Words in a language are combined with each other and form phrases. Syntax, a section of grammar, deals with free combinations of words in a sentence. However, there are also combinations of words that lexicology is interested in; these are not free combinations of words, but lexicalized ones, i.e. as if striving to become one word, one lexeme, although they have not yet lost the form of a phrase.

Let's compare two phrases where there is a defined noun and an adjective definition agreed with it : iron bench and railway; the first of them is free, this is a combination of two full-valued words, where it is clear that this is really a bench, and it is iron; i.e., “made of iron.” In this combination, the total value is the sum of the values individual words; we can replace them with synonyms without losing the meaning: metal bench, iron bench, metal bench; we can replace the adjective with a noun with a preposition: a bench made of iron; we can replace the main word with a derivative: iron bench, iron bench; we can change the order of words: iron bench (for example, in the list: wooden benches, iron benches, etc.). But, for example, we can’t say a wooden iron bench, because it is made of iron, not wood. The railway is a completely different matter; We cannot carry out any of the listed operations; it will turn out to be nonsense, since a railway is not a road made of iron, but a single concept of a mode of transport. Therefore, it is impossible to say neither a metal road nor railroad track, neither a road made of iron, nor an iron track, nor an iron road1. Railroad is a non-free, lexicalized combination, where road is not “road”, and railroad is not “railroad”, so we are not at all confused by this sentence: “The pioneers built a wooden railway”, just as we are not embarrassed by red ink, pink underwear, a black squirrel, etc.

In a sentence, such lexicalized combinations are one member, for example: “You can travel to Novogireevo by rail or tram,” where both tram and rail are the same circumstances; Wed also: “He works carelessly”, “The landowners lived on wide leg“,” “They were able to talk face to face,” etc., where all the highlighted combinations are circumstances.

Phraseology– the phraseological composition of the language, as well as the branch of linguistics that studies it. The basic unit of phraseology is phraseological unit- a stable combination of words. In many respects, phraseological units are closer to a word than to a phrase, so they are studied in a lexicology course.

The degree of cohesion of words, the motivation of the meaning of the entire phraseological unit by the meanings of its constituent components can be different. This allowed Academician Vinogradov to create the following classification of phraseological units.

1. Phraseological adhesions - stable, lexically indivisible phrases, the meanings of which are in no way derived from the meanings of the constituent words, are not motivated by them (playing the fool, being a jerk). This group also includes phraseological units containing obsolete words or grammatical forms(the talk of the town, easy to remember). Understanding the whole does not depend on incomprehensible words (“to get into trouble”, “in the middle of nowhere”, “sharpen your lasses”), or on incomprehensible grammatical forms (“without a doubt”, “barely able to”, “a byword”, “and all not long") or where the words and forms are understandable, but the meaning of individual words does not explain the whole (starve a worm, sit on beans, give a drink), finally, in cases where a given combination requires a special intonation that conveys a special expression (here’s to you once! what a good thing! that's cranberry! remember the name!).

2. Phraseological unities– stable, lexically indivisible phrases, the meanings of which are motivated by the meanings of their constituent words, but are not directly derived from them, but arise on the basis of figurative rethinking. In most cases, phraseological unity corresponds to a free phrase, which, being associatively rethought, served as the basis for metaphorical phraseology (swim with the flow, roll up your sleeves, neither fish nor fowl, reach a dead end). You never know; both cheap and cheerful; no bottom, no tire; a pellet for an elephant; pour from empty to empty; to make mountains out of molehills; keep the stone in your bosom; wash dirty linen in public); in these cases, partial replacements of individual words are also possible.

3. Phraseological combinations– stable combinations of words that include both a component with a free meaning (realized in different contexts) and a component with a non-free (phraseologically related) meaning. For example, in the phrase sworn enemy, the noun enemy has free compatibility, and the adjective sworn is used only with the word enemy and has a phraseologically related meaning. The meanings of phraseological combinations are motivated directly by the meanings of their constituent words. Look down (look, eyes, head), thought (doubt, inspiration) sets in, horror takes over (fear, melancholy, annoyance, envy).

Sometimes they also allocate phraseological expressions. These are divisible phrases and sentences that can be decomposed into components, the meaning of which is made up of the meanings of their constituent words. They are similar to phraseological units in their constancy of composition and reproducibility in speech as ready-made units. These are the proverbs, sayings, “ winged words", quotes from famous works of art.

In terms of structure, phraseological units can be represented by phrases or sentences. They can be classified depending on which part of speech the entire phraseological unit is related in meaning to: verbal, nominal, adjective, adverbial.

Because Since lexicalized combinations in their origin are closely related to the conditions of place and time, to any given case, they are individual and unique in each language and literally cannot be translated. That's why they are called idioms, and the set of idioms in a language is called idiomatic.

For example, a hare in direct meaning– der Hase (not an idiom), but in the meaning of a stowaway – an idiom (Blinder) English compound word killjoy literally means “kill joy,” but it should be translated idiomatically as grump; literally.

1.2 Phraseological conjunctions.

V.V. Vinogradov considered phraseological units as a phenomenon, primarily semantic, and identified phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities as part of phraseological units. Phraseological adhesions differ from phraseological unities by a greater degree of semantic cohesion, the fusion of their components. The main linguistic factor that determines the degree of semantic cohesion of the components of the meaning of a phraseological unit is the absence or presence of figurative motivation of their meanings. Yu.P. Maltub gives following definition: phraseological fusions are phraseological units, the holistic, generalized, figurative meaning of which is in no way motivated by the literal meaning of the components included in them [Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p. 114]

For example:

A skeleton in the cupboard – ‘ family secret; a nuisance hidden from outsiders’; the real McCoy - ‘a great thing, something very valuable;

Grin like a Cheshire cat - ‘grin from ear to ear’; Peeping Tom - ‘a person with morbid curiosity who secretly watches others’;

If there is a figurative motivation for the meaning of a particular phraseological unit, we very clearly perceive its lexical components as separate words, we recognize the role of each of them in creating a holistic, generalized, figurative meaning of the entire phraseological unity.

In the absence of figurative motivation for the meaning of a particular phraseological unit, its components largely lose their lexical properties, while to some extent even the real boundaries separating them are erased, they form a kind of single “alloy”, which is a plan for expressing the corresponding phraseological fusion [ Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p. 115].

1.3 Phraseological unities.

Along with phraseological adhesions, researchers identify phraseological unities. Phraseological unities are phraseological units, the holistic, generalized, figurative meaning of which can be figuratively motivated on the basis of the LZ components included in their composition [Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p. 114].

For example:

to pour oil on the flame(s)-‘to add oil to the fire’, to tear one’s hair- ‘to tear your hair out, (to live) a cat and dog life-‘live like a cat and a dog’.

Their high connotation is due to the phraseological image, or internal form, i.e. visual representation, that “picture” on the basis of which the holistic generalized figurative meaning itself is comprehended and perceived. Theoretically, the presence of identical in their values ​​and internal forms phraseological units can be explained by a certain commonality of figurative-conceptual associations that arise in various languages ​​and different nations as a result of the similarities in their life experiences; An important role in this can be played by cultural realities, which to some extent reflect the general paths of development of these peoples. Illustrative examples the following phraseological units can serve: to carry coals to Newcastle - ‘to engage in useless and unnecessary business’ - semantically identical to the phraseological unit in Russian - ‘to go to Tula with your samovar’; when pigs fly-‘ letters, when pigs fly i.e. never’ - is semantically identical to the phraseological unit in Russian - ‘when the crayfish on the mountain whistles (and the fish sings)’.

The phraseological units listed above are completely identical in their meanings and stylistic coloring (most often they belong to conversational style literary language, but can also be used in common speech). Identical in their motivating meaning phraseological images they, however, are not: each has a unique, specific national character(this means that one of important components their structures phraseological meaning is ethnocultural) [Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p. 117].

1.4 Phraseological combinations.

According to the classification of A.V. Kunin, in addition to phraseological unities and adhesions, he also identifies phraseological combinations.

Phraseological combinations are phrases in which one of the components has a phraseologically related meaning that appears only in connection with a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal designations [Kunin 1996, p. 22].

Moreover, for such a limitation, emphasized V.V. Vinogradov, as if there are no grounds in the logical or material nature of the designated objects, actions, phenomena. These restrictions are created by the laws of connection between verbal meanings inherent in a given language. Such combinations are not equivalent words, since each of their components different meanings.

For example: to keep one’s distance-‘know your place; stay away, keep away; keep a respectful distance; to keep one’s ears open-‘keep one’s ears open, be on guard, on the alert’; to keep oneself to oneself- ‘to be withdrawn, uncommunicative, prefer solitude; keep to yourself, avoid people, withdraw into yourself’.

In the above listed examples the word to keep cannot be replaced with any other word close in meaning because this will lead to inconsistency of words and distortion of the meaning of phraseological units.

Linguists note that in modern phraseology there has been a tendency to use the term “phraseological unit” in the very in a broad sense: it covers all objects of phraseology like linguistic science- phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. The term “phraseologism” (phraseological turn) is usually used only in relation to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities as their unique terminological hyperonym. Very often (in the works of foreign linguists) there is another terminological hyperonym - idiom - idioms (V.V. Vinogradov used this term only in relation to phraseological adjuncts) [Solodub Yu.P., 1997, p 116].

Thus, a phraseological unit in the broadest sense causes certain difficulties in translation.

2. Problems of translating phraseological units.

And we don’t think about how much work the translator has put in to convey the meaning of the original literary work as accurately as possible.Translation literary texts is complicated by high semantic load, and the translator often has to create the text in another language anew, rather than reproduce it from another language. The perception of a text is influenced by many things: culture, subtext, national...

Source text and translation text, which is impossible without carrying out various translation transformations. 2. Linguistic and cultural aspect of phraseological units as an object of translation 2.1 Personality properties in the aspect of its semantic characteristics (based on phraseological units) Analysis of the subject’s activity in objective world shows that conceptual apparatus There are fewer theories considered...

TO positive aspects The development of phraseology in German linguistics includes the desire of individual lexicographers to clarify the semantics and structure of phraseological units German language. The systematization of phraseological material is presented in German linguistics in three varieties: a) classification by structural-semantic classification, most fully described by F. Seiler; b) ...

The author's speech and the speech of the characters are unique, somehow especially expressive, apt and figurative. How is this effect achieved? An analysis of a number of works by V. M. Shukshin showed that this is greatly facilitated by the use of phraseological units in the speech of the author and his characters. Phraseological phrases are bright stylistic device make your speech strong and colorful, figurative and...

Phraseologism- this is a stable combination of words characteristic only of a given language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it, taken individually. Due to the fact that phraseological units cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring. Often grammatical meaning idioms do not meet the norms of modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. An example of such expressions in Russian: “stay on your toes”, “keep your head down”, “give back”, “play the fool”, “point of view”, etc.

The main features of a phraseological unit. In order to separate phraseological units from others linguistic units, in particular from the word and free phrase, should be determined characteristics phraseological units.

1. Reproducibility of phraseological units in speech as finished units. Stable combinations exist in a language as a set of ready-made, previously created ones language formations, which need to be remembered in the same way as we remember words.

2. Integrity of the meaning of phraseological units is that, despite the dismemberment of the structure, they have a generalized holistic meaning, which, as a rule, is a rethinking of the phrase, which is based on a specific semantic content. Clear examples of the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit does not consist of the meanings of its components are stable combinations, one of the members of which is obsolete and is not used in modern language outside of this expression. However, the speaker does not have the feeling that this word is unfamiliar to him, since he knows the general, holistic meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Expressions in which one can trace the connection between the general meaning of a stable combination and the meanings of its constituent components also have a generalized holistic meaning.

3. Constancy of the component composition, stability distinguishes phraseological units from free phrases. A feature of stable combinations is that they are, as a rule, constant in composition and structure, i.e. they contain certain words arranged in a prescribed order. The interchangeability of the components of a phraseological unit is possible only in general linguistic phraseological variants, i.e. in stable combinations having same value, the same figurative structure, but differing in their lexical and grammatical composition.

4. Equivalence of phraseological units and a separate word means that the stable combination has much in common with the word. Like a word, it is a unit of language, reproduced in finished form, and not created anew each time, has an independent meaning and grammatical correlation, which lies in the fact that a phraseological unit, like a word, refers to a specific part of speech. You can select personal phraseological units(a shot sparrow is an experienced person), adjectives (there are not enough stars from the sky - about an ordinary, unremarkable person) verbal (to become stumped - to find yourself in predicament); adverbial (working tirelessly - diligently, tirelessly), interjectional (know ours! - about praising yourself). Many phraseological units in meaning correspond to one word (put it on both shoulder blades - win). Set phrases are close to words in their syntactic function, since they serve as a separate member of a sentence. For example: She turned the head of more than one Adam’s grandson (M. Lermontov);

5. Separate formatting of phraseological units is that it includes at least two verbal components, each of which is grammatically formalized as an independent unit, i.e. has its own emphasis and its own ending. This is the main difference between a phraseological unit and a word.

6. Imagery of phraseology is that many stable phrases not only name phenomena, signs, objects, actions, but also contain a certain image. This applies primarily to those phraseological units, the meanings of which were formed on the basis of a linguistic metaphor, as a result of the similarity and comparison of two phenomena, of which one becomes the basis for comparison, and the other is compared with it. For example, the phraseological unit grated kalach, meaning experienced person, which has seen a lot in life, correlates with grated kalach (the name of one of the varieties of kalach), which, before baking, is rubbed and crushed for a long time. This creates the imagery of the phraseological unit. Some phraseological units of the Russian language lack imagery. These include various kinds semantically indivisible combinations that represent compound names and terms (such as coal, agenda, safety pin, eyeball), as well as phraseological units such as matter, win.

7. Emotionally expressive coloring phraseological units is manifested in the fact that most phraseological units of the Russian language, in addition to the nominative function, also perform a characterological function: they not only name some objects, phenomena, actions that exist in objective reality, but at the same time evaluate the named objects, phenomena, actions. The emotional and expressive significance of phraseological units in the Russian language is different. Some of them have minimal expression (expressiveness), for example: standing in the ears - “constantly being heard.” Others have a pronounced expression and serve as a means of emphasizing what is being said. These are, for example: to be in full swing - “to flow violently, to manifest.” The presence of emotional-expressive coloring in phraseological units can be traced in synonymous phraseological units, which, with a general meaning, can differ in their coloring. For example, about a person who can do everything, they say a jack of all trades (positive assessment), a jack of all trades out of boredom (jokingly ironic assessment), and a Swede, a reaper, and a player of the pipe (jokingly ironic assessment).

8. Phraseology, the non-free meaning of one of the components is a characteristic feature of most stable combinations. For some phraseological units, it manifests itself in the fact that its component has a phraseologically related meaning in the language, the main features of which are the lack of semantic independence and dependence in the choice of the lexical environment. For example, the phraseological nature of the meaning of the word “sworn” is manifested in the fact that it has its meaning only in a certain lexical environment, in combination with the word “enemy”: sworn enemy - “irreconcilable enemy” - and outside of this stable combination it is not used in the Russian language. The phraseological meaning of one of the components of a stable combination of another type is manifested in the fact that this component acquires a special phraseologically related meaning, only within the framework of this phraseological unit, and outside of it it can have an independent meaning and be used in many free combinations. For example, the word “white” is used in a language with its own independent meaning in free combinations (white paper, White snow), however only within the framework of a stable combination White crow it acquires its own special, phraseologically related meaning - “unlike those around you, standing out in some way.”

9. Idiomatic phraseology manifests itself in the fact that its semantically indivisible meaning is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components, taken separately, and does not coincide with them. Hence the impossibility of accurately translating phraseological units into other languages; this can be explained by the presence of specific laws inherent in this particular language. If free phrases are built mainly according to general laws linguistic reflection of extra-linguistic reality, then the use of words as part of a phraseological unit is determined by the specific laws of the system of a given language.

* Issues of semantics of phraseological units in Lately chain everyone to themselves more attention researchers of phraseology who, noting the specifics of their semantics, use a variety of names: generalizing metaphorical meaning (S. A. Abakumov), semantic monolithicity (P. P. Kalinin), a single holistic meaning (V. V. Vinogradov), semantic idiomaticity (A . I. Smirnitsky), etc. Such an abundance of names to indicate the semantic specificity of phraseological units reflects the undoubted complexity of this phenomenon, associated with insufficient knowledge of the issue itself.

The main feature of phraseological units is their completely or partially rethought meaning. Only a part of phraseological units are identified by individual lexemes, while most of them can be defined only with the help of a phrase or a detailed description. The semantic originality of a phraseological unit lies in the specificity of the combination of components, thus, they act not only as parts of the main semantic components of the phraseological unit, but also as connecting links between them. These components are minimum units semantics of phraseological units and perform meaning-determining or meaning-forming functions.

* The classification of phraseological units is based on the sign of semantic unity of components, less or more motivation of the meaning of a phraseological unit. Following Academician V.V. Vinogradov, it is customary to distinguish three main types: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological adhesions- these are phraseological units that are indecomposable in meaning, their holistic meaning is absolutely not motivated by the meanings of the component words, for example: to hit the bulls, get into trouble, sharpen the lasses, turuses on wheels, headlong, etc. Phraseological units often contain words that are not used independently in modern Russian.

Phraseological unities– these are phraseological units, the integral meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of their components. Examples of unities: pull the strap, swim shallowly, bury talent in the ground, suck it out of your finger, lead by the nose, etc. One of characteristic features phraseological unities – their imagery. The presence of imagery distinguishes phraseological unities from the free combinations of words homonymous to them. So, in the sentence The boy lathered his head with toilet soap, the combination lathered his head - free, it has a direct meaning and is devoid of any imagery; in the sentence I'm afraid that the boss might lather his head for being late, the combination lathered his head is used figuratively and represents a phraseological unity.

Phraseological combinations- these are phraseological units, the holistic meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the components and at the same time one of the components has a so-called associated use. To understand what a related use is, consider the phrases: fear takes, envy takes, anger takes. The verb to take used in these phrases is not combined with every name of feelings, but only with some, for example: you cannot say “joy takes,” “pleasure takes.” This use of a verb is called bound (or phraseologically bound). Related is the use of the word ticklish in phrases: a ticklish question, a ticklish matter; The adjective ticklish does not combine with other nouns, even those close in meaning to the words question and deed.

As in phraseological combinations, many words that are part of phraseological combinations do not have free meanings at all and exist in the language only as part of phraseological units. For example, the words downcast, kromeshny in modern Russian function only as part of phraseological combinations: downcast gaze, downcast eyes, pitch hell, pitch darkness.

These kinds of phrases, in which a word is used in a non-free, phraseologically related meaning, are called phraseological combinations.

The semantics of a phraseological unit largely depends on its structural organization. Some phraseological units are formed according to the phrase pattern: rack your brains, while others are formed according to the sentence pattern: hands are itching (whose?), the sky seems like a sheepskin (to whom?). Phraseologisms of the first group have the greatest functional-semantic similarity with the word.

Phraseologisms formed according to the model of a non-predicative phrase can be unambiguous and polysemantic, capable of entering into synonymous and antonymic relationships, united into thematic series based on semantic community, etc.

The overwhelming majority of phraseological units are unambiguous. The development of polysemy is hampered by the fact that phraseological units are often formed as a result of a metaphorical rethinking of free phrases of the same composition. As a result of repeated metaphorization of the same free phrase, such polysemantic phraseological units, which have only metaphorical meanings. For example, the phraseological unit wag the tail means:

1. “to be cunning, to be cunning”; “You, brother, excuse me, I’m a taiga man, I’m straight, I don’t know how to be cunning, I don’t know how to wag my tail” (Yu.M. Shestakov);
2. “hesitate in choosing a solution, avoid a direct answer”: “Speak up! Don’t wag your tail... saddlebag” (M.E. Sltykov-Shchedrin);
3. (before whom?) “to achieve someone’s favor through flattery and servility.” “Because of one’s personal, one might say, family calculations, wagging one’s tail in front of the factory owner...” (D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak).

Polysemy is most typical for verbal and adverbial phrases, as they are the most common, and to a lesser extent for nominal ones (adjectival, etc.).

Individual phraseological units are capable of combining opposite meanings. For example, the verb phrase spinning in my head can mean:

1. “constantly in consciousness, agitating the mind.” “A chaotic dream was spinning in my head, which at night was interrupted several times by awakenings” (M.A. Bulgakov);
2. “I don’t remember at all”: “It seems so easy to remember, it keeps spinning in my head, spinning painfully close, but I don’t know what exactly. There’s no way to grab it” (V. Garm).

Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. Only phraseological units enter into antonymic relationships that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts.

The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - can’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a drop of blood in the face (pale).

A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart. The components that give such phraseological units opposite meaning, are often lexical antonyms. But they can get the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back).

The brightest semantic feature phraseological units is their ability to enter into synonymous connections and relationships with each other: to lead by the nose, fool one’s head - to act dishonestly, to deceive someone.

Phraseological synonymy is rich and varied. There are about 800 synonymic series in the Russian language. By phraseological synonyms we have agreed to understand phraseological units with an extremely close meaning, correlative, as a rule, with one part of speech, and having similar or identical compatibility.

Phraseological synonyms can be single-structural, multi-structural and similar-structural. Single-structural synonyms are formed according to the same model: Kolomenskaya verst and fire tower - according to the “noun” model. in them p. + adj.” Synonyms with different structures are built according to different models: headlong, floundering, with eyes closed. In similar structural synonyms, the grammatically dominant component of the phraseological unit is expressed by one part of speech, and all the rest are differently formed: to hang one’s head, to lose heart - to become despondent, to despair.”

Phraseologisms included in the synonymous series may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, and sometimes all these features at the same time.

Due to polysemy, phraseological units can have synonymous connections in each meaning. In the Russian language there are extensive synonymic series with general values: “to reprimand in harsh terms”: turn on the heat, set the steam, remove the shavings, lather your hair, let it light.

Many synonymous series are semantically close. Thus, phraseological synonyms for not taking an extra step, not to lift a finger (not to make the slightest effort) intersect with two other synonymous rows: to kick the bucket, to play the fool, to spit at the ceiling (indulge in idleness, laziness) and to trim the pavement, to polish the boulevards, elephants loiter (walk, loiter idle).

Phraseological synonymy not only approaches lexical synonymy, but also differs from it. Phraseologisms are much poorer than words in lexico-grammatical terms. Thus, among phraseological units there is no actual pronominal category; in rare cases, phraseological units are correlated with the full forms of adjectives. At the same time, phraseological synonyms often convey aspects of reality that cannot be expressed lexical synonymy. For example, phraseological units synonymous series the wind whistles in his pockets (who?), an empty pocket (who?), not a penny to his name (who?) can only be interpreted with a detailed description “no one has any money, there are completely no signs of wealth” .

Phraseological synonyms differ from lexical synonyms in a stylistic sense: phraseological units are distinguished by greater stylistic homogeneity than words of free use. This is explained by the fact that phraseological units are mainly characterized by emotional and expressive connotations.

*The main property of a phraseological unit (PU) as a component language system is, first of all, the property of compatibility with other units.

A phraseological unit can have a single, narrow or wide combinability, depending on the semantics of the verb being characterized. Phraseologism in all eyes (in both, in both eyes) is combined with verbs visual perception semantic category of action, which indicates its narrow lexical-semantic compatibility: Various monovalent, divalent, trivalent, etc. Phrases are characterized only in relation to the number of joining verbs, i.e. only the quantitative aspect of valence is taken into account. The qualitative side of valence, determined by the nature of semantic relationships between combining units, is not revealed with this approach, which necessitates further searches in the field of “power” capabilities of phraseological units. In addition, in some cases in scientific linguistic text it is possible to use only one of the two terms, which indicates a distinction between their use and functions: valency capabilities / combinability abilities, ability to combine, verbal valence (but not compatibility). The use of the term “valence” is recommended to avoid double meaning and ambiguity: compatibility, as we have found out, is divided into several types according to different criteria. “Valence” more successfully meets the requirements for terms, and helps to avoid ambiguity and achieve naming accuracy - in the context of our work - “verbal valence of a phraseological unit.”

*The main part of phraseological resources of the Russian language consists of phraseological units of original Russian origin. Among phraseological units of a colloquial nature there are a significant number of those, the source of which is professional speech, for example: sharpen the lasses, without a hitch (from professional speech carpenters), leave the stage, play first violin (from the speech of actors, musicians).

Single phraseological units fell into literary language from slang speech, for example, the phrase “to rub glasses” is a cheating expression.

In the sphere of everyday and colloquial speech, phrases have constantly arisen and are emerging in which they find social assessment various historical events and customs of the Russian people. For example, the phraseological unit put (or shelved) is associated with the name of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (17th century), by whose order a petition box was installed in front of the palace in Kolomenskoye, but such an innovation did not eliminate red tape, and the people reflected this fact accordingly: shelving means delaying consideration of the issue for an indefinite period.

In addition to phraseological units, the origin of which is associated with colloquial speech, there is a significant number of phraseological units of book origin, both Russian and borrowed. Among them there are very old ones, borrowed from liturgical books, for example: seek and you will find, holy of holies, fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, etc.

The phraseology of the Russian language is being actively replenished with catchphrases literary origin. For example, the sword of Damocles, the Gordian knot, the Procrustean bed - from ancient mythology; the expression from a beautiful distance belongs to N.V. Gogol; things of bygone days.

In addition to native Russian phraseological units, there are phraseological units foreign language origin. These are usually tracings from foreign phraseological units, for example: to remain silent (from Latin).

*The visual and expressive capabilities of Russian phraseology are difficult to overestimate. Linguists have written and are writing a lot about the stylistic possibilities of phraseological units. But linguistic material, which is so attractive to any writer or publicist, is not so easy to make serve effectively and with dignity. Stylistic functioning idiomatic expressions has one extremely important feature, about which the outstanding linguist, Professor B.L. Larin wrote at one time. “As the light of the morning is reflected in a drop of dew,” so, according to the scientist, phraseological units reflect not only the historically established views of the people, but also social order, the ideology of the era that brings them to life.

In 1955, the collection “Winged Words” by N.S. was published. Ashukin and M.G. Ashukina (3rd ed. M., 1966). The book contains a large number literary quotes and figurative expressions, arranged in alphabetical order. Availability alphabetical index at the end of the book allows you to use it as a reference book.

Russian phraseology is presented with great completeness in the book published in 1967, edited by A.I. Molotkov “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, containing over 4000 dictionary entries (3rd ed. 1978; 4th ed. 1986). Phraseologisms are given with possible options components, an interpretation of the meaning is given and the forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotations from fiction. In some cases, etymological information is provided.

In 1975, the dictionary-reference book “Stable verbal-nominal phrases of the Russian language” by V.M. Deribas. This manual contains over 5,000 set phrases, arranged according to their two components (verb - noun). In 1980, “School” was published phrasebook Russian language" V.P. Zhukov, containing about 2000 of the most common phraseological units found in literature and oral speech. In 1997, the “Dictionary of Periphrases of the Russian Language (based on newspaper journalism)” (A.B. Novikov) was published, which gives phrases such as in an Adam’s suit (naked), blue helmets (UN armed forces), black gold (oil) and etc.

Phraseology in the broad sense of the term also includes proverbs and sayings. Most full meeting Russian proverbs is the collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” by V.I. Dahl, published in 1861-1862. (reissued 1957). In 1966, V.P.’s “Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings” was published. Zhukov (3rd ed. M., 1967), containing about 1000 proverbs and sayings, arranged in alphabetical order by the first word. In 1981, the “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published by R.I. Yarantsev (2nd ed. M., 1985), which included about 800 phraseological units.

Types of phraseological units

The study of the entire set of phraseological units of the Russian language involves their classification according to a wide variety of criteria. V.V. Vinogradov, proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistics, based on varying degrees idiomaticity (unmotivated) of the components in the phraseological unit.

There are three types of phraseological units.

1. Phraseological adhesions- stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, i.e., is not motivated by them from the point of view of the current state of vocabulary: to get into trouble, to be foolish, without hesitation, to eat a dog, out of nowhere, out of nowhere, no matter what, was not there, no matter what and under. We don’t know what a “prosak” is (that’s what a machine for weaving nets was called in the old days), we don’t understand the word thumbs up(wooden blanks for spoons, the production of which did not require skilled labor), we do not think about the meaning of outdated grammatical forms nothing (not at all), doubting (doubting). However, the holistic meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person. Thus, etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation for the semantics of modern phraseological fusion. However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin1.

Phraseological units may include obsolete words and grammatical forms: Just a joke (not a joke!), the boron cheese flared up (not raw!), which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of turns.

2. Phraseological unities - stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning come to a dead end, hit the key, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it into your own hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units may have “external homonyms,” i.e., phrases coinciding with them in composition and used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning: We had to to go with the flow rivers for five days. I was so thrown into a bump that I bit my tongue and suffered from pain.

1 See, for example, the differences in the interpretation of phraseology for a coward to celebrate by B. A Larin and N. A. Meshchersky in the book: Mokienko V. M. Slavic phraseology. M., 1989. P. 18-19.

Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning, phraseological unities are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. So, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons (like a bath leaf, like on needles, like a cow licked its tongue, like a cow’s saddle), metaphorical epithets (tinned throat, iron grip), hyperboles (golden mountains, a sea of ​​​​pleasure, as far as the eye can see), litotes (as big as a poppy seed, grab onto straw). There are also phraseological units that are periphrases, i.e. descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word: far away lands- "far", there are not enough stars in the sky- "close-minded" oblique fathoms in the shoulders- "mighty, strong."

Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to the pun or joke that forms their basis: hole from a donut, from a sleeve vest, not himself, a week without a year, stabbed to death without a knife. The expressiveness of others is based on the play of antonyms: neither alive nor dead, neither give nor take, neither a candle to God nor a damn poker, more or less; on a collision of synonyms: from the frying pan into the fire, the mind has gone beyond the mind, pouring from empty to empty, around and around. Phraseological unities give speech special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.

3. Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: to lower one’s gaze (head) (there are no stable phrases in the language “to lower one’s hand”, “to lower one’s foot”). The verb to lower in the meaning “to lower” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words. Another example: a sensitive issue (situation, position, circumstance). Adjective ticklish means “requiring great caution, tact,” but the possibilities of its compatibility are limited: it is impossible to say “ delicate proposal", "delicate decision" and so on.

The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We are speaking the Velvet season but we won't say" velvet month", - "velvet autumn"; general epidemic, but not “endemic morbidity”, “endemic runny nose”; widespread arrests, but not "total rehabilitation", "total condemnation" etc.

Phraseological combinations often vary scowl brows - frown brows; affect feeling of pride - to hurt a feeling of pride; win victory- win top, be patient collapse- be patient fiasco (defeat); fear takes - anger (envy) takes, burn out of impatience- burn out out of shame etc.

In speech there are cases of contamination of the components of phraseological combinations: "plays a role" - "has a role"(instead of matters - plays a role), "take action" - "take steps"(instead of take action - take steps), "give importance"(from pay attention - give importance), "to render meaning"(from give attention - give importance). Such errors are associative in nature and are perceived as a sharp violation of the norm.

This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by highlighting, following N. M. Shansky, the so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, that is, they are distinguished by semantic division: Happy hours are not observed; To be or not to be; It's a fresh idea, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes catchphrases, proverbs, and sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: They are not phrases, but entire sentences.

The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units themselves encourages linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions. Clarifying the concept, sometimes it is proposed to include not all proverbs and sayings in combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized figurative metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to phraseological units themselves: man in a case, from the ship to the ball, after the rain on Thursday, finest hour and so on.

Thus, in identifying the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not achieved unity and certainty. The discrepancies are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the linguistic units themselves, which are traditionally included in phraseology.

Another classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features. At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units of the Russian language are proposed.

1. Typology based on grammatical similarity of component composition phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:

• 1) a combination of an adjective and a noun: cornerstone, enchanted circle, swan song;
• 2) a combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in genitive case: point of view, stumbling block, reins of power, bone of contention;
• 3) a combination of a noun in the nominative case with nouns in indirect cases with a preposition: blood and milk, soul to soul, the trick is in the bag;
• 4) a combination of the prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective: on a live thread, according to old memory, on a short leg;
• 5) a combination of a verb and a noun (with and without a preposition): take a glance, sow doubts, pick up, take hold of the mind, lead by the nose;
• 6) combination of a verb with an adverb: get into trouble, walk barefoot, see right through;
• 7) combination of a gerund and a noun: carelessly, reluctantly, headlong.

2. Typology based on correspondence syntactic functions phraseological units and parts of speech with which they can be replaced. The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:

• 1) nominal phraseological units: cornerstone, swan song. In a sentence they perform the functions of subject, predicate, and object; by the nature of connections with other words, in combination they can control any member and be controlled;
• 2) verbal phraseological units: lead by the nose, look around. In a sentence they act as a predicate; in combination with other words can agree, control and be controlled;
• 3) adjectival phraseological units: slanting fathoms in the shoulders, on one’s mind, blood and milk, on fish fur. They have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, appear in a sentence as a definition or a nominal part of the predicate;
• 4) adverbial, or adverbial, phraseological units: on a living thread, carelessly, reluctantly, face to face. They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of an action and play the role of circumstances in a sentence;
• 5) interjection phraseological units: break a leg!; hell no!; neither bottom nor tire!; V good hour! Like interjections, such phraseological units express will and feelings, acting as separate undivided sentences.

It is possible to systematize phraseological units according to other criteria. For example, from the point of view sound organization all phraseological units are divided into those ordered by their phonics and neutral. The first combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization: neither a stake nor a yard, quieter than water below the grass, not a single crow; with rhyming elements: Fedot is not the same, naked as a falcon; with sound repetitions (assonance and alliteration): little girl and little girl, keep your mouth shut, this way and that, here and there.

An interesting classification of phraseological units according to their origin. In this case, it is necessary to highlight the original Russian phraseology, which will include common Slavic phraseological units (goal like a falcon, neither fish nor fowl, take it to the quick), East Slavic (neither stake nor yard, under Tsar Pea, plant a pig), Russians themselves ( with gulkin's nose, with the whole world, put it on the back burner, in full Ivanovo, reel in the fishing rods, pull the gimp). The first have correspondences in other Slavic languages, the second - only in Ukrainian and Belarusian, and the third are characteristic only of the Russian language.

A special group includes phraseological units borrowed from Old Slavonic language: the Forbidden fruit, the promised land, the fiend of hell, manna from heaven, a byword, daily bread, by the sweat of the brow, bone from bone, the voice of one crying in the wilderness, the Babylonian pandemonium. Their source was christian books(bible, gospel), translated into Old Church Slavonic.

A significant part consists of phraseological units that came into the Russian language from ancient mythology: Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed, sword of Damocles, Augean stables, Dragon's laws, tantalum's torment, between Scylla and Charybdis, wheel of fortune, gardens of Babylon. Most of these phraseological units are also known in other languages, so it is worth emphasizing the international nature of winged combinations, which have their roots in antiquity.

Many phraseological units are borrowed from European languages ​​and more late time. These are mainly those who have become winged quotes from world famous works of art: To be or not to be(W. Shakespeare); Abandon hope, everyone who enters here.(A. Dante); storm in a teacup(C. Montesquieu), Princess on the Pea(G. H. Andersen). Some winged words are attributed to great scientists and thinkers: But still she spins(G. Galileo); All I know is that I don't know anything(Socrates); I think, therefore I exist(R. Descartes).

Some phraseological units are calques - a literal translation from the source language: blue stocking, time is money, kill time (fr. tuer le temps), Honeymoon(French: la lune de miel), break on the head (German: aufs Haupt schlagen), this is where the dog is buried (German: Da ist der Hund begraben).

A phraseological combination (collocation) is a stable phrase that includes words with both a free meaning and those with a phraseologically related, non-free meaning (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of the individual words that make them up.

Unlike phraseological adhesions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn out is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.

A limited range of words, determined by semantic relationships within the language system, can be used as variable members of a combination: for example, a phraseological combination burn with passion is a hypernym in relation to combinations like burn from..., and due to varying the variable part, the formation of synonymous series is possible burn with shame, disgrace, disgrace, burn with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Another example: English. to show one's teeth"snarl" (literally - "show your teeth"). The word exhibits semantic independence in this combination one's"someone's". It can be replaced with words my, your, his etc.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in a phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then it is a proverb or a catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. The category of phraseological expressions also includes speech stamps- stable type formulas best wishes, see you again and so on.

Many linguists do not classify phraseological expressions as phraseological units, since they lack the basic features of phraseological units.

Pleonasm

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Pleonasm(from ancient Greek πλεονασμός - superfluous, excess) - a turn of speech in which some element of meaning is duplicated; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as the linguistic expression itself, in which there is such duplication.

The term “pleonasm” comes from ancient stylistics and grammar. Ancient authors give pleonasm various estimates. Quintilian, Donatus, and Diomedo define pleonasm as overloading of speech with unnecessary words, and therefore as a stylistic defect. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words that, at first glance, are superfluous, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, and pathos, which are not feasible in laconic speech.

Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautologies and, in part, periphrases. Relationship between terms pleonasm And tautology is understood differently by linguists. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense).