The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation, which is used as a means of interethnic communication in Russia and in the near abroad. Currently, the Russian language is one of the languages of European and world significance. Along with English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic, it is recognized as an official and working language of the United Nations. More than 250 million people study the modern Russian literary language in almost 100 countries of the world.
The national Russian language is a means of written and oral communication of the Russian nation. Along with the integrity of the territory, economic life and mental makeup, language is a leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term “nation”. National language is a historical category; it is formed during the formation of a nation, its development from a nationality.
Russian national language according to family ties that arose and formed in the process historical development, belongs to Slavic group Indo-European family languages. By origin, it is related to the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which emerged from the 3rd millennium BC. from the base Indo-European language and until the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. (until the 5th-6th centuries AD) served as a means of communication for all Slavic tribes. During the existence of a single common Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages developed. The long existence of the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language (over three thousand years) as a single dialect of all Slavic tribes explains the high degree of similarity between modern Slavic languages.
Around VI-VII AD. the pan-Slavic unity disintegrated, and on the basis of the common Slavic language the East Slavic (Old Russian), West Slavic (Polish, Slovak, Czech, Serbian Sorbian, etc.) and South Slavic (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and dead Old Slavic) languages were formed. Old Russian language was spoken East Slavic tribes, which in the 9th century formed the Old Russian people within Kyiv State. As feudal fragmentation intensified, the overthrow Tatar-Mongol yoke, and also as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state in the 14th-15th centuries, the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities were formed, and on the basis of the once single Old Russian language, three independent language: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.
 |
|||||||
Ukrainian Russian Belarusian
The Russian national language begins to take shape XVII century in connection with the development of capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into a nation. phonetic system, grammatical structure and the basic vocabulary of the Russian national language is inherited from the language of the Great Russian people, formed as a result of the interaction of the Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian dialects. The center of this interaction was Moscow, located at the junction of the south and north of the European part of Russia. It was the Moscow business vernacular that had a significant influence on the development of the national language. During this period, the development of new dialectal features of dialects stops, the influence of Church Slavonic language, a literary language of a democratic type is developing, based on the traditions of the language of business Moscow.
In the 18th century, through the efforts of progressively minded circles of society, the creation of a single national Russian language began (until the 18th century, in fiction and official business documents, the so-called Slavic-Russian language was used, which absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language). The democratization of language is taking place, i.e. its vocabulary and grammatical structure include elements of living oral speech, living colloquial speech of the merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants, there is a gradual liberation of the language from the Church Slavonic language, the formation scientific language, Russian scientific terminology. In all these processes, the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov took an active part, who did immeasurably much to streamline the Russian language: he created the first “Russian grammar” in the Russian language, in which he presented for the first time the scientific system of the Russian language, created a code grammar rules, demonstrates the richest capabilities of the language, seeks permission from Catherine II to give lectures at the university in Russian, creates Russian scientific and technical terminology (he is the author of the words atmosphere, degree, matter, electricity, thermometer, circumstance, combustion and etc.). Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages - “the vastness of the places where it dominates” and “its own space and contentment.” In the Peter the Great era, due to the appearance of many new objects and phenomena in the life of society, the vocabulary of the Russian language was updated and enriched. Inflow foreign words from Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German into the Russian language was so enormous that Peter I was forced to issue a decree normalizing the use of borrowings and ordering “to write everything in Russian, without using foreign words and terms,” since their abuse “ it is impossible to understand the matter itself.” TO end of the XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century, the preferred use of native Russian elements in oral and writing becomes a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture.
Throughout the 19th century, there were debates about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language, how to relate to the common language and vernacular. Famous Russian writer, founder of Russian sentimentalism, author of “ Poor Lisa" and "History of the Russian State" N.M. Karamzin and his supporters believed that the Russian language is too difficult to express thoughts and needs to be processed. Language transformation, in their opinion, should focus on European languages, especially French, to follow the path of liberating the language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, creating new words, eliminating archaic and professional Slavicisms, special terms of various crafts and sciences, and crude vernaculars from use. Karamzin created and introduced into active use the word love, humanity, public, future, industry, generally useful and others that we still use today. Opponent N.M. Karamzin became the Slavophiles, led by A.S. Shishkov, a writer, public figure, and Minister of Education, who considered the Old Church Slavonic language to be the primitive language of all mankind and the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute about language between Slavophiles and Westerners was resolved in the works of the great Russian writers of the 19th century A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov, who showed what inexhaustible possibilities living folk speech has, how rich, original and original the language of folklore is.
A.S. Pushkin is rightly called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. It was he who introduced folk speech into his poetry, believing that any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately and figuratively expresses the concept and conveys the meaning. The poet believed that “true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.” No one before Pushkin wrote in a realistic language or introduced ordinary everyday vocabulary into a poetic text. It was Pushkin who simply used vernacular like a treasury of language.
In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed, but the process of processing the national language continued in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms, which are theoretically substantiated in the works of Russian linguists Vostokov, Buslaev, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Shakhmatov, described and approved in the Russian grammars of Grech, Grot, Vostokov, etc.
In the 19th century there was an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature and the Russian language. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and other writers and poets, the achievements of Russian scientists Mendeleev, Dokuchaev, Pirogov, Klyuchevsky and others contributed to the further formation and enrichment of the Russian national language. It is replenished lexicon(worldview, humanity, lawlessness, serfdom, etc.), phraseology is enriched, the stock of international terminology is expanded (intellectual, progress, international, communism, culture, civilization, etc.), scientific and journalistic functional styles are formalized. The richness and diversity of the Russian language is reflected in the historical, etymological, synonymous dictionaries and dictionary of foreign words that appeared in the 19th century.
In 1863-1866. a four-volume edition is coming out Dictionary alive Great Russian language»V.I.Dal, which included over 200 thousand words. Professor P.P. Chervinsky rightly called this dictionary “ eternal book”, since its content is timeless.
Interesting changes occur in the Russian language in the 20th century, which can be chronologically divided into 2 periods: 1 - from October 1917. to April 1985; 2 – since April 1985 to 2000 The first period is associated with the October Revolution, which introduced fundamental changes to all levels of life in Russian society and reflected the most interesting processes in the language: the disappearance into the passive stock of many words denoting concepts that have faded into oblivion and are associated with the former political and economic way of life and Orthodoxy (tsar, province, volost, policeman, merchant, nobleman, pilgrimage, bishop, Mother of God, Annunciation, Twelfth Feasts, Christmas Eve, Christmastide, etc.). During this period, many new words appeared to denote the realities of the new life (district committee, Komsomol member, propaganda team, Central Committee, GORONO, MTS, drummer, Stakhanovite, etc.). In the years Soviet power the main principle of the name was the renaming (St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad, Ekaterinodar - Krasnodar, Samara - Kuibyshev, Sobornaya street - named after Lenin, Bazovskaya street named after Zhdanov, Bursakovskaya street (named after F.Ya Bursak, ataman of the Black Sea Cossack army) - Krasnoarmeyskaya, etc.). Such a renaming reflected the desire of the party and government elite to influence the public consciousness, trying to connect the name change with the illusion of constant qualitative change in society itself. In addition, new names appear related to the desire to reflect a new ideology in the language: Ninel, Oktyabrina, Vladilena, Rem, Kim, Dazdraperma, etc. Ideologization in language also manifested itself in the so-called “interference of the opposed,” which was understood as the perception of reality through constant contrast, the opposition of the perception of phenomena of reality in us, in the socialist world, and in them, in the capitalist world, for example: in our country - democracy, brotherhood, peace , friendship, equality, brotherhood, a bright future, they have corruption, mafia, racketeering, genocide, drug addiction, exploitation, decaying capitalism, etc.
The second period of the twentieth century is associated with perestroika, which also made its own adjustments to the development of the modern Russian language. The change in the political and economic way of life and the fall of the Iron Curtain affected, first of all, the vocabulary of the language. Vocabulary reflecting all spheres of social life has come into active use: politics, economics, culture, medicine, religion, everyday life, etc., for example: inauguration, post-Soviet, impeachment, clearing, barter, manager, image, music video director, hospice, immunodeficiency , Jehovah's Witness, karmic, cheeseburger, yogurt, case, etc. Many words that were either not used during the years of Soviet power or were in the passive vocabulary have returned to the active vocabulary: mayor's office, rent, governess, police, bishop, all-night vigil, communion and many others.
The modern Russian language of the 21st century is characterized by the following trends:
1. In modern Russian society, the type of communication has changed: monologue communication (one person speaks, and everyone listens and performs) has been replaced by dialogical communication. Change communicative type communication is a consequence of the socio-political orientation of society.
2. As a result, the role of oral speech and its dialogization have expanded significantly, i.e. increase dialogue different types communication, expansion of functions dialogical speech in the structure of communication, the development of new types and forms of dialogue, the formation of new rules of dialogic communication.
3. Pluralization of communication: formation of traditions of coexistence different points vision when discussing various, especially acute problems; development of a democratic, tolerant (that is, tolerant) attitude towards opposing views, opponents, points of view.
4. Personification of communication, that is, the development of individual uniqueness of those communicating, the formation of dissimilarity in the expression and presentation of ideas and thoughts different people, increasing the number of unique personal “communicative images”.
5. Prevailing changes in vocabulary and phraseology: the growth of vocabulary in such thematic areas as “ market economy", "politics", "show business", "household appliances", etc.
6. Increase in borrowed vocabulary in all areas of communication.
7. Restructuring in the system of forms of existence of the Russian language: intensive development of the oral form of the language and expansion of its functions; differentiation of written form by communicative areas, formation of the specifics of written text in various professional fields, especially in the field of business commercial correspondence.
8. Activation of secondary forms of language existence - jargons (youth, computer, criminal, music, sports, etc.).
9. The formation in the stylistic system of the language of a new functional subsystem - national slang, which occupies an intermediate place between colloquial and reduced vocabulary, which is understood as national jargon, that is, a set of well-known and used regardless of age, profession and social status lexical and phraseological units that are of a reduced stylistic nature and have expressiveness (for example, bucks, rubbish, get sick, party, unfasten, showdown, don’t care, deal, for free, dead number, etc.).
Overall, analyzing modern processes and trends in the Russian language, they can be considered as the development and evolution of the language, occurring within the language according to its own laws and reflecting the adaptation of the language to changes under the influence external factors conditions of its functioning.
1. Christianization of Rus' and its role in the development of language.
2. Eternal truths: winged words, proverbs and sayings of biblical origin.
3. The theory of “three calms” by M.V. Lomonosov and its role in the development of the national Russian language.
4. The reformatory nature of A.S. Pushkin’s creativity in the process of creating the modern Russian literary language.
5. Features of the development of the Russian language during the Soviet period (1917 - April 12985).
6. Features of the development of the Russian language at the end of the twentieth century (April 1985 - end of the twentieth century).
7. How do you understand the term “language” and what points of view exist on the question of the origin of language?
8. Analyze units and levels of language.
9. How does the systematic nature of language manifest itself? Justify your answer.
10. What functions does language perform in society?
11. Prove that language is historically variable and socially determined.
12. Tell us about the origin of the Russian language and the stages of its development.
13. What is the role of M.V. Lomonosov in the history of the development of the Russian language?
14. Why is A.S. Pushkin considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language?
15. What is the role of the Bible and Old Church Slavonicisms in the formation of the modern Russian language?
16. Name the features of the Russian language of the Soviet period.
17. What features are characteristic of the Russian language at the end of the twentieth century?
18. Name the trends in the modern Russian language at the beginning of the 21st century.
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
Vising Secondary School
Essay
Subject: “Russian language”
On the topic: “Three periods in the history of the Russian language”
Completed by an 11th grade student
Makarova Ekaterina
Teacher: Ulyasheva Irina Veniaminovna
With. Vizinga
1. Three periods of formation of the Russian language
1.1 Old Russian period
1.2 Old Russian (Great Russian) period
1.3 Modern language period
Sources
1. Three periods of formation of the Russian language
There are three periods in the history of the Russian language:
1) VI - XIV centuries - Old Russian period - single as the source of all three modern Eastern Slavic languages.
2) XIV - XVII centuries - Old Russian (Great Russian) period.
3) XVIII - XXI centuries. - new, modern Russian language.
1.1 Old Russian period
The Old Russian language was formed on the basis of a number of East Slavic dialects Proto-Slavic language, whose carriers settled in the eastern part of the late Proto-Slavic area in the VI-VII centuries. n. e. In turn, the Proto-Slavic language is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European language, from which it began to separate presumably in the 3rd millennium BC. e.
The Old Russian period was characterized by a cultural and linguistic situation of diglossia (a special version of bilingualism), in which the written language (Church Slavonic), perceived by Russians as a supra-dialectal standardized variety of their native language, coexisted with the language everyday communication(actually Old Russian). Even though both idioms covered different areas functioning in the Old Russian state, they actively interacted with each other - the features of the bookish Church Slavonic language of Old Russian literature penetrated into the living Old Russian language, and the Church Slavonic language assimilated East Slavic linguistic elements (which marked the beginning of the formation of its special variety - “izvod”)
Unlike Church Slavonic, the Old Russian language is represented fewer monuments - mainly private letters on birch bark (from Novgorod, Smolensk, Zvenigorod Galich and other cities), partly documents of a legal and business nature. In the oldest Church Slavonic literary monuments created in Rus' - Novgorod Code (1st quarter of the 11th century), Ostromir Gospel(1056/1057), penetration is noted various elements Old Russian language. Monuments of the Old Russian language are written in Cyrillic, created in the 9th century AD. e. Cyril and Methodius, no texts in Glagolitic have survived
Throughout the Old Russian historical period, on the future Great Russian territory, linguistic features were formed that separated the north and northeast of Rus' from the west and southwest. TO XIV century the process of formation of linguistic differences is intensified as a result of the isolation of the western and southwestern territories of Rus' under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, and as a result of the unification of the northeastern territories under the rule of the Moscow Principality. By the XIV-XV centuries, the Old Russian language split into three separate East Slavic languages
1.2 Old Russian (Great Russian) period
The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time period from the 14th to the 17th centuries. During this period, phonetic and grammatical systems similar to the modern Russian language begin to form, and language changes occur such as:
1) change e V O after soft consonants before hard ones: [n"es] > [n"os];
2) the final formation of a system of oppositions of hard / soft and voiceless / voiced consonants;
3) loss of the vocative case form ( slave, sir), replaceable form nominative case (Brother!, son!), a special vocative form is preserved in Ukrainian and Belarusian: Ukrainian brother!, son!; Belarusian Bratse!;
4) the appearance of inflection -A for nouns in the nominative plural form ( cities, Houses, teachers instead of towns etc.); in Ukrainian and Belarusian there is no such inflection: Ukrainian towns, home, teachers, Belarusian garads, ladies, teachers;
5) replacement of consonants ts, h, With in declension forms To, G, X (hands?, legs?, dry? instead of ruts?, Nose?, SOS?) in Ukrainian and Belarusian such case alternations are preserved: Ukrainian in Russian, on the nose, Belarusian on ruce, on the naz;
6) change of adjectival endings [-ыи?], [-и?] into [-ои?], [-еи?] ( simple, the third one himself change in simple, rubs himselfthth);
7) appearance of forms imperative mood on -ite instead of -?those (carry instead of carry) and with To, G (help instead of help);
8) fixing one form of the past tense for verbs in live speech (former participle in -l, which was part of the perfect forms);
10) unification of declension types, etc.
Among the dialects that developed on the future Great Russian territory in the second half of the 12th - first half of the 13th century (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal and Akaya dialect of the upper and middle Oka and between the Oka and Seim rivers), the leading one is Rostov-Suzdal, primarily Moscow dialects of this dialect. From the second quarter of the 14th century, Moscow became the political and cultural center of the Great Russian lands, and in the 15th century, vast Russian lands, included in the Grand Duchy of Moscow, were united under the rule of Moscow. Based primarily on Moscow dialects, as well as some linguistic elements other Russian dialects (Ryazan, Novgorod, etc.) by the 16th century, norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, combining Northern Russian (consonant plosive formation G, hard T in the endings of verbs of the 3rd person singular and plural, etc.) and South Russian akanye, etc.) features. Moscow koine becomes exemplary, spreads to other Russian cities and has an impact strong influence into Old Russian written language. Many were written in a language with a Moscow colloquial basis. official documents and many works of the XV-XVII centuries (“Walking across the Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin, works of Ivan IV the Terrible, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”, “The Tale of the Capture of Pskov”, satirical literature, etc.) 92.
In the XIV-XVII centuries, literary bilingualism gradually formed, replacing diglossia: the Church Slavonic language of the Russian translation continues to coexist with the Russian literary language proper. Various transitional types arise between these idioms. WITH late XIV century, the emergence of literature of various genres on a folk-speech basis, accessible to wide layers of Russian society, is noted. At the same time, under the influence of the so-called second South Slavic influence, the archaization of the language of many works is intensifying, and the emerging book “weaving of words” is increasingly diverging from the folk speech of that time.
During the Old Russian period, the dialect division of the Russian language changed; by the 17th century, two large dialect groups were formed - Northern Russian and Southern Russian dialects, as well as Central Russian dialects transitional between them.
1.3 Modern language period
WITH mid-17th century century, the Russian nation takes shape and the Russian national language begins to form on the basis of the Moscow Koine. The formation and development of the national language is facilitated by the wider dissemination of writing, education and science.
During this period, literary bilingualism is eliminated. From the second half XVI century, the sphere of use of the Church Slavonic language gradually narrowed; during the period of formation and development of the national language, Church Slavonic was preserved only as the language of the liturgy. Church Slavonicisms included in the Russian literary language become stylistically neutral or are included in the general category of archaisms, and are no longer perceived as elements of another language.
The norms of the national literary Russian language are developed in XVII--XVIII centuries. By the middle of the 18th century, its oral-conversational variety was emerging. M.V. Lomonosov creates the first grammar establishing the norms of the Russian language (“Russian Grammar”). The stabilization of norms, the improvement of stylistic means, and the replenishment of the vocabulary fund were manifested in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, N. I. Novikova, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzina, I. A. Krylova, A. S. Griboyedov, A. S. Pushkina. Among Russian society, the synthesis of Russian colloquial, foreign and Church Slavonic elements, characteristic of the literary works of A. S. Pushkin, received the greatest response and became entrenched in speech. It is in this form that the Russian language as a whole has been preserved to the present day. The norms of the Russian language of the Pushkin era were further improved in the works of writers of the 19th and early 20th centuries - M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, I. A. Bu-nin and others, as well as in the works scientific and journalistic styles (from the second half of the 19th century).
During the period of the Russian national language, there was an active penetration of foreign borrowings into the Russian language and tracing according to their model. This process intensified most strongly in the era of Peter I. If in the 17th century the main source of borrowings was the Polish language (borrowings from Western European languages often entered Russian through the Polish language), then at the beginning of the 18th century the German and Dutch languages dominated, in the 19th century era French, and in the second half of the 20th century - the beginning of the 21st century - the English language becomes the main source of borrowings. Enrichment lexical fund promotes the active development of science and technology, significant changes vocabulary Russian language is called political changes in Russian society in the 20th century ( October Revolution, collapse of the USSR). language diglossia phonetic grammatical
During the period of the Russian national language, the processes of dialect fragmentation slow down, dialects become the “lowest form” of the Russian language, in the 20th century the process of leveling out territorial dialects sharply intensifies and they are displaced colloquial form literary language.
In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet were separated. In 1918, a reform of Russian spelling was carried out; in 1956, less significant spelling changes were introduced.
The modern Russian language is fixed by strictly codified language norms and becomes a multifunctional means of communication, applicable in all spheres of social life.
Conclusion
Thus, the Russian language is undergoing significant changes at the present time. The national Russian language is formed as a result of mixing the Slavic-Russian language with Russian folk speech, with Moscow state language and Western European languages.
Sources
http://antisochinenie.ru/
http://5fan.info/
http://www.slideboom.com/
en.wikipedia.org
http://ksana-k.narod.ru/
Posted on Allbest.ru
...Similar documents
Brief information from the history of Russian writing. The concept of vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Fine and expressive means of language. Vocabulary of the Russian language. Phraseology of the modern Russian language. Speech etiquette. Types of word formation.
cheat sheet, added 03/20/2007
History and main reasons for the formation and collapse of the Old Russian language, its lexical and grammatical features. Place and assessment of the importance of the Russian language among other languages. Emergence written language among the Eastern Slavs, its movements and styles.
course work, added 07/15/2009
The history of the emergence of the Russian language. Specific features of the Cyrillic alphabet. Stages of alphabet formation in the process of formation of the Russian nation. General features characteristic of the language of mass communication in modern society of the Russian Federation. The problem of barbarization of the Russian language.
abstract, added 01/30/2012
Reasons and main directions for reforming the Russian language. Analysis and key points major reforms of the Russian language that influenced modern speech and spelling. Defining Perspective further development Russian spoken language.
course work, added 03/19/2015
Study of the history of the emergence of languages. General characteristics of the group of Indo-European languages. Slavic languages, their similarities and differences from the Russian language. Determining the place of the Russian language in the world and the spread of the Russian language in the countries of the former USSR.
abstract, added 10/14/2014
Integration in new states that have emerged in the post-Soviet space. Linguistic assimilation of Russians. Problems of the Russian language in the Caucasus and the CIS countries. Expansion of the Russian language. Preservation and development of the Russian language on the territory of new states.
course work, added 11/05/2008
Mother tongue is the main factor in human development. From the history of the Old Russian language: pre-literate and written periods. Comparison of the Old Slavic (Old Russian) initial letter and the alphabet of the modern Russian language. On the introduction of new letters into the Russian alphabet.
abstract, added 12/06/2010
Russian language in modern society. Origin and development of the Russian language. Distinctive features Russian language. Arranging linguistic phenomena into a single set of rules. The main problems of the functioning of the Russian language and the support of Russian culture.
abstract, added 04/09/2015
essay, added 11/16/2013
Definition of phonetics. Studying phonetic system of the Russian language, which consists of significant units of speech - words, word forms, phrases and sentences, for the transmission and distinction of which they serve phonetic means language: sounds, stress, intonation.
Modern Russian is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed in the 9th century. ancient Russian people within the Kyiv state.
This language was very similar to the languages of other Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 6th-8th centuries.
In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of the Kyiv state based on single language Three independent languages arose among the Old Russian people: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.
The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the 1st half of the 10th century. refers to the inscription on a korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdov (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the owner's name. From the 2nd half of the 10th century. A number of inscriptions indicating the ownership of objects have also been preserved.
After the baptism of Rus' in 988, book writing arose. The chronicle reports "many scribes" who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts, dating back to the works of students of the creators of the Slavic script, Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian translation (variant) of the Church Slavonic language.
In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, lives of saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law.
To the oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Archangel Gospel of 1092
The original works of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the book language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance with language norms depended on the author’s erudition and his ability to reproduce the forms and structures that he knew from model texts.
Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture with spiritual content. Therefore, the chronicles were written in book language and were guided by the same body of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (specific events, local realities), the language of the chronicles was supplemented with non-book elements.
Separately from the book tradition in Rus', a non-book written tradition developed: administrative and judicial texts, official and private office work, and household records. These documents differed from book texts as syntactic constructions, and morphology. At the center of this written tradition were legal codes, starting with the Russian Truth, the oldest list of which dates back to 1282.
Legal acts of an official and private nature are adjacent to this tradition: interstate and interprincely agreements, deeds of gift, deposits, wills, bills of sale, etc. The most ancient text This is the type of letter from Grand Duke Mstislav to the Yuriev Monastery (c. 1130).
Graffiti has a special place. For the most part, these are prayer texts written on the walls of churches, although there is graffiti of other (factual, chronographic, act) content.
Starting from the 1st half of the 13th century. the Old Russian people are divided into inhabitants of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', later Moscow Rus', and Western Rus'(hereinafter referred to as Ukraine and Belarus).
As a result of the development of dialects in the 2nd half of the 12th century. - 1st half of the 13th century. On the future Great Russian territory, the Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov-Suzdal dialects and the Akaya dialect of the upper and middle Oka and between the Oka and Seim rivers developed.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. The Great Russian state and the Great Russian people are taking shape, this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. In the 17th century The Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language begins to take shape.
During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of a national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language and the development of a language of a national type, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, old dialect features become very stable.
In the 2nd half of the 16th century. In the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, and dictionaries.
In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed.
Since the 17th century the tendency towards convergence between book and spoken language is intensifying.
In the 18th century society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. M.V. played a special role in the creation of a literary language during this period. Lomonosov. Possessing enormous talent, he wanted to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he wrote “Russian Grammar”, in which he gave a set of grammatical rules and showed the richest possibilities of the language.
It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that it is necessary for people to “consistency in common affairs, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts.” According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why “their very existence is vain and useless.”
M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the “Russian Grammar”: “The ruler of many languages, the Russian language, not only in the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also in its own space and content is great before everyone in Europe. This will seem incredible to foreigners and some natural Russians, who put more effort into foreign languages than into their own." And further: “Charles the Fifth, Roman Emperor, used to say that it is decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, the richness and strong brevity in the images Greek and Latin."
Since the 18th century Russian language becomes a literary language with generally accepted norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. Creativity of A.S. Pushkin laid the foundation for the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, as well as the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.
If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became literary basis the language we speak today.
Russian language- one of the East Slavic languages, one of the largest languages in the world, the national language of the Russian people. It is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the most widespread language of Europe both geographically and in terms of the number of native speakers (although also significant geographically most of Russian linguistic area located in Asia). The science of the Russian language is called linguistic Russian studies, or, in short, simply Russian studies.
« The origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Around 2000-1000 thousand BC. e. From the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - around the 1st-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic). Where the Proto-Slavs and their descendants, the Proto-Slavs, lived is a debatable question. Probably, Proto-Slavic tribes in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. and at the beginning of AD e. occupied lands from the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east to the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, to the south of Pripyat in the north, and forest-steppe areas in the south. In the 1st half of the 1st century. The pre-Slavic territory expanded sharply. In the VI-VII centuries. the Slavs occupied lands from the Adriatic to the southwest. to the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen in the north-east. The pre-Slavic ethno-linguistic unity collapsed. Three closely related groups were formed: eastern (Old Russian people), western (on the basis of which Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians, Pomeranian Slavs were formed) and southern (its representatives are Bulgarians, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians).
The East Slavic (Old Russian) language existed from the 7th to the 14th centuries. In the 10th century on its basis, writing arose (the Cyrillic alphabet, see Cyrillic alphabet), which reached a high peak (Ostromir Gospel, 11th century; “The Sermon on Law and Grace” Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion, XI century; “The Tale of Bygone Years”, early 12th century; “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, 12th century; Russian truth, XI-XII centuries). Already in Kievan Rus(IX - early XII centuries) the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the XIV-XVI centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova. Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the XIII-XIV centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language gradually disintegrated. Three centers of new ethno-linguistic associations emerged that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the XIV-XV centuries. On the basis of these associations, closely related but independent East Slavic languages are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Rus' (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately in the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of N. Novgorod) and South Great Russian (in the south from the indicated line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) adverbs that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system.
The written language remains colorful. Religion and beginnings scientific knowledge Mainly served by the book Slavic, ancient Bulgarian in origin, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, divorced from the colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. It has developed speech stamps, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, in contrast to the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialectal features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Diverse in linguistic means was written fiction. From ancient times big role played spoken language folklore, serving until the XVI-XVII centuries. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about Belogorod jelly, about Olga’s revenge and others in “The Tale of Bygone Years”, folklore motifs in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, vivid phraseology in “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art. Since the 17th century the first recordings of folklore works and book imitations of folklore begin, for example, songs recorded in 1619-1620 for the Englishman Richard James, lyrical songs of Kvashnin-Samarin, “The Tale of the Mountain of Misfortune”, etc. Complexity language situation did not allow the development of uniform and stable norms. There was no single Russian literary language.
In the 17th century National ties emerge and the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the division of the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet took place. In the XVIII and early XIX centuries Secular writing became widespread, church literature gradually moved into the background and finally became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific, technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx of words and expressions from Western European languages into the Russian language. Particularly large impact from the second half of the XVIII V. The French language began to influence Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The collision of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language raised the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle between different trends. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to the people's speech, while the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic “Slovenian” language, incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. A major role was played by the language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means depending on the purpose of literary works into high, medium and low “calms”. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers prepared the way for great reform A.S. Pushkin. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized into unified system various speech elements: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and the Russian folk language, especially its Moscow variety, became the cementing basis. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, and a rich and varied language styles(artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.), closely related to each other, all-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms that are mandatory for all who speak a literary language are determined, the lexical system is developed and enriched. Russian writers of the 19th and 20th centuries played a major role in the development and formation of the Russian literary language. (A.S. Griboedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov, etc.) . From the second half of the 20th century. on the development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles- scientific, journalistic, etc. - begin to influence public figures, representatives of science and culture.
Neutral (not stylistically colored) means of the modern Russian literary language form its basis. Other forms, words and meanings have a stylistic coloring, which gives the language all sorts of shades of expressiveness. The most widespread are colloquial elements that carry the functions of ease, some reduction of speech in the written variety of the literary language and are neutral in everyday speech. However, colloquial speech as an integral part of the literary language does not represent a special language system.
A common means of stylistic diversity in literary language is vernacular. It, like the spoken means of language, is dual: being an organic part of the literary language, at the same time it exists beyond its boundaries. Historically, vernacular goes back to the old colloquial speech of the urban population, which opposed bookish language at a time when the norms of the oral variety of the literary language had not yet been developed. The division of old colloquial speech into the oral variety of the literary language of the educated part of the population and the vernacular began approximately with mid-18th century V. Subsequently, the vernacular becomes a means of communication for predominantly illiterate and semi-literate townspeople, and within the literary language, some of its features are used as a means of bright stylistic coloring.
Dialects occupy a special place in the Russian language. In conditions of universal education, they quickly die out and are replaced by the literary language. In their archaic part, modern dialects comprise 2 large dialects: Northern Great Russian (Okanye) and Southern Great Russian (Akanye) with an intermediate transitional Central Russian dialect. There are more small units, so-called dialects (groups of closely related dialects), for example Novgorod, Vladimir-Rostov, Ryazan. This division is arbitrary, since the boundaries of distribution of individual dialect features usually do not coincide. The boundaries of dialectal features cross Russian territories in various directions or these features are extended only to part of it. Before the advent of writing, dialects were a universal form of language existence. With the emergence of literary languages, they, changing, retained their strength; the speech of the vast majority of the population was dialectal. With the development of culture and the emergence of the national Russian language, dialects become predominantly speech rural population. Modern Russian dialects are turning into unique semi-dialects in which local features are combined with the norms of the literary language. The dialects constantly influenced the literary language. Dialecticisms are still used by writers for stylistic purposes.
There is active (intensive) growth in the modern Russian language special terminology, which is caused primarily by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology borrowed from German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from in English(in his American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, but the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.
The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialectal and other varieties, located in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, common phonetic and grammatical system and the basic vocabulary (which ensures mutual understanding of the entire population), constitute a single national Russian language, the main link of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the system of the literary language itself, the constant influence on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variation, i.e. the ability to denote the same or similar meaning in different words and forms.
The Russian language plays an important role as the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of the USSR. The Russian alphabet formed the basis for the writing of many newly written languages, and the Russian language became the second native language of the non-Russian population of the USSR. “The process of voluntary learning of the Russian language that occurs in life, along with the native language, has a positive meaning, since it promotes mutual exchange experience and familiarization of every nation and nationality with cultural achievements all other peoples of the USSR and to world culture."
Since the middle of the 20th century. The study of the Russian language is increasingly expanding throughout the world. The Russian language is taught in 120 countries: in 1648 capitalist and developing countries and in all universities of the socialist countries of Europe; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. (1975). In 1967, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was created; in 1974 - Institute of Russian Language named after. A.S. Pushkin; a special magazine is being published ‹ Russian language abroad›» .
The Russian language has gone through a long path of historical development.
There are three periods of development of the Russian language:
Early period (VI-VII - XIV centuries).
Middle period (XIV-XV - XVII centuries).
Late period (XVII-XVIII - end of XX - beginning of XXI century).
I period (early) begins after the separation of the Eastern Slavs from the pan-Slavic unity and the formation of the language of the Eastern Slavs (Old Russian language) - the predecessor of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. This period is characterized by the presence of Old Church Slavonicisms, Church Slavonic vocabulary, and Turkic borrowings in the language.
II period (middle) begins with the collapse of the language of the Eastern Slavs and the separation of the Russian language proper (the language of the Great Russian people). By the second half of the 17th century the Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language is formalized, based on the traditions of Moscow dialect.
III period- this is the period of development of the Russian national language, design and improvement Russian literary language.
In the 18th century the Russian language is being updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages; society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. He played a special role in the creation of a literary language M.V. Lomonosov, who wrote "Russian grammar" and developed the theory of three styles (high, medium, low).
In the 19th century Throughout the century, there have been debates about what should be considered the basis of the grammar of the Russian literary language, what role should the Church Slavonic language play in the development of its styles, how to treat the common language and vernacular? Participating in this dispute are primarily N.M. Karamzin and his supporters-Westerners and Slavophiles led by A.S. Shishkov.
Decisive influence on the development of Russian norms literary language had creativity A.S. Pushkin, who in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity: any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning.
In general, in the process of synthesis of various elements (folk-colloquial, Church Slavonic, foreign language borrowings, elements of business language) norms of the Russian literary language are developed. It is believed that in general outline Russian national language system developed approximately in the first half of the 19th century.
In the 20th century, two periods are distinguished in the history of the Russian language:
Period 1 (October 1917 - April 1985) is characterized by the presence of the following processes in the language:
1) the withdrawal of a huge layer of secular and church vocabulary into the passive reserve ( lord, king, monarch, governor, gymnasium; Savior, Mother of God, bishop, Eucharist and etc.);
2) the emergence of new words reflecting changes in politics and economics. Most of them were official abbreviations of words and phrases: NKVD, RSDLP, collective farm, district committee, tax in kind, educational program and etc.;
3) interference of the opposite.
The essence of this phenomenon is that two words are formed that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena of reality that exist in different political systems. After October events Since 1917, two lexical systems gradually emerged in the Russian language: one for naming the phenomena of capitalism, the other for socialism. So, if we were talking about enemy countries, then they scouts were called spies, warriors - occupiers, partisans - terrorists etc.;
4) renaming the denotation. Denotation- an object of extra-linguistic reality to which it refers language sign as part of a statement. Thus, not only the names of cities and streets are renamed (Tsaritsyn - to Stalingrad, Nizhny Novgorod- V Bitter; Great noble - in Revolution Avenue), but also social concepts (competition - in socialist competition, harvesting bread - in battle for the harvest, peasants - in collective farmers etc.). As a result of the renaming, the authorities, firstly, managed to sever ties with the pre-revolutionary past, and secondly, to create the illusion of universal renewal. Thus, through the word, the party and government oligarchy influenced public consciousness.
During 2 periods(April 1985 - present) serious political, economic, ideological changes have occurred, leading to significant changes in the Russian literary language:
1) significant expansion of the vocabulary due to:
a) foreign vocabulary (barter, business, legitimate);
b) the formation of a mass of new words in the Russian language itself (post-Soviet, denationalization, de-Sovietization);
2) return to the active vocabulary of words that left the language during the Soviet period ( Duma, governor, corporation; communion, liturgy, all-night vigil);
3) withdrawal into a passive stock of words-Sovietisms (collective farm, Komsomol member, district committee);
4) changes in the meanings of many words that occur for ideological and political reasons. For example, in the Soviet period dictionary about the word God the following is written: “God - according to religious and mystical ideas: a mythical supreme being, supposedly ruler of the world» (Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1953). The definition includes indicators of unreliability (particle supposedly and adjective mythical). The purpose of this interpretation is to impose an atheistic worldview on the user of the dictionary, corresponding to totalitarian ideology.
IN modern dictionary - « God - in religion: the supreme omnipotent being..."(Ozhegov S.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions. - M., 2006);
5) vulgarization - use in speech, it would seem, educated people slang, colloquial and other extraliterary elements ( bucks, rollback, dismantling, chaos);
6) “foreignization” of the Russian language - that is, the unjustified use of borrowings in speech ( reception- reception, reception point; Ganges- criminal association, gang; show- spectacle, etc.).