The table contains information about tropes, figures of speech, reveals the visual possibilities of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, as well as sound means of expression.
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“Preparation for the Unified State Exam - 9. Visual and expressive means of language”
Expressiveness of Russian speech. Means of expression.
Visual and expressive means of language
TRAILS - using the word figuratively.
| List of tropes | Meaning of the term | |
| Allegory | Allegory. A trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. | In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf. |
| Hyperbola | A means of artistic representation based on exaggeration | Huge eyes, like spotlights (V. Mayakovsky) |
| Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character | The mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin. |
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| Where are you getting your head from, smart one? (I. Krylov). |
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| A means of artistic representation based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole) | The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck (N. Gogol). |
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| Metaphor, extended metaphor | Hidden comparison. A type of trope in which individual words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. Sometimes the entire poem is an expanded poetic image | With a sheaf of your oat hair You belong to me forever.(S. Yesenin.) |
| Metonymy | A type of trope in which words are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from a locality to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works | When will the shore of hell take me forever, When will Pero, my joy, fall asleep forever... (A. Pushkin.) I ate on silver and gold. Well, eat another plate, son. |
| Personification | Such an image of inanimate objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings, the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel | What are you howling about, wind? night, Why are you complaining so madly? (F. Tyutchev.) |
| Periphrase (or paraphrase) | One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most characteristic features, enhancing the figurativeness of speech | King of beasts (instead of lion) |
| Synecdoche | A type of metonymy consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of the whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacing a species concept with a generic concept | All flags will be visiting us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. We all look at Napoleons. |
| Figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties | The grove dissuaded golden with Birch's cheerful tongue. |
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| Comparison | A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon | The fragile ice lies on the chilly river like melting sugar. (N. Nekrasov.) |
FIGURES OF SPEECH
A generalized name for stylistic devices in which a word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. Grammatical argument.
| Figure | Meaning of the term | Example |
| Anaphora (or unity of command) | Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines, stanzas. | I love you, Petra’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance... |
| Antithesis | Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms | And the new so denies the old!.. It ages before our eyes! Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer! The leaders are younger. It's already older! Kinder morals. |
| Gradation | (graduality) - a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance | I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. |
| Inversion | Rearrangement; a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech | He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps. |
| Lexical repetition | Intentional repetition of the same word in the text | Forgive me, forgive me, forgive me! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I don’t hold any grudges, I promise you that, But only you will forgive me too! |
| Pleonasm | Repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates a particular stylistic effect. | My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick. |
| Oxymoron | A combination of words with opposite meanings that do not go together. | Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence. |
| Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal | Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the goal of getting an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader. Exclamations and addresses enhance emotional perception | Where will you gallop, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.) |
| Syntactic parallelism | A technique consisting in similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas. | I lookfor the future with fear,I lookfor the past with longing... |
| Default | A figure that leaves the listener to guess and think about what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement. | You'll be going home soon:Look...What? my To tell the truth, no one is very concerned about fate. |
| Ellipsis | A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning | We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.) |
| A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition of a word or phrase at the end of poetic lines | Dear friend, in this tooquiet At home. The fever hits me. I can't find a place inquiet At home near the peaceful fire. (A. Blok.) |
VISUAL POSSIBILITIES OF VOCABULARY
Lexical argument
| Meaning | ||
| Antonyms, contextual antonyms | Words with opposite meanings. Contextual antonyms - it is in the context that they are opposite. Without context, this contrast is lost. | Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire... (A. Pushkin.) |
| Synonyms, contextual synonyms | Words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms - it is in the context that they are close. Without context, intimacy is lost. | To desire - to want, to have a desire, to strive, to dream, to crave, to hunger |
| Words that sound the same but have different meanings. | Knee - a joint connecting the thigh and lower leg; passage in birdsong |
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| Homographs | Different words that match in spelling but not in pronunciation. | Castle (palace) – lock (on the door), Flour (torment) – flour (product) |
| Paronyms | Words that are similar in sound but different in meaning | Heroic - heroic, double - dual, effective - valid |
| Words in figurative meaning | In contrast to the direct meaning of the word, which is stylistically neutral and devoid of imagery, the figurative meaning is figurative and stylistically colored. | Sword of justice, sea of light |
| Dialectisms | A word or phrase that exists in a certain area and is used in speech by the residents of this area | Draniki, shanezhki, beetroot |
| Jargonisms | Words and expressions that are outside the literary norm, belonging to some kind of jargon - a type of speech used by people united by common interests, habits, and activities. | Head - watermelon, globe, pan, basket, pumpkin... |
| Professionalisms | Words used by people of the same profession | Galley, boatswain, watercolor, easel |
| Words intended to denote special concepts of science, technology, and others. | Grammar, surgical, optics |
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| Book vocabulary | Words that are characteristic of written speech and have a special stylistic connotation. | Immortality, incentive, prevail... |
| Prostorechnaya | Words, colloquial use, characterized by some roughness, reduced character. | Blockhead, fidgety, wobble |
| Neologisms (new words) | New words emerging to represent new concepts that have just emerged. Individual author's neologisms also arise. | There will be a storm - we will argue And let's be brave with her. |
| Obsolete words (archaisms) | Words displaced from modern language others denoting the same concepts. | Fair - excellent, zealous - caring, stranger - foreigner |
| Borrowed | Words transferred from words in other languages. | Parliament, Senate, deputy, consensus |
| Phraseologisms | Stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure, reproduced in speech as entire lexical units. | To be disingenuous - to be a hypocrite, to play dumb - to mess around, to hastily - quickly |
EXPRESSIVE-EMOTIONAL VOCABULARY
| Conversational. | Words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary, are characteristic of spoken language, and are emotionally charged. | Dirty, loud, bearded |
| Emotionally charged words | Estimated character, having both positive and negative connotations. | Adorable, wonderful, disgusting, villain |
| Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation. | Cute, little bunny, little brain, brainchild |
PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY
Grammatical argument
| 1. Expressive usage case, gender, animation, etc. | Something air it is not enough for me, I drink the wind, I swallow the fog... (V. Vysotsky.) We are relaxing in Sochach. How many Plyushkins divorced! |
| 2. Direct and figurative use of verb tense forms | I'm coming I went to school yesterday and I see announcement: “Quarantine.” Oh and rejoiced I! |
| 3. Expressive use of words from different parts of speech. | Happened to me most amazing story! I got unpleasant message. I was visiting at her place. The cup will not pass you by this. |
| 4. Use of interjections and onomatopoeic words. | Here's closer! They gallop... and into the yard Evgeniy! "Oh!"- and lighter than the shadow Tatyana jump to the other entrance. (A. Pushkin.) |
SOUND EXPRESSIVENESS
| Means | Meaning of the term | |
| Alliteration | A technique for enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds | Hissing foamy glasses and blue flames of punch... |
| Alternation | Alternation of sounds. Change of sounds that occupy the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use. | Tangent - touch, shine - shine. |
| Assonance | A technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds | The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.) |
| Sound recording | A technique for enhancing the visual quality of a text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture | For three days I could hear how on a boring, long road They tapped the joints: east, east, east... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.) |
| Onomatopoeia | Using the sounds of language to imitate the sounds of living and inanimate nature | When the mazurka thunder roared... (A. Pushkin.) |
PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF SYNTAX
Grammatical argument
| 1. Rows of homogeneous members of a sentence. | When empty And weak a person hears flattering feedback about his dubious merits, he revels in with your vanity, gets arrogant and completely loses your tiny ability to be critical of your own actions and to your person.(D. Pisarev.) |
| 2. Sentences with introductory words, appeals, isolated members. | Probably, there, in their native places, just as in my childhood and youth, the ashes bloom in the swampy backwaters and the reeds rustle, who made me, with their rustling, their prophetic whispers, that poet, who I have become, who I was, who I will be when I die. (K. Balmont.) |
| 3. Expressive use of sentences of different types (complex, complex, non-union, single-part, incomplete, etc.). | They speak Russian everywhere; this is the language of my father and my mother, this is the language of my nanny, my childhood, my first love, almost all moments of my life, which entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality. (K. Balmont.) |
| 4. Dialogic presentation. | - Well? Is it true that he is so good-looking? - Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say. Slender, tall, blush all over his cheek... - Right? And I thought his face was pale. What? What did he look like to you? Sad, thoughtful? - What do you? I've never seen such a mad person in my life. He decided to run with us into the burners. - Run into the burners with you! Impossible!(A. Pushkin.) |
| 5. Parcellation - a stylistic technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even individual words in a work in order to give the speech intonation expression through its abrupt pronunciation. Parcel words are separated from each other by dots or exclamation marks, subject to other syntactic and grammatical rules. | Liberty and Fraternity. There will be no equality. Nobody. No one. Not equal. Never.(A. Volodin.) He saw me and froze. Numb. He fell silent. |
| 6. Non-union or asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions, which gives the text dynamism and swiftness. | Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. If you are afraid of wolves, do not go into the forest. |
| 7. Polyconjunction or polysyndeton - repeating conjunctions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the parts of the sentence connected by the conjunctions. | The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity. I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint. |
Lexical means
Antonyms – different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning (good - evil, powerful - powerless).The contrast of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, establishing the emotionality of speech, and serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
Contextual (or contextual) antonyms –These are words that are not contrasted in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text:Mind and heart - ice and fire -This is the main thing that distinguished this hero.
Hyperbole – a figurative expression that exaggerates an action, object, or phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow was falling from the sky in pounds.
Litotes – a bad understatement: a man with a fingernail.Used to enhance artistic impression.
Individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms) -due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects, express the author’s view on a topic or problem: ...How can we ensure that our rights are not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)
Use of literary imageryhelps the author to better explain a situation, phenomenon, or another image:Gregory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov.
Synonyms – these are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning:Crush is love, friend is friend.Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express your thoughts using. To enhance the feature.
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms –words that are synonyms only in this text:Lomonosov is a genius - the beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)
Metaphor – hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. The basis of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.
In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands on what similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based:There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil people, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world,it would warp... capsize and sink.Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a type of metaphor.
Metonymy – transfer of meanings (renaming) according to the contiguity of phenomena. The most common transfer cases:
A) from a person to his any external signs:Is it lunchtime soon? - asked the guest, turning toquilted vest;
b) from the institution to its inhabitants: Whole boarding recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisareva;
Oxymoron – a combination of words with contrasting meanings that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts that sharply contradict in meaning and are mutually exclusive. This technique prepares the reader to perceive contradictory, complex phenomena, often the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author’s attitude towards an object or phenomenon, or gives an ironic overtone:The sad fun continued...
Personification –one of the types of metaphor when a characteristic is transferred from a living object to an inanimate one. When personified, the described object is externally used by a person:The tree, bending towards me,stretched out thin hands.Even more often, actions that are permissible only to humans are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain spanked with bare feetalong the garden paths.
Evaluative vocabulary –direct author's assessment of events, phenomena, objects: Pushkin is a miracle.
Paraphrase(s) – using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition: The city of the Neva sheltered Gogol.
Proverbs and sayings,used by the author, make speech figurative, apt, expressive.
Comparison – one of the means of expressive language that helps the author express his point of view, create entire artistic pictures, and give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparisons are usually joined by conjunctions:as, as if, as if, exactly, etc.but serves to figuratively describe the most diverse characteristics of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of color: His eyes are black as night.
A form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case is often found: Alarm for the snake crawled into our hearts.There are comparisons that are included in a sentence using words:similar, similar, reminiscent: ...butterflies look like flowers.
Phraseologisms –These are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language, used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and figurative characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author’s attitude to events, to a person, etc.:people like my hero have spark of God. Phraseologisms have a stronger impact on the reader.
Quotes from other works help the author to prove a thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional and expressive: A.S. Pushkin, "like first love"will not forget not only"Russia's heart" , but also world culture.
Epithet – a word that identifies in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or characteristics. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another:chattering magpie,fatal clock. Peers greedily; listens frozen;but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative meaning:half-asleep, tender, loving gazes.
Gradation – a stylistic figure, which implies the subsequent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech:For the sake of your child, for the sake of your family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world!The gradation can be ascending (strengthening the characteristic) and descending (weakening the characteristic).
Antithesis – a stylistic device that consists of a sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, and contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author’s view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
Tautology – repetition (better, the author's words are the author's words)
Conversational vocabularyadds additional Expressive-emotional. Coloring (positive, negative, diminishing) can be given by a playful, ironic, familiar attitude towards the subject.
Historicisms- words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts that they denoted (chain mail, coachman)
Archaisms - words that in modern times Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)
In the works of artists. Lit. They help to recreate the flavor of the era, are means of speech characterization, or can be used as a means of comic relief.
Borrowing Words -to create humor, nominative function, give national. The coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is being described.
. Grammatical means.
Exclamation particles -a way of expressing the author’s emotional mood, a technique for creating the emotional pathos of the text: ABOUT, how beautiful you are, my land! How good are your fields?!
Exclamatory sentencesexpress the author’s emotional attitude to what is being described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration):Ugly attitude! How can you preserve happiness!Exclamatory sentences also express a call to action:Let's preserve our soul as a shrine!
Inversion – reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition comes before the word being defined, the inconsistent one comes after it, the object after the control word, the adverbial manner of action comes before the verb:Modern youth quickly realized the falsity of this truth.And with inversion, words are arranged in a different order than established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech:My beloved homeland, my dear land, should we take care of you!
Multi-union – a rhetorical figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the listed concepts, the role of each is emphasized: And the thunder did not strike, and the sky didn't fall to the ground, And the rivers did not overflow from such grief!
Parcellation – the technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into individual words. Its goal is to give speech intonation expression by abruptly pronouncing it:The poet suddenly stood up. He turned pale.
Repeat – conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to strengthen the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: Pushkin was sufferer, suffererin the full sense of the word.
Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations -a special means of creating emotionality in speech and expressing the author’s position.Who hasn’t cursed the stationmasters, who hasn’t sworn at them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write into it his useless complaint about oppression, rudeness and malfunction?
What summer, what summer? Yes, this is just witchcraft!
Syntactic parallelism –identical construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author strives to highlight and emphasize the expressed idea:Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.
A combination of short simple and long complex or complicated sentences with various turns of phrasehelps convey the pathos of the article and the emotional mood of the author.
"1855. The zenith of Delacroix's fame. Paris. Palace of Fine Arts... in the central hall of the exhibition there are thirty-five paintings by the great romantic."
One-part, incomplete sentencesmake the author’s speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text:Gioconda. Human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps... Not a single stroke, I hear the words. - No brush strokes. Like alive.
Anaphora, or unity of command - This is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. Used to enhance the expressed thought, image, phenomenon:How to talk about the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings overwhelming the soul at this moment?
Epiphora – the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I've been coming to you all my life. All my life I believed into you. I've loved all my life you.
Water words used to express confidence (of course), uncertainty (perhaps), various feelings (fortunately), the source of the statement (according to words), the order of phenomena (first), assessment (to put it mildly), to attract attention (you know, understand, listen)
Appeals- used to name the person to whom the speech is addressed, to attract the interlocutor’s attention, and also to express the speaker’s attitude towards the interlocutor (Dear and dear mother! - a common address e)
Homogeneous members of the sentence -their use helps to characterize an object (by color, shape, quality...), to focus attention on some point
Words-sentences - Yes! But of course!Certainly! Used in colloquial speech, they express strong feelings of motivation.
Separation – used to highlight or clarify part of a statement. (At the fence, at the gate itself...)
Lexical means
Antonyms- different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning (good - evil, powerful - powerless). The contrast of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, establishing the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
Contextual(or contextual) antonyms- these are words that are not contrasted in meaning in language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - this is the main thing that distinguished this hero.
Hyperbola- a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression:
Snow was falling from the sky in buckets.
Litotes- artistic understatement: a little man. Used to enhance artistic impression.
Individually authored neologisms (occasionalisms)-due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects, express the author’s view on a topic or problem: ... how can we ourselves ensure that our rights are not expanded at the expense of the rights of others? (A. Solzhenitsyn)
The use of literary images helps the author to better explain a situation, phenomenon, or another image: Grigory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov.
Synonyms- these are words related to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Falling in love is love, buddy is a friend. The use of synonyms allows you to more fully express a thought and is used to enhance a feature.
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms- words that are synonyms only in this text: Lomonosov - genius - beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)
Metaphor- hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. The basis of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.
In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands on what similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based: There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world, than bad and evil, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world, it would skew... capsize and sink.
Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a type of metaphor.
Metonymy- transfer of values (renaming) according to the contiguity of phenomena. The most common transfer cases:
a) from a person to his any external signs: Is lunch soon? - asked the guest, turning to the quilted vest;
b) from the institution to its inhabitants: The entire boarding house recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisareva;
Oxymoron- a combination of words with contrasting meanings that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts that sharply contradict in meaning and are mutually exclusive. This technique prepares the reader to perceive contradictory, complex phenomena, often the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author’s attitude towards an object or phenomenon, or gives an ironic overtones: The sad fun continued...
Personification- one of the types of metaphor, when a characteristic is transferred from a living object to a non-living one. When personified, the described object is externally used by a person: The trees, bending towards me, extended their thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: The rain splashed bare feet along the garden paths.
Paraphrase(s) - using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, to replace repetition: The city did not shelter Gogol.
Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make speech figurative, apt, expressive.
Comparison- one of the means of expressive language that helps the author express his point of view, create entire artistic pictures, and give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparisons are usually added by conjunctions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but serves to figuratively describe the most diverse characteristics of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, a comparison helps to give an accurate description of color: His eyes are black as night.
A form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case is often encountered: Anxiety has crept like a snake into our hearts. There are comparisons that are included in a sentence using the words: similar, similar, reminiscent: ...butterflies are like flowers.
Phraseologisms- these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language, used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and figurative characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author’s attitude to events, to a person, etc.: people like my hero have a spark of God. Phraseologisms have a stronger impact on the reader.
Quotes from other works help the author prove a thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional and expressive: A.S. Pushkin, “like first love,” will not be forgotten not only by the “heart of Russia,” but also by world culture.
Epithet- a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or characteristics. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another: chatterbox magpie, fateful watch, peers greedily; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative meaning: half-asleep, tender, loving gazes.
Gradation- a stylistic figure that consists of a consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of your family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! The gradation can be ascending (strengthening the characteristic) and descending (weakening the characteristic).
Antithesis- a stylistic device that consists of a sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, and contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author’s view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
Conversational vocabulary gives additional expressive-emotional coloring (positive, negative, diminutive), can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.
Historicisms-words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts that they denoted (chain mail, coachman)
Archaisms- words that in modern Russian are replaced by other concepts (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)
In works of fiction they help to recreate the flavor of an era, are means of speech characterization, or can be used as a means of comic relief.
Loan words- to create humor, the nominative function gives a national flavor, bringing the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is being described.
Syntactic phenomena for argumentation (grammatical means).
1) Exclamation particles- a way of expressing the author’s emotional mood, a technique for creating the emotional pathos of the text: Oh, how beautiful you are, my land! How beautiful are your fields!
2) Exclamatory sentences express the author’s emotional attitude towards what is being described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration): Ugly attitude! How can you preserve happiness! Exclamatory sentences also express an incentive to action: Let us preserve our soul as a shrine!
3) Inversion- reverse word order in a sentence.
In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition comes before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition comes after it, the object after the control word, the adverbial modifier comes before the verb: Modern youth quickly realized the falsity of this truth. And with inversion, words are arranged in a different order than established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech: My beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!
4) Multi-union- a rhetorical figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the listed concepts, the role of each is emphasized: And the thunder did not strike, and the sky did not fall to the ground, and the rivers did not overflow from such grief!
5) Parcellation- a technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into individual words. Its goal is to give the speech intonation expression by abruptly pronouncing it: The poet suddenly stood up. He turned pale.
6) Repeat- the conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept: Pushkin was a sufferer, a sufferer in the full sense of the word.
7) Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations- a special means of creating emotionality in speech and expressing the author’s position. Who hasn’t cursed the stationmasters, who hasn’t sworn at them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write into it his useless complaint about oppression, rudeness and malfunction?
What summer, what summer? Yes, this is just witchcraft!
8) Syntactic parallelism- identical construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author strives to highlight and emphasize the idea expressed: Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.
9) Combination short simple and long complex or complicated by various turns proposals helps convey the pathos of the article and the emotional mood of the author.
"1855. The zenith of Delacroix's fame. Paris. Palace of Fine Arts... in the central hall of the exhibition there are thirty-five paintings by the great romantic."
10) One-part, incomplete sentences make the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text: Mona Lisa. Human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps... Not a single stroke, I hear the words. - No brush strokes. Like alive.
11) Anaphora, or unity of command- this is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. Used to enhance the expressed thought, image, phenomenon: How to talk about the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings overwhelming the soul at this moment?
12) Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I have been coming to you all my life. I believed in you all my life. I've loved you all my life.
13) Water words used to express confidence (of course), uncertainty (possibly), various feelings (fortunately), the source of the statement (according to words), the order of phenomena (first), assessment (to put it mildly), to attract attention (you know, understand, listen)
14) Appeals used to name the person to whom the speech is addressed, to attract the interlocutor’s attention, and also to express the speaker’s attitude towards the interlocutor (Dear and dear mother! - a common address)
15) Homogeneous members of the sentence- their use helps to characterize an object (by color, shape, quality...), to focus attention on some point
16) Words-sentences- Yes! But of course! Certainly! Used in colloquial speech, they express strong feelings of motivation.
17) Isolated members of a sentence- used to highlight or clarify part of a statement. (At the fence, at the gate itself...)
18) SSP and SPP with various subordinate clauses