.2. Old Russian pagan culture 532
26.3. Culture of Kievan Rus, Ancient Novgorod and Pskov 536
26.4. Typological features of ancient Russian culture 550
Chapter 27. Medieval culture of Moscow Rus' 553
27.1. Russian culture of the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion 554
27.2 The beginning of the culture of Muscovite Rus' 558
27.3. Russian culture of the 16th century. 563
27.4. The secularization of Russian culture of the 17th century. 570
Chapter 28. Two faces of Russian culture of modern times 582
28.1. Culture of the era of Peter's reforms 583
28.2. Culture of Russia 30-50s of the 18th century. 590
28.3. Formation of a national Russian culture 596
Chapter 29. “Golden Age” of Russian culture 608
29.1. Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century: development of identity and self-awareness 609
29.2. Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: citizenship, morality and democratic orientation 620
Chapter 30. Culture of the Silver Age: personality and its spiritual world 631
30.1. New artistic movements in Russian literature 632
30.2. Fine Art of the Silver Age 639
Chapter 31. World culture of modern times (instead of conclusion) 643
31.1. Main features and trends of modern world culture 644
31.2. Contemporary modernism 647
31.3. Modernism in the fine arts 654
31.4. Postmodernism and its features 663
Brief dictionary of special terms 669.
The formation of cultural studies as a science 6
Interdisciplinary connections of cultural studies 8
Subject and tasks of cultural studies 11
The structure of cultural studies as a science 15
Chapter 2. The emergence and development of cultural thought 22
Pre-classical period of development of cultural studies 23
The classical period of development of cultural studies 27
Enlightenment and idealistic concepts of culture 35
Chapter 3. Non-classical period of development of cultural studies 45
Culturological concept of evolutionism. G. Spencer, E. Tylor 45
Theory of local civilizations. N.Ya. Danilevsky 48
Philosophy of life about culture. F. Nietzsche 56
Chapter 4. Culturological theories of modernity 63
Morphological concept of history by O. Spengler 63
Concept of Civilizations by A. Toynbee 67
The concept of cyclical development of culture P. Sorokin 73
Psychoanalytic concept of culture 3. Freud 81
The concept of the collective unconscious by K. Jung 84
Functional theory of culture by B. Malinovsky 87
Game concept of culture I. Huizinga 90
Passionary theory of culture by L. Gumilyov 94
Chapter 5. Culture as a subject of study 98
The concept of “culture” 98
Basic theories of cultural genesis 102
Culture and civilization 106
Chapter 6. Structure and functions of culture 114
Artifact, cultural form and cultural system 114
Material and spiritual forms of culture 116
World culture and national (ethnic) culture 122
Mass culture and elite culture 125
Counter culture and subcultures 131
Functions of culture 134
Chapter 7. Dynamics of Culture 145
Models (forms) of cultural dynamics 146
Types of cultural dynamics 157
Sources (mechanisms) of cultural dynamics 160
Factors of cultural dynamics 165
Modernization of traditional cultures 172
Globalization of culture of the modern world 175
Chapter 8. Genesis of culture 179
Culture and nature 180
Culture and language 185
Personal cultural identity 188
Chapter 9. Typology of cultures 199
Historical typology of cultures 200
Formational typology of cultures 201
Civilization typology of cultures 202
Linear typology of cultures by K. Jaspers 204
Modern concepts of cultural typology 206
Chapter 10. Culture of primitive society 211
Periodization and characteristic features of primitive culture 211
The formation of the culture of primitive society 214
Spiritual primitive culture 217
Artistic culture of primitive society 224
Chapter 11. Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 231
Culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia 232
Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia 238
Art of Mesopotamian civilizations 242
Chapter 12. Culture of the civilization of Ancient Egypt 248
The origins of the culture of Ancient Egypt 248
Culture of the Ancient Kingdom 250
Culture of the Middle Kingdom 254
New Kingdom Culture 256
Religion and Art of Ancient Egypt 260
Chapter 13. Unity and diversity of Indian culture 266
The culture of the Harappan civilization and the culture of the Aryans 267
Culture in the Mauryan era 274
Culture in the Gupta era 281
Culture of India during the Middle Ages and Modern times 286
Chapter 14. Traditional culture of China 294
The main stages of the development of the culture of Ancient China 295
Spiritual culture and religion of China 297
Art of Ancient China 303
Chinese culture of the Middle Ages 305
Chapter 15. Hebrew culture 317
Origins and beginning of Hebrew culture 317
History of the religion of the ancient Jews 319
Monuments of ancient Jewish culture 325
Chapter 16. Ancient culture of Ancient Greece 328
Periodization of the culture of Ancient Greece 328
Creto-Mycenaean culture 330
Culture of the Homeric period 333
Culture of the archaic period 335
Culture of the classical period 341
Hellenistic culture 350
Chapter 17. Ancient culture of Ancient Rome 356
Culture of the Republic Era 357
Culture of the Empire 363
Culture of the Late Empire 369
Chapter 18. Culture of Byzantine civilization 373
Evolution of Byzantine culture 374
Early period of Byzantine culture 375
"Dark Age" and "Macedonian Renaissance" 380
"Palaeologian Renaissance" 385
Chapter 19. Culture of civilizations of pre-Columbian America 391
Olmec culture 391
Culture of the Mayan civilization 393
Culture of the Aztec civilization 397
Culture of the Inca Civilization 400
Chapter 20. European culture of the Middle Ages 405
Features of the culture of the Middle Ages 406
Three types of culture of the Middle Ages 412
Artistic styles of the Middle Ages 422
Chapter 21. Arab-Muslim type of culture 429
Origins and foundations of Arab culture 430
Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages 434
Chapter 22. Traditional culture of Japan 445
Spiritual and religious foundations of Japanese culture 445
Artistic culture of medieval Japan 449
Chapter 23. Culture of the Renaissance 457
Prerequisites and features of Renaissance culture 457
Italian Renaissance Culture: Intelligence, Harmony and Power 464
Northern Renaissance 478
Chapter 24. European culture of modern times 486
Characteristic features of the era 487
Culture and art of the 17th century. Classicism and Baroque 491
Culture and art of the 18th century. Rococo and sentimentalism 502
Chapter 25. Main directions of European artistic culture of the 19th century. 507
Socio-historical features of the era 508
Romanticism 510
Critical realism and the principle of the typical 513
Impressionism and post-impressionism 518
Symbolism and decadence: artistic consciousness and creative method 522
History of Russian culture 528
Chapter 26. Russian culture of the era of Kievan Rus 529
Origins and conditions for the emergence of Russian culture 529
Old Russian pagan culture 532
Culture of Kievan Rus, Ancient Novgorod and Pskov 536
Typological features of ancient Russian culture 550
Chapter 27. Medieval culture of Moscow Rus' 553
27.1. Russian culture of the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion 554
27.2 The beginning of the culture of Muscovite Rus' 558
Russian culture of the 16th century. 563
The secularization of Russian culture of the 17th century. 570
Chapter 28. Two faces of Russian culture of modern times 582
Culture of the era of Peter's reforms 583
Culture of Russia 30-50s of the 18th century. 590
Formation of a national Russian culture 596
Chapter 29. “Golden Age” of Russian culture 608
Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century: development of identity and self-awareness 609
Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: citizenship, morality and democratic orientation 620
Chapter 30. Culture of the Silver Age: personality and its spiritual world 631
New artistic movements in Russian literature 632
Fine Art of the Silver Age 639
Chapter 31. World culture of modern times (instead of conclusion) 643
Main features and trends of modern world culture 644
Contemporary modernism 647
Modernism in the fine arts 654
Postmodernism and its features 663
Brief dictionary of special terms 669
The main task of higher education is to train not just a specialist in some narrow field of production and management, but to form an individual capable of creatively solving the problems facing her and consciously making decisions on all issues that are vitally important to her.
Labor market research clearly shows that modern society does not need specialists who are capable of solving narrowly utilitarian problems only within the framework of the complex of knowledge and skills acquired during training. Today it is not enough to master the specialty written in the diploma; you need to be aware of the latest achievements in your professional field and be able to creatively apply them in your workplace. And this is accessible only to a comprehensively educated person, with a high level of general culture, who can find new, unconventional solutions to the problems facing him. The speed and unconventional thinking of specialists are determined not only by the volume of highly specialized knowledge, but also by their erudition and breadth of outlook.
A.P. Sadokhin
CULTURAL SCIENCE
theory and cultural history
Tutorial
Sadokhin A.P. - Candidate of Philosophy, Associate Professor, Head. department
social and humanitarian disciplines of the Moscow Psychological and Social
institute
Reviewers:
Kondakov I.V. - Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of the Department of History
and theories of culture of the Russian State University for the Humanities Logunova L.B. - Candidate of Philosophy, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy
Faculty of Public Administration, Moscow State University. M.B. Lomonosov
Sadokhin A.P.
Culturology: theory and history of culture: Tutorial. - M.: Eksmo, 2007. - 624 p. - (Educational standard XXI).
ISBN 978-5-699-21102-9
The proposed textbook is a comprehensive and systematic presentation of the main issues of cultural knowledge in accordance with the requirements of the State educational standard of higher professional education. The content of modern cultural knowledge is presented in a holistic form. The history of the formation and development of cultural studies is shown. The categorical apparatus of this discipline is outlined. The essence of the main problems of modern cultural science is revealed. The second part of the book examines the development of cultures in the countries of the East, West and Russia from antiquity to modern times. At the same time, the author did not limit himself to covering the fundamental facts of the cultural history of mankind, but also attracted bright additional materials that can contribute to a more in-depth study by the interested reader of the topics presented in this course.
For students of higher educational institutions, humanities specialists, students of senior secondary schools, lyceums and colleges, as well as for a wide range of readers.
UDC 008(075) BBK 71-ya7
ISBN 978-5-699-21102-9
© Eksmo Publishing House LLC, 2007
Electronic table of contents
Electronic table of contents. 3
INTRODUCTION CULTURAL STUDY AS A SCIENCE. ITS SUBJECT AND STRUCTURE.. 10
The formation of cultural studies as a science. 10
The place of cultural studies in the system of other sciences. eleven
Culturology and philosophy. eleven
Cultural studies and history. eleven
Cultural studies and sociology. 12
Culturology and cultural anthropology. 12
Subject of cultural studies. 13
Structure of cultural studies. 14
Methods of cultural studies. 17
1. Genetic -... 18
2. Comparative -... 18
3. System -... 18
4. Structural and functional -... 18
5. Sociological -... 18
6. Activity -... 18
7. Axiological (value) -... 18
8. Semiotic -... 19
9. Hermeneutic -... 19
10. Biosphere -... 19
11. Educational (humanitarian) -... 19
LITERATURE.. 19
Section I. Culturology: main schools and directions. 19
CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND.. 19
1.1. Ancient ideas about culture. 20
Ancient understanding of culture.. 21
1.2. Middle Ages. 21
1.3. Renaissance and Modern Times. 22
1. The age of the gods is the golden age, 23
2. Age of heroes - silver age -... 23
3. The era of people - the Iron Age, 23
Educational concepts of culture.. 25
Jean Jacques Rousseau. 25
Johann Gottfried Herder. 26
Idealistic concepts of culture.. 27
The concept of culture by I. Kant. 27
The concept of culture by G. Hegel. 28
LITERATURE.. 29
CHAPTER 2. CULTUROLOGICAL THEORIES OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 30
2.1. Marxist concept of culture.. 30
2.2. The concept of culture in social and cultural anthropology. 31
2.3. Theory of cultural-historical types N.Ya. Danilevsky. 32
2.4. Philosophy of life about culture. 35
Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of culture. 36
LITERATURE.. 38
CHAPTER 3. CULTURAL SCIENCE OF THE XX CENTURY... 39
3.1. Culturological concept of O. Spengler. 39
3.3. Sociological concepts of culture.. 44
Theory of cultural supersystems by P. Sorokin. 44
Ideal culture. 45
Sensual(sensitive) culture. 45
Sensitive personality. 46
Mixed personalities. 47
3.4. Psychoanalysis and culture. 48
The concept of the collective unconscious by K. Jung. 51
3.5. Functional theory of culture... 52
3.6. Symbolic theories of culture... 54
3.7. Game concept of culture... 55
3.8. Ethological theory of culture... 57
3.9. Biosphere concepts of culture.. 58
LITERATURE.. 61
Section II. Theory of culture... 63
CHAPTER 4. CULTURE AS A SUBJECT OF STUDY... 63
4.1. Definition of culture... 63
The essence of the anthropological approach. 63
Sociological approach. 63
Philosophical approach. 64
In the first group they included descriptive definitions, 64
The second group consisted of historical definitions, 64
The fourth group included psychological definitions, 64
IN first subgroup the emphasis is on the process of human adaptation. 64
In definitions second subgroup draws attention to the process of human learning, 64
Third subgroup definitions speaks about the formation of habits in a person. 65
And finally, fourth subgroup constitute the actual psychological, 65
The fifth group consisted of structural definitions of culture, 65
First subgroup definitions is based on the fact that culture is the products of human activity, 65
Definitions second subgroup reduce culture to the totality and production of ideas, 65
IN third subgroup genetic definitions emphasize symbolic human activity. 65
The last one fourth, subgroup constitute a kind of negative definition, representing culture as something originating from non-culture. 65
Sociological definitions understand culture as a factor in the organization of social life, 65
IN fourth group entered psychological definitions, emphasizing the connection between culture and the psychology of human behavior 66
IN first subgroup emphasis is placed on the process of human adaptation to the environment, 66
In definitions second subgroup draws attention to the process of human learning, 66
Third subgroup definitions speaks about the formation of habits in a person. 66
And finally, fourth subgroup constitute proper psychological, or more precisely, psychoanalytic definitions. 66
Fifth group made up structural definitions cultures that place emphasis on the structural organization of culture. 66
In the last sixth, group includes genetic definitions, viewing culture from the point of view of its origin. 66
Sociological definitions understand culture as a factor in the organization of social life, 67
4.2. Culturogenesis and the beginning of culture.. 68
Basic theories of cultural genesis. 68
4.3. Biosocial hypothesis of cultural genesis. 70
4.4. Culture and civilization. 72
The concept of “civilization” and its aspects. 73
By the nature of political power. 74
Natural-geographical factor. 75
The relationship between the concepts of “culture” and “civilization”. 75
LITERATURE.. 76
CHAPTER 5. MORPHOLOGY OF CULTURE. FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE... 77
Morphology of culture- is a branch of cultural studies whose subject is the study of typical forms of culture, 77
5.1. Artifacts - cultural forms - cultural systems... 77
5.2 Material and spiritual forms of culture.. 78
5.3. National (ethnic) cultures - world culture. 81
5.4. Mass and elite culture... 82
5.5. Counterculture and subcultures.. 85
5.6. Functions of culture... 87
LITERATURE.. 91
CHAPTER 6. DYNAMICS OF CULTURE... 91
6.1. Models (forms) of cultural dynamics.. 92
Cyclic model. 92
Inversion. 92
Concepts of local civilizations N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee. 93
Linear model of cultural dynamics. 93
Deviant model of cultural dynamics.. 94
Wave model of cultural dynamics... 94
So, the first ultra-long-term cycle. 95
Second ultra-long-term cycle -... 95
The true flowering of culture is observed in third ultra-long-term cycle, 95
Fourth ultra-long-term cycle. 96
Sixth civilization cycle. 96
6.2. Types of cultural dynamics... 97
6.3. Sources (mechanisms) of cultural dynamics. 100
6.4. Factors of cultural dynamics. 103
Factor of interaction between cultures and cultural systems, 103
Factor of spatial location of cultural centers. 104
Factor of social institutions and social activity. 104
Factor of structural connections in culture. 104
Factor of rational changes and managerial activity. 105
Factor of individual activity. 105
6.5. Modernization of traditional societies and cultures. 105
6.6. Globalization of culture of the modern world. 107
LITERATURE.. 108
CHAPTER 7. ONTOLOGY OF CULTURE... 108
7.1. Culture and nature. 109
7.2. Culture and language. 110
7.3. Culture and personality. Cultural identity. 112
Socialization and enculturation. 112
Cultural identity. 116
LITERATURE.. 117
CHAPTER 8. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION... 118
8.1. The concept and essence of intercultural communication. 118
Intercultural communication at the macro level. 119
Ethnic level of interaction between cultures. 120
National level of interaction of cultures. 122
Civilization level of interaction. 122
8.2. Structure and determinants of intercultural communication. 122
Attitude to time. 123
Attitude to space. 124
Attitude to personal freedom. 125
Attitude to human nature. 125
Attitude to intercultural communication. 126
Forms of intercultural communication. 126
Direct and indirect forms of communication. 126
Context of intercultural communication. 126
8.3. Acculturation as mastering a foreign culture.. 127
The concept and essence of acculturation. 127
Basic acculturation strategies: 127
Separation -... 128
Marginalization. 128
Integration. 128
Acculturation results. 128
Psychological adaptation -... 128
Sociocultural adaptation. 128
8.4. Culture shock when mastering a “foreign” culture... 129
The mechanism of development of culture shock. 130
8.5. Stereotypes in intercultural communication. 131
The concept and essence of a stereotype. 132
The mechanism of stereotype formation. 133
The importance of stereotypes for intercultural communication, 133
8.6. Prejudices in intercultural communication. 134
The concept and essence of prejudice. 134
The mechanism of prejudice formation. 135
Types of prejudices. 136
Correction and rejection of prejudices. 136
8.7. Intercultural conflicts and ways to overcome them. 137
8.8. Results of intercultural communication. 139
8.9. Tolerance as a result of intercultural communication. 140
The concept of tolerance. 140
LITERATURE.. 142
CHAPTER 9. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES. 143
9.1. Historical typology of cultures. 143
Stone Age -... 143
Copper Age -... 144
Bronze Age -... 144
Iron Age. 144
9.2. Formational typology of cultures. 144
9.3. Civilization typology of cultures. 144
9.4. Linear typology of cultures by K. Jaspers. 145
9.5. Modern concepts of cultural typology. 146
In a preliterate society. 146
Written cultures.. 146
Information, or screen, culture. 147
Traditional cultures.. 147
The formation of a modernized culture.. 147
Eastern type of culture.. 148
Western type of culture.. 148
LITERATURE.. 148
Section III. History of culture.. 149
CHAPTER 10. THE BIRTH OF CULTURE AND ART IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY. 149
Magic. 155
LITERATURE.. 156
CHAPTER 11. HISTORY AND CULTURE OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF MESOPOTAMIA.. 156
11.1. Historical excursion. 156
11.2. Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia. 158
11.3. Artistic culture of Mesopotamian civilizations. 160
LITERATURE.. 163
CHAPTER 12. ANCIENT EGYPT: A CULTURE FACED TO ETERNITY.. 164
12.1. Ancient kingdom. 164
12.2. Middle Kingdom. 166
12.3. New kingdom. 167
12.4. Religion and art of Ancient Egypt. 168
LITERATURE.. 171
CHAPTER 13. CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA: UNITY AND DIVERSITY. 171
13.1. Culture of the Harappan civilization. 172
13.2. Aryan culture. 172
13.3. Indian culture in the Mauryan era. 175
13.4. Culture in India during the Gupta era. 178
13.5. Culture of medieval India. 181
13.6. Indo-Islamic culture of India. 182
LITERATURE.. 184
CHAPTER 14. CULTURE OF ANCIENT CHINA: COMBINATION OF SYMBOL AND RITUAL.. 184
14.1. Characteristic features of Chinese spiritual culture. 186
Confucianism arose at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. 187
14.2. Artistic culture of China. 189
14.3. Medieval Chinese culture. 190
LITERATURE.. 195
CHAPTER 15. “GREEK MIRACLE”: THE DESIRE FOR HARMONY AND PERFECTION.. 196
15.1. Creto-Mycenaean culture. 197
15.2. Homeric period. 198
15.3. Archaic period. 199
15.4. Classic period. 202
15.5. Hellenism. 206
LITERATURE.. 209
CHAPTER 16. CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME: THE BASIS OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION.. 210
16.1. Culture of the Republic era. 210
16.2. Empire culture. 213
16.3. Culture of the late empire. 215
LITERATURE.. 217
CHAPTER 17. CHRISTIAN CULTURE OF THE BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION... 217
17.1. Early Christian period. 218
17.2. Culture of the Macedonian Renaissance. 221
17.3. Culture of the Palaiologan era. 224
LITERATURE.. 226
CHAPTER 18. ARAB-MUSLIM CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES... 226
18.1. General outline. 226
18.2. Basic forms of Muslim culture.. 228
LITERATURE.. 233
CHAPTER 19. WESTERN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES... 233
19.1. Historical sketch. 233
19.2. Spiritual culture of the Middle Ages. 235
Symbolism and allegorism -... 236
Knightly culture. 237
Urban (burgher) culture. 239
Folk (peasant) culture. 240
19.4. Artistic styles of the Middle Ages. 241
Roman style. 241
Gothic style. 242
LITERATURE.. 244
CHAPTER 20. ANTHROPOCENTRIST PARADIGM OF RENAISSANCE CULTURE.. 244
20.1. General outline. 244
20.2. The culture of the Italian Renaissance. 248
Proto-Renaissance. 248
Early Renaissance. 249
High Renaissance. 251
Leonardo da Vinci. 252
Late Renaissance. 253
20.3. Northern Renaissance. 255
Renaissance in the Netherlands. 256
Renaissance in Germany. 257
LITERATURE.. 258
CHAPTER 21. HUMANISTIC CULTURE OF THE NEW TIME... 258
21.1. Socio-cultural features of the era. 259
21.2. Culture of the 17th century 261
21.3. Culture of the 18th century 265
Rococo(from French"rocaille" - shell) -... 266
LITERATURE.. 267
CHAPTER 22. SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 267
22.1. Romanticism. 268
22.2. Realism. 269
22.3. Impressionism. 271
22.4. Symbolism. 273
Symbolism.. 273
LITERATURE.. 274
CHAPTER 23. RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES... 274
23.1. Background. 274
23.2. Culture of pagan Rus'. 276
23.3. Culture of Kievan Rus. 278
23.4. Medieval Russian culture. 283
23.5. Typological features of ancient Russian culture... 285
LITERATURE.. 286
CHAPTER 24. HISTORY AND CULTURE OF MOSCOW Rus'.. 286
24.1. Russian culture of the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. 287
24.2. Russian culture of the 16th century. 291
24.3. Russian culture of the 17th century. 295
LITERATURE.. 300
CHAPTER 25. TWO FACES OF RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY... 300
25.1. General outline. 300
25.2. Culture of the era of Peter's reforms. 302
25.3. Culture of the 30-50s. XVIII century 304
25.4. Culture of the second half of the 18th century. 307
LITERATURE.. 313
CHAPTER 26. “GOLDEN AGE” OF RUSSIAN CULTURE... 314
26.1. General outline. 314
26.2. Culture of the first half of the 19th century. 315
26.3. Culture of the second half of the 19th century. 320
Culture of the "Silver Age". 325
Symbolism. 326
Acmeism.. 327
Futurism (cubo-futurism) (from Latin futurum - future) -... 328
Russian avant-garde. 329
LITERATURE.. 329
CONCLUSION. CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY: MAIN DIRECTIONS.. 330
Modernism(from French"modern" - new, "modern") 331
Postmodernism. 338
LITERATURE.. 340
BRIEF DICTIONARY OF SPECIAL TERMS... 341
Introduction. Cultural studies as a science. Its subject and structure..............5
Chapter I. CULTURAL STUDIES: MAIN SCHOOLS AND DIRECTIONS.... 23
Chapter 1. Background.................................................. ..........25
Chapter 2. Culturological theories of the 19th century....................................43
Chapter 3. Culturology of the twentieth century.................................................... ..60
Chapter II. THEORY OF CULTURE....................................101
Chapter 4. Culture as a subject of study....................................103
Chapter 5. Morphology of culture. Functions of culture......................125
Chapter 6. Dynamics of culture.................................................... ...151
Chapter 7. Ontology of culture.................................................... ...181
Chapter 8. Intercultural communication....................................197
Chapter 9. Typology of cultures.................................................... ....242
Chapter III. CULTURAL HISTORY.................................... 253
Chapter 10. The birth of culture and art in primitive society.....255
Chapter 11. History and culture of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia.....269
Chapter 12. Ancient Egypt: a culture facing eternity..................283
Chapter 13. Culture of Ancient India: unity and diversity...........296
Chapter 14. Culture of Ancient China: a combination of symbol and ritual.......321
Chapter 15. “Greek Miracle”: the pursuit of harmony and perfection___342
Chapter 16. The culture of Ancient Rome: the basis of European civilization... 368
Chapter 17. Christian culture of Byzantine civilization...........382
Chapter 18. Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages.................................398
Chapter 19. Western European culture of the Middle Ages.................................411
Chapter 20. Anthropocentric paradigm of Renaissance culture.....432
Chapter 21. Humanistic culture of the New Age...................................457
Chapter 22. Self-awareness of European culture of the 19th century................................473
Chapter 23. Russian culture of the early Middle Ages.................................486
Chapter 24. History and culture of Muscovite Rus'...................................508
Chapter 25. Two faces of Russian culture of the 18th century....................................534
Chapter 26. “Golden Age” of Russian culture....................................558
Conclusion. Culture of the 20th century: main directions......586
Brief dictionary of special terms............................605