Vocabulary capabilities. Visual and expressive means of language How to make your speech varied and rich

Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex. Not in last resort what makes him that way is the presence large quantity means of verbal expression.

In this article we will look at what a linguistic device is and what types it comes in. Let's look at examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.

Linguistic means in the Russian language - what is it?

The description of the most ordinary object can be made beautiful and unusual by using linguistic

Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conventionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (aka tropes) and stylistic figures.

To answer the question of what a linguistic device is, let’s take a closer look at them.

Lexical means of expression

Tropes are linguistic means in the Russian language that are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Widely used in works of art.

Paths serve to create visual, auditory, and olfactory images. They help create a certain atmosphere and produce the desired effect on the reader.

The basis of lexical means of expressiveness is hidden or explicit comparison. It may be based on external similarity, personal associations of the author, or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.

Basic language means: tropes

We have been exposed to trails since we were in school. Let's remember the most common of them:

The epithet is the most famous and common trope. Often found in poetic works. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: " ruddy dawn», « easy character", "golden hands", "silver voice".
Simile is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often it is formalized in the form of a comparative turnover. You can recognize it by the use of conjunctions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, that. Let's look at examples: “transparent like dew,” “white like snow,” “straight like a reed.”
Metaphor is a means of expression based on hidden comparison. But, unlike it, it is not formalized by unions. A metaphor is built by relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: “church onions”, “whisper of grass”, “tears of heaven”.
Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning, but differ in spelling. In addition to classical synonyms, there are contextual ones. They accept specific value within a specific text. Let's get acquainted with the examples: “jump - jump”, “look - see”.
Antonyms are words that have directly opposite meanings to each other. Like synonyms, they can be contextual. Example: “white - black”, “shout - whisper”, “calm - excitement”.
Personification is the transfer of signs and characteristic features of an animate object to an inanimate object. For example: “the willow shook its branches,” “the sun smiled brightly,” “the rain was knocking on the roofs,” “the radio was chirping in the kitchen.”

Are there other paths?

Funds lexical expressiveness There are a lot of them in the Russian language. In addition to the group that everyone is familiar with, there are also those that are unknown to many, but are also widely used:

Metonymy is the replacement of one word with another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's look at the examples: “hey, blue jacket (addressing a person in a blue jacket)”, “the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class).”
Synecdoche is a transfer of comparison from a part to a whole, and vice versa. Example: “one could hear the Frenchman rejoicing (the author is talking about the French army)”, “an insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd.”
Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, a fox symbolizes cunning, a hare - cowardice, and a wolf - anger.
Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. Serves to make the text more expressive. Places emphasis on a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's look at the examples: “words destroy hope,” “his act is the highest evil,” “he has become forty times more beautiful.”
Litota - special understatement real facts. For example: “he was thinner than a reed,” “he was no taller than a thimble.”
Periphrasis is the replacement of a word or expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: “the fox is a cunning cheat”, “the text is the brainchild of the author.”

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain imagery and expressiveness. They change the emotional coloring of its meanings.

Widely used in poetry and prose since the times of ancient poets. However, modern and older interpretations of the term differ.

In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form differ significantly from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech - an integral part of spoken language.

What are the stylistic figures?

Stylistics offers a lot of its own resources:

Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional junction) are expressive linguistic means that include repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next one. For example: “It was a beautiful sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years."
Antithesis - one or more sentences built on the basis of opposition. For example, consider the phrase: “I drag myself in the dust and soar in the skies.”
Gradation is the use in a sentence of synonyms arranged according to the degree of increase or decrease of a characteristic. Example: “The sparkles on the New Year’s tree shone, burned, shone.”
An oxymoron is the inclusion in a phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning and cannot be used in the same composition. The brightest and famous example of this stylistic figure - “Dead Souls”.
Inversion is a change in the classical order of words in a sentence. For example, not “he ran,” but “he ran.”
Parcellation is the division of a sentence with a single meaning into several parts. For example: “Opposite Nikolai. He looks without blinking."
Polyunion - using unions for communication homogeneous members offers. Used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: “It was a strange and wonderful and wonderful and mysterious day.”
Non-union - connections of homogeneous members in a sentence are carried out without unions. For example: “He was thrashing about, screaming, crying, moaning.”

Phonetic means of expression

Phonetic means of expression are the smallest group. They involve repeating certain sounds to create picturesque artistic images.

This technique is most often used in poetry. Authors use repetition of sounds when they want to convey the sound of thunder, rustling leaves or other natural phenomena.

Phonetics also help to give poetry a certain character. By using certain combinations of sounds, the text can be made harder, or vice versa, softer.

What phonetic means exist?

Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: “With my dreams I caught the passing shadows, the passing shadows of the faded day.”
Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: “Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple.”
Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain clatter of hooves, the sound of waves, or the rustling of leaves.

Use of verbal means of expressiveness

Linguistic means in the Russian language have been widely used and continue to be used in literary works, be it prose or poetry.

Writers of the Golden Age demonstrate excellent mastery of stylistic figures. Due to the masterful use of expressive means, their works are colorful, imaginative, and pleasing to the ear. It’s not for nothing that they are considered a national treasure of Russia.

We encounter linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in Everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, and epithets in his speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.

The lexical system of a language is complex and multifaceted. Possibilities constant update in speech, principles, methods, signs of combining words taken from various groups, also conceal the possibility of updating speech expressiveness and its types.

The expressive capabilities of the word are supported and enhanced by associativity imaginative thinking reader, which largely depends on his previous life experience And psychological characteristics the work of thought and consciousness in general.

Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range human feelings and their shades. But we can speak quite definitely about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he talks or writes about.
Third, a good knowledge of the expressive capabilities of the language.
Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.

The main source of increased expressiveness is vocabulary, which provides a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrases, allegory, irony. Great opportunities syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion ( reverse order words), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called in linguistics paths (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative meaning). Most often, authors use tropes works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These figurative and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to gain an individual style. At the same time, there are also general language tropes that arose as the author’s own, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals,” “battle for the harvest,” “military thunderstorm,” “conscience has spoken,” “curl up in a ball,” “like two water drops ".

In them direct meaning words are erased and sometimes lost completely. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our imagination. The trope can develop into speech stamp if used too often. Compare expressions that determine the value of resources using figurative meaning the words "gold" - " White gold"(cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (fur), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed in full and short adjective, noun and adverb: “Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple...” (A.S. Pushkin)

“She is as restless as leaves, she is like a harp, multi-stringed...” (A.K. Tolstoy) “Frost the governor patrols his possessions...” (N. Nekrasov) “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far away and past..." (S. Yesenin). Epithets classify in the following way:

1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “good fellow”, “fair maiden”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest” “mother of cheese earth”;

2) pictorial (they clearly depict objects and actions, making it possible to see them as the author sees them) - “a crowd of motley-haired fast cats” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey the author’s feelings, mood) - “The evening raised black eyebrows...” - “A blue fire began to sweep...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid lunar..." (S. Yesenin), "... and young city ascended magnificently and proudly” (A. Pushkin).

Comparison is a comparison (parallelism) or opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or more common characteristics: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains” (V. Bryusov) - “It is not the wind that rages over the forest, it is not the streams that run from the mountains - Voivode Frost patrols his domain” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity and imagery. This trope, unlike others, is always two-part - it names both compared or contrasted objects. In comparison, three extremely important existing elements are distinguished - the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity. For example, in the line by M. Lermontov “Whiteer than the snowy mountains, the clouds go to the west...” the subject of comparison is the clouds, the image of comparison is the snowy mountains, the sign of similarity is the whiteness of the clouds - The comparison can be expressed:

1) comparative turnover with conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, “than... that”: “The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover,” But sadness is like wine days gone by In my soul, the older, the stronger” (A. Pushkin);

2) comparative degree adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;

3) noun in instrumental case: “White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak);

“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair...” (S. Yesenin);

“I looked at her with all my might, like children look...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.

And the stars fell from the sky like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds...” (V. Vysotsky).

“Like Eternal Flame, the peak sparkles during the day emerald ice..." (V. Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means the transfer of the name of an object (action, quality) based on similarity; it is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If the epithet is not a word in the dictionary, but a word in speech, then the statement is all the more true: metaphor is not a word in the dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can hammer a nail into a wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head - a metaphor arises, rough but expressive.

Speech actualization of the semantics of metaphor is explained by the extreme importance of such guessing. And what more effort A metaphor requires that consciousness turn a hidden comparison into an open one; the more expressive, obviously, is the metaphor itself. Unlike a binary comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared with are given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives the trail imagery and compactness. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, detailed and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to one common feature - “the dawn is blazing,” “the talk of the waves,” “the sunset of life.”

The extended metaphor is built on various associations of similarity: “Here the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes” (M. Gorky).

Lexical metaphor is a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - “steel pen”, “clock hand”, “door handle”, “sheet of paper”. Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another based on external or intercom between them. Communication may be

1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “His pen breathes revenge” (A. Tolstoy);

5) between the place and the people located in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A type of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-impliation) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1) part instead of the whole: “All flags will come to visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) generic name instead of specific name: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);

3) the specific name instead of the generic name: “Take care of your penny above all else” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of singular: “Even the bird does not fly to him, and the beast does not come” (A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification is to attribute to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly crawl towards me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, in them is a sign of my will, reading my will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top...” (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting of figurative exaggeration - “they swept a stack above the clouds”, “the wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “The sunset burned in one hundred and forty suns” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world is in the palm of your hand...” (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be either proprietary or general in language. In everyday speech we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - seen (heard) a hundred times, “scared to death”, “strangle in your arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite of hyperbole is stylistic technique - litotes (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) - a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a boy as big as a finger”, “...You need to bow your head to a thin blade of grass...” (N. Nekrasov) .

Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

Meiosis represents the trope of understatement

intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent”, “tolerable” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating version of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. “old woman” - “a woman of Balzac’s age”, “not in her first youth”; “an ugly man” - “it’s hard to call him handsome.” Hyperbole and litotes characterize deviation in one direction or another quantification the subject and in speech can be combined, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunya spun a tow for three hours, spun three threads,” and these threads were “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log.” In addition to the author’s, there are also general linguistic litotes - “the cat cried”, “just a stone’s throw”, “can’t see beyond your own nose”.

Periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I speak) is usually called

a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word (“who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope consisting of replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of them essential features or pointing to them character traits(“king of beasts is the lion”, “foggy Albion” - England, “ North Venice" - St. Petersburg, “the sun of Russian poetry” - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek allegoria - allegory) consists of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. Main source allegories - tales about animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf - anger and greed, the ram - stupidity, the lion - power, the snake - wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope that consists in the use of a name or an entire statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment, which the speaker (writer) rejects. “Where are you, smart one, are you delusional?” - asks the hero of one of I.A.’s fables. Krylova at Donkey's. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov’s story “Chameleon”, characterization of a dog).

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - unity of origin, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.

Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... A black-eyed maiden, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes).

It was not in vain that the winds blew, It was not in vain that the storm came. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by the odd and even, I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin).

Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive capabilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are the forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use grammatical forms.

A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of number of nouns instead of another. Yes, forms singular personal nouns in a collective meaning vividly convey generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often ¾ negative: Moscow, burned by fire, was given to the French (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names, used metaphorically to designate not a specific person, but a typified phenomenon: We all look into the poleons (A. Pushkin); Silent people are blissful in the world (A. Griboyedov). The usual or occasional use of the plural noun singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to go to courses, study electricity, all sorts of oxygen! (V. Veresaev).

Pronouns are characterized by a richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns some, some, some, some, used when naming a person, introduce a shade of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, comedy. Here is an example from V. Pikul’s novel “I Have the Honor”: His wife had Astrakhan herring. I think ¾ why would a lady drag around Europe with our stinking herring? He cut her belly (not a lady’s, of course, but a herring), and from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond ¾ fell out like cockroaches.

Special expressive shades are created by the opposition of the pronouns we ¾ you, our ¾ your, emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: Millions of you. We are ¾ of darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it and fight us! (A. Blok); We stand against society, whose interests you are ordered to defend, as irreconcilable enemies of it and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win... You cannot refuse the oppression of prejudices and habits, ¾ of the oppression that has spiritually killed you , ¾ nothing prevents us from being internally free, ¾ the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you ¾ unwittingly ¾ pour into our consciousness (M. Gorky).

Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, the ability to figurative use. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous substitutions of certain forms of tense, aspect, mood or personal forms verb by others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. Thus, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, the 3rd person singular form can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation (He is still arguing!), 1st person plural(Well, how are we resting? ¾ in the meaning ‘resting, resting’) with a shade of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle with a hint of desirability (You should rest a little; You should visit him).

Past tense perfect form when used in the meaning of the future, it expresses a particularly categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of an action: ¾ Listen, let me go! Drop me off somewhere! I'm completely lost (M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of moods (May there always be sunshine!; Long live world peace!). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when one form of mood is used to mean another. For example, the subjunctive mood in the imperative sense has a connotation of a polite, cautious wish (You should go to your brother)", the indicative mood in the imperative sense expresses an order that does not allow objection, refusal (You'll call tomorrow!)); the infinitive in the imperative sense expresses categoricalness (Stop arms race!; ban testing atomic weapons!). Strengthening the expression of the verb in imperative mood particles contribute, yes, let, well, well, -ka, etc.: ¾ Come on, isn’t it sweet, my friend. // Reason in simplicity (A. Tvardovsky); Shut up!; So, say!

The expressive possibilities of syntax are associated primarily with the use of stylistic figures (turns of speech, syntactic constructions): anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, gradation, inversion, parallelism, ellipsis, silence, non-union, polyunion, etc.

The expressive capabilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely related to the elements that fill them, their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonym words; The lexical basis of antithesis is ¾ antonymy, and the syntactic basis is ¾ parallelism of construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In the silence and darkness of the forest

I think about life under a pine tree.

That pine tree is clumsy and old,

That pine is harsh and wise,

That pine tree is sad and calm,

Quieter than the streams in a big, big river,

Like a mother

me with a pine palm

Carefully strokes the cheek.

(V. Fedorov)

Stringing together synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She [the German] was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised a l, n e n a videl (Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. See, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky combines into phrases:

Trusting Death was wrapped around his finger, She hesitated, forgetting to wave her scythe.

The bullets were no longer catching up with us and were falling behind.

Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew?!

Death is ¾ trusting; death was wrapped around the finger (i.e. deceived); the bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

Search for fresh, accurate combinations, expansion, updating lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech: She is a ¾ young woman, Greek, suspected of loving freedom (from newspapers). The phrase suspected of loving freedom gives a clear idea of the situation in which love of freedom is considered a very suspicious quality.

Ever since Ancient Greece a special semantic type of phrases is known: ¾ oxymoron (Greek.

Oxymoron ¾ witty-silly), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts, contradictory friends each other, logically excluding one another" ( hot Snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). An oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasizing their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

(V. Fedorov)

An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and journalism as a bright, catchy title, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the entire text. Thus, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship was entitled "Original Template." The original template is the attempt of grandmaster Polugaevsky to make wider use of the typical positions that appeared on the board, analyzed in detail in textbooks on chess theory, knowledge of which makes it easier for the athlete to find a way out.

By apt definition A.S. Pushkin, “language is inexhaustible in combining words,” therefore, its expressive capabilities are inexhaustible. Updating connections between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others - in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by short-range, but by long-range connections of words, individual parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. is constructed. Pushkin’s “I loved you”, which is an example of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one periphrasis (Love, perhaps, // In my soul has not completely faded away). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness through the methods of combining words within the entire poem, organizing it speech structure in general and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has many emotionally and expressively colored constructions. Thus, various modal-expressive meanings characterize infinitive sentences that have a colloquial coloring: You will not see such battles (M. Lermontov); You can’t hide // You can’t hide your amazement // Neither forges nor masters (V. Fedorov).

An emotional-evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed using exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it! (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate has reached its conclusion! (M. Lermontov), segmented and parceled structures: Winter ¾ is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, is a real forest, not like our grove... With mushrooms, with berries (V. Panova), etc.

It enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author’s speech, to more clearly show his internal state, attitude to the subject of the message, direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and persuasive than indirect. For example, compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov" Dear Lessons"in the first and second editions:

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definitely personal proposals; Nominatives have great semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions are expressed by vocative and other sentences: The people of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let us take care of the world! // Let's stand as one, ¾ // Let's say: we won't let // The war start again (A. Zharov); Oh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, anxiety // Yes, steppe weeds (L. Oshanin); ¾ Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! (Pause.) Verochka! Don't be lazy, get up, honey! (A. Chekhov).

The expressive capabilities of syntactic (as well as other) language means are updated thanks to various stylistic devices using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expressiveness if they not only contain an incentive to obtain information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades (Is it morning?; So you won’t come?; Again this nasty rain?); awaken the recipient’s interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: How far will you swim on the wave of the crisis?; Is the postman's bag heavy?; Is it warm for us?; Will the CIS strengthen its position? (these are some article titles). Attracting the addressee’s attention and enhancing the impact of speech on his feelings helps rhetorical questions, widely used in public speaking: Don't we have overflowing creativity? Do we not have an intelligent, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we creak our feathers in a boring way when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of a new world? (A.N. Tolstoy)

In practice oratory a special technique has been developed for using interrogative sentences: a question-and-answer move (the speaker poses questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for heroism, but were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily (S. Alexievich).

The question-and-answer course dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee an interlocutor of the speaker, and activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative and gives it expressiveness.

Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most ordinary, stylistically unmarked linguistic units thanks to the skillful, most appropriate use of them in the context in accordance with the content of the statement, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.

Deviations from norms are deliberately used as means of verbal expressiveness in a certain situation. literary language: the use in one context of units of different stylistic colors, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. Such use is based on a conscious choice linguistic means, based on deep knowledge language.

It is possible to achieve speech expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and target setting author.

Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable compared to lexical and phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and, to one degree or another, depend on them. Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive capabilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.

A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of number of nouns instead of another. Thus, the singular forms of personal nouns in the collective meaning vividly convey generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often negative: “Moscow, burned by fire, Frenchman given away" (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names, used metaphorically to designate not a specific person, but a typified phenomenon: “We all look into napoleons"(A. Pushkin); " Molchalins blissful in the world” (A. Griboyedov).

Pronouns are characterized by a richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns “some”, “someone”, “someone”, used when naming a person, introduce a shade of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, comedy. Here is an example from V. Pikul’s novel “I Have the Honor”: “With his wife there was an Astrakhan herring. I think - why would a lady with our stinking herring trudge around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady’s, of course, but a herring), and from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond fell out like cockroaches.”

Special expressive shades are created by the contrast of the pronouns we - you, our - your, emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: “Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it, fight us!” (A. Blok); “We stand against society, the interests of which you are ordered to defend, as irreconcilable enemies of his and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win... You cannot refuse the oppression of prejudices and habits - an oppression that has spiritually killed you - nothing prevents us from being internally free - the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you - unwillingly - pour into our consciousness” (M. Gorky).

Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, and the ability to be used figuratively have great expressive capabilities. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, aspect, mood or finite forms of the verb with others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. Thus, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, third person singular forms can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation (He’s still arguing!), first person plural (“Well, how are we resting?” - meaning ‘resting, resting’) with a hint of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle with a hint of desirability (You should rest a little; You should visit him).

The past tense of the perfect form, when used in the meaning of the future, expresses a particularly categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of an action: “Listen, let me go! Drop me off somewhere! I’m completely lost” (M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of moods (“May there always be sunshine!”; “Long live peace in the whole world!”). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when one form of mood is used to mean another. For example, subjunctive mood in the imperative meaning it has a connotation of a polite, cautious wish (You should go to your brother), the indicative mood in the imperative meaning expresses an order that does not allow objection or refusal (You will call tomorrow!); The infinitive in the imperative mood expresses categoricalness (Stop the arms race!; Ban the testing of atomic weapons!). The particles yes, let, well, well, -ka, etc. contribute to strengthening the expression of the verb in the imperative mood: “Come on, isn’t it sweet, buddy. // Reason in simplicity” (A. Tvardovsky); Shut up!; So, say!

Expressive Possibilities syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely related to the elephants that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of antithesis is often created by using antonym words; The lexical basis of antithesis is antonymy, and the syntactic basis is parallelism of construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In the silence and darkness of the forest I think about life under a pine tree. That pine is gnarled and old, That pine is harsh and wise, That pine is sad and calm, Quieter than the streams in a big, big river, Like a mother, Gently stroking my cheek with her pine palm.

(V. Fedorov)

Stringing synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: “She was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised, hated"(Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. Here, for example, is how and what words V. Vysotsky combines into phrases:

Trusting Death has been wrapped around his finger,

She hesitated, forgetting to swing her scythe. The bullets were no longer catching up with us and were falling behind. Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew?!

Death is trusting; death was “wrapped around the finger” (i.e. deceived); the bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

The search for fresh, accurate combinations, expansion, and renewal of lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech.

Since the times of Ancient Greece, a special semantic type phrases - an oxymoron (Greek oxy moron - witty-stupid), i.e. “a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another” (hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). An oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasizing their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

Covered

Sweet despair

The pain of delight

By your eyes,

Wide open

Like goodbye

I saw myself

(V. Fedorov)

According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, “language is inexhaustible in combining words,” therefore, its expressive capabilities are inexhaustible. Updating connections between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases, this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others - in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by short-range, but by long-range connections of words, individual parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. is constructed. Pushkin’s “I loved you”, which is an example of expressive speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive color and semantic connotations, and only one periphrasis (« Love, perhaps, has not yet completely faded away in my soul." The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness through the methods of combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has many emotionally and expressively colored constructions. Thus, various modal-expressive meanings characterize infinitive sentences that have a colloquial coloring: “You will never see such battles” (M. Lermontov); “You can’t hide // You can’t hide your amazement // Neither forges nor masters” (V. Fedorov).

An emotional-evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed using exclamatory sentences: “How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it!” (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: “Fate has reached its conclusion!” (M. Lermontov), segmented and parceled structures: “Winter is so long, so endless”; “Tal, where we will live, is a real forest, not like our grove... With mushrooms, with berries” (V. Panova), etc.

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definitely personal proposals; Nominatives have great semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions are expressed by vocative and other sentences: “The people of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let us take care of the world! // Let’s stand as one, - // Let’s say: we won’t let // the war start again” (A. Zharov); “Oh, roads! //Dust and fog, //Cold, anxiety //Yes, steppe weeds” (L. Oshanin); - “Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us!” (Pause.) Verochka! Don’t be lazy, get up, honey!” (A. Chekhov).

The expressive capabilities of syntactic (as well as other) language means are updated thanks to various stylistic techniques of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expressiveness if they not only contain an incentive to obtain information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades (“Is it morning?”; “So you won’t come?”; “That nasty rain again?” ); awaken the addressee’s interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: “How far will you sail on the wave of the crisis?”; “Is the postman’s bag heavy?”; “Does the warmth shine on us?”; “Will the CIS strengthen its position?” (these are some article titles). Rhetorical questions, widely used in public speaking: “Don’t we have overflowing creativity? Do we not have an intelligent, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we creak our feathers in a boring way when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of a new world?” (A.N. Tolstoy).

In the practice of oratory, a special technique has been developed for using interrogative sentences - the question-and-answer move (the speaker poses questions and answers them himself): “How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for heroism, but were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily” (S. Alexievich).

Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most ordinary, stylistically unmarked linguistic units thanks to their skillful, most appropriate use in the context in accordance with the content of the utterance, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.

As a means of speech expression in certain situation Deviations from the norms of a literary language are deliberately used: the use in one context of units of different stylistic colors, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. The basis of such use is the conscious choice of linguistic means, based on deep knowledge of the language.

It is possible to achieve verbal expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author’s goal setting.

The purpose of the lesson. Training in the analysis of phonetic organization of speech.

Lesson objectives:

update the following literary concepts: euphony, cacophony, alliteration, assonance, sound writing;
learn to edit text from the point of view of its phonetic organization;
improve the skill of analyzing phonetic means of expressive speech.

Equipment: printouts of texts, slides.

DURING THE CLASSES

Emotional start: reading by the teacher (prepared student) of a poem by S.Ya. Marshak.

Breathing freely in every vowel,
In consonants, it is interrupted for a moment.
And only that one achieved harmony,
Who can alter them?
Silver and copper sound in consonants.
And the vowels were given to you for singing.
And be happy if you can sing
Or even breathe a poem.

– What words contain the main idea of the poem?
– “Breathe” the lines of your favorite poems? Why do you remember them?

Students read favorite lines from memory, for example: “Whisper, timid breathing, the trills of a nightingale...", "The sea was all sparkling in the bright light, and the waves were beating menacingly against the shore...", etc. They explain that they were remembered because of the harmonious connection between meaning and sound, melody or rhythm.
The teacher announces the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Task No. 1.

Indicate the features of the sound organization of speech in an excerpt from A. Tvardovsky’s poem “House by the Road”. Highlight audio repeats; define their aesthetic functions in context.

This is the covenant and this is the sound,
And along the braid along the sting,
Washing away the little petals,
The dew ran like a stream.
The mowing is high, like a bed,
Lay down, fluffed up,
And a wet, sleepy bumblebee,
While mowing he sang barely audibly.
And with a soft swing it’s hard
The scythe creaked in his hands.
And the sun burned
And things went on
And everything seemed to sing:
Mow, scythe,
While there is dew,
Dew away -
And we're home.

Indicate the shortcomings of phonics in excerpts from the works of young authors, write down the editing option. Compare it with M. Gorky's version of the edit.

Manuscript version	Remark by M. Gorky
Drops drip from the roofs in the transparent air; Like drops, the strikes of the Lenten bell fall one after another.	“You can find hundreds of these “like kas” on the pages of Novikov’s boring book.”
Not paying attention to actresses with passionate looks.	“The Three Cs whistle unbearably.”
Over the course of a year, over one and a half hundred clashes occurred.	The combination “sta” and “sta” is inappropriate.
From time to time the face of a young woman poked out from the rattling gate.	To replace the syllable “from” use “sometimes”.
The sky seemed to be cracking from the heat, and the heat and fatigue clouded the vision.	"Moose" three times sounds bad.

Taking into account the lessons previous task and M. Gorky's advice, from the proposed abbreviations, select the name of our school theater. Suggest your option.

TOU is a student theater organization.
KIT is a club for those interested in theater.
TKU is a student theater club.
TKSH is a theater club for schoolchildren.
STI - school theater art.
STO - school theater society.
OTI is a theater arts society.

Determine the purpose of using onomatopoeic and sound-like words and their phonetic environment.

From dead head Meanwhile, the grave snake, hissing, crawled out. (P.)
The rustling of their peaks greeted me with a familiar noise. (P.)
They hunted a lot, they galloped a lot, they threw hounds from island to island. (N.)
Heels click like hooves - the girl runs to the water pump to get a drink. (Asc.)
The old hut with the jaws of the threshold chews the rough crumb of silence. E.)
The Neva swelled and roared, bubbling and swirling like a cauldron. (P.)

– Which authors’ dates did you recognize?
– What is the name of the method of expressiveness used by poets? Define it. (Sound writing is a technique of enhancing the visual quality of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood.)

Analyzing the phonics of the poem, show the unity of the sound and semantic organization of speech. Name a technique for enhancing imagery.

Analyzing phonics, show the unity of the sound and semantic aspects of speech. Use variants of cliches: thanks to sound writing (assonance, alliteration), i.e. repetition of sounds ... the author creates a mood (joy, anger, calm, admiration, peace, bitterness, etc.), or ... conveys the beauty (ugliness, dynamism, etc.) of the world that is happening, or ... emphasizes the contrast of the depicted phenomena (events, characters, behavior, etc.)

1) Only at night do you see the universe.
Silence and darkness are needed
So that at this secret meeting,
She came without covering her face.

2) The Mazurka sounded. It happened
When the mazurka thunder roared,
Everything in the huge hall was shaking,
The parquet cracked under the heel,
The frames shook and rattled:
Now it’s not the same, and we, like ladies,
We slide on the varnished boards.

Analyze the editing of Russian poets from the point of view of phonics; indicate lexical substitutions dictated by the sound selection of words, try to justify the rejection of certain consonances and the selection of words of a certain sound coloring. Work in groups.

Initial version	Final version
Love's sad anxiety	Love's crazy anxiety Maybe I found out too early.
You will hear the judgment of a fool And the rabble's cold laughter...	You will hear the judgment of a fool And the crowd's laughter is cold...
	Killed!.. Why sobs now, An unnecessary chorus of praise and tears...
The insidious whispers of insensitive (contemptuous) ignoramuses...	Poisoned him last moments Insidious whisper mocking ignoramuses...
Repeating words of hope Your soul is alien to melancholy.	Repeating the words of separation, Your soul is full of hope.
And the Red squadrons rushed south.	And the Red squadrons galloped south.

Compare sound organization speech in sentences; indicate what violates the euphony in the unedited versions. Analyze the stylistic edits and, if necessary, make adjustments to the editorial version.

Initial version	Final version
From early morning the entire population of the village began to flock here.	Early in the morning people from all over the village began to come here.
Border guards guard the border like the apple of their eye.	Border guards reliably guard the border.
The picturesque chronicle of Moscow is represented by drawings and engravings presented at the exhibition.	The drawings and engravings presented at the exhibition are an artistic chronicle of Moscow.
The authors based the film on the unprecedented example of the Soyuz 9 flight.	The film was based on an unprecedented flight spaceship"Soyuz - 9".

Write down a poem by A.S. Pushkin. Prepare a coherent answer about the phonetic means of sound harmony in poetic speech. Indicate repeating sounds, phenomena of assonance, alliteration; explain their connection with artistic images and the content of the poem. Name the words highlighted using sound writing.

Having dropped the urn with water, the Virgin broke it on the cliff.
The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard.
Miracle! The water will not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn;
The Virgin, above the eternal stream, sits forever sad.

(One of possible options answer:

“The poem “Tsarskoe Selo Statue” by A.S. Pushkin glorifies one of the most famous sights of the Catherine Park of Tsarskoe Selo. This is the “Girl with a Jug” fountain, depicting a sitting girl with a shard in her hands and broken jug at her feet, from which water flows in an inexhaustible stream.
The great poet managed to reproduce the image of not a motionless sculpture, but a living “Virgin”. Thanks to alliteration, we clearly hear the crash and ringing of a jug being broken on a rock: “At rn with water R O n willow, about the cliff of her Virgin R A zb silt. Voiced explosive sounds convey instantaneous, brief action. The light and quiet rustle is endless flowing water, its eternal murmur is heard by us in the repeating sound “Ch” (“... above the eternal stream, sits forever sad.”) Thus, the poet, with the help of sound writing, combined both short-term action and eternity in such a small poem.)

Homework. Prepare a written, coherent answer about the phonetic means of sound harmony in the poem “On the Hills of Georgia...” Indicate repeating sounds, phenomena of assonance, alliteration; explain their connection with artistic images and the content of the poem. Name the words highlighted using sound writing.

(One of the possible options:

“In the minds of A.S. Pushkin there was always an association of Georgia with its songs. He wrote: “Georgian songs are pleasant and mostly mournful.” In the poem “On the Hills of Georgia,” this idea receives phonetic support: the sound coincidence of “Georgia” is “sad.” Alliteration in the first 3 lines: Georgia, Aragva, sad - helps create a feeling calm confidence. The most intimate feeling – love – echoes this concept. It is present only as a sound hint (soft L) in the first line: “ l"heels." More clearly - in the third: “I’m sad and l easy; oven l b my light l and...", and is named (twice) only at the end of the poem.
Between sadness and love special place sadness occupies, and therefore sadness is permeated with extraordinary light, light becomes its quality. The sound image of “sadness” applies to all words with a stressed “A”: haze, Aragva, light, full. Thanks to assonance and an open stressed syllable, the poem acquires a special lyricism. The lyrical hero is open to the world.)

References:

Golub I.B. Exercises on the stylistics of the Russian language. M.: Iris Press, 2006.
Gorshkov A.I. Russian literature. M.: Education, 1995.
Novikov V.I. Literary criticism and stylistics. M.: Pedagogy - Press, 1997.