Introduction

1.3 Infrastructure social security states

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Economics and sociology of labor combines two sciences that have various items research. The subject of labor economics is labor in its historical a certain form, public organization labor. Labor economics is one of the specific disciplines; it studies human labor activity and determines ways to improve its efficiency. The subject of labor sociology is the structure and mechanism of social labor relations, social issues in the world of work. Labor economics and labor sociology are closely related, constantly interact, enrich each other with their conclusions, and allow us to obtain more differentiated ideas about the essence of labor and its place in the life of society and man.

Labor relations analysis methods include:

Methods formal logic– analysis, synthesis, comparison, induction, deduction, hypothesis, etc.,

General scientific methods – historical-genetic, math modeling, statistical method,

Economic methods - categorical analysis, abstraction method, etc.

The topic “Social protection of the population in the Russian Federation” is more relevant than ever for our country. In the conditions of country reform, tens of millions of people (pensioners, disabled people, orphans, refugees, etc.) need immediate social assistance and protection.

1. Social protection of the population

Social protection is a policy and purposeful activity, as well as means of the state and society to provide the individual, social group, and the general population with comprehensive, comprehensive support in solving various problems, caused by social risks that can lead or have already led to the complete or partial loss by these entities of the opportunity to realize rights, freedoms and legitimate interests, economic independence and social well-being, as well as their optimal restoration or acquisition.

The main forms of social protection: social guarantees and their satisfaction based on basic standards and programs, regulation of income and expenses of the population, social insurance, social assistance, social services, targeted social programs.

1.1 Social insurance in the Russian Federation

Social insurance is an institution of social protection of the economically active population from the risks of loss of income ( wages) due to loss of ability to work (illness, accident, old age), place of work or additional unforeseen expenses associated with treatment. There are two forms of social insurance: mandatory by law for insurance subjects (state) and voluntary. Typical types social insurance - pension, medical, industrial accidents and unemployment.

In terms of the volume of financial resources, mass coverage, diversity and quality of services, social insurance serves as a basic institution of social protection. In Russia, state non-budgetary social funds account for about 45% of spending on social protection and 8% of GDP.

The modern state insurance system in Russia includes: old age insurance; disability insurance; loss of a breadwinner; temporary disability; for pregnancy and childbirth; in case of unemployment; health insurance.

Financing of all types of social insurance is based on insurance contributions from employers, employees, and the self-employed population.

IN this period Currently, the Russian Federation is undergoing a process of reforming the entire social insurance system. This means the need to change the cost structure of implementation social programs, more uniform distribution cost burdens between the government, employers and workers.

An important step in this direction was the adoption of a number of legislative acts and the creation, along with the Social Insurance Fund and the Pension Fund Russian Federation State Employment Fund as an independent financial system. This fund provides funding for training and retraining of personnel, stimulation of the creation of new jobs, payment of unemployment benefits, etc.

The formation of a fundamentally new social insurance system for our country (if we do not take into account the short historical period of its existence in 1912-1917) is taking place on a legislative basis. New laws “On state pensions in the Russian Federation” (1990 and 1997), Federal Law “On the procedure for calculating and increasing state pensions” (1997), “On Medical insurance of citizens in the Russian Federation” (1991) were adopted .), "On Employment in the Russian Federation" (1991), Federal Law "On the Fundamentals of Compulsory Social Insurance" (1999).

The transition to compulsory health insurance should also be considered as one of the forms of social protection of citizens among the social guarantees of the state.

Now in the Russian Federation the role of extra-budgetary state funds social insurance.

The activities of extra-budgetary funds are structured in different ways. Pension Fund most collects funds into a single account in order to be able to redistribute funds from donor regions to subsidized entities. The Social Insurance Fund at the federal level centralizes only 26% total revenues. Mandatory fund health insurance- territorial, only 0.2% is concentrated at the federal level with a total contribution of 3.6%. The employment fund is also formed mainly in the territories in federal service only 20% arrives.

1.2 Reform of the pension system in the Russian Federation

The pension system of the Russian Federation is currently undergoing significant changes. From a pension system formed on exclusively distribution principles, there is a transition to a pension system built on insurance principles and including distribution and savings components. In this regard, it becomes especially important that normative legal acts appear in pension legislation, which not only provide the legislative basis for the assignment and payment of labor pensions, but also regulate the financial foundations of the pension system.

The fundamental document in this sense is the Federal Law of December 15, 2001 No. 167-FZ “On Compulsory Pension Insurance in the Russian Federation” (taking into account subsequent amendments and additions), which for the first time establishes the legal basis for compulsory pension insurance in the Russian Federation and determines that the right for compulsory pension insurance is realized in case of payment of insurance premiums. The provisions of the said Federal Law the sources of funds for financing each part of the labor pension are established, as well as the rates of insurance contributions in accordance with which they are paid. In addition, the legal basis for the formation of the budget of the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation is established and the procedure for accounting and directing insurance contributions to finance the funded part of the labor pension for investment is determined. The latter is a significant point and innovation in pension legislation.

The principles for forming the funded part of a labor pension are based on the implementation of funded mechanisms, which imply the preservation of savings and their growth through investment income. Of course, anyone can invest their money in the stock market and do so with a profit for themselves or with a loss of capital. However, the funds allocated for investment by a private investor cannot be compared with the resources of large investors, such as pension funds, since the private investor to a greater extent must take into account the commission of intermediaries, as well as the lack of own knowledge stock market. Therefore, taking into account the world practice of developing pension systems and the organization of funded components, when reforming the pension system in the Russian Federation, a decision was made on the following procedure for the formation of a labor pension.

The labor pension in the Russian Federation will be formed from three components:

The basic part, which will have a fixed amount for each category of state pension recipients;

The insurance part, depending on the results of work specific person reflected on his individual account in the form of estimated pension capital, which is understood as the volume of pension rights acquired by a citizen in connection with the payment of insurance premiums for him throughout the entire labor activity taking into account indexing;

The funded part, paid within the amounts reflected in the special part of the individual personal accounts of the insured persons.

The formation of the funded part of the labor pension will be carried out by the employer paying insurance premiums for each insured person. The amounts of insurance contributions for the funded part of the labor pension received for the insured person to the budget of the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation are taken into account in a special part of his individual personal account of the personalized accounting system of the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation and are subject to further investment.

Additional forms of pension provision are becoming important in accordance with the decree of the President of the Russian Federation of September 16, 1992 “On non-state pension funds”. The essence of creating such funds is that citizens and employers transfer pension benefits insurance premiums to personal accounts in non-state pension funds. Specialized companies managing the activities of these funds must ensure the safety of deposits, protect them from inflation, guarantee an increase in income and direct profits to the personal accounts of citizens. When creating such funds, elements of banking, insurance and investment activities are combined.

The rules and regulations of social protection of the population directly depend on the regulated law and the direction of this type of support to the population.

The basis of the state social guarantee is a minimalized social standard that determines people’s living conditions.

For example, certain rules for support are established for the mother of a newborn child, and different rules for an elderly person (pensioner).

The protection of the population is intended to determine the necessary minimum level life, so that citizens of the Russian Federation do not find themselves below the poverty line, establish important for certain social groups benefits, allowing some to use certain services for free.

The essence of social protection

Social protection itself is a system for distributing resources among vulnerable segments of the population. Insecurity is classified and determined according to certain principles.

Public funds are based on the source of funding from the budget.

Thus, funds allocated to social services are generated through taxation. Social protection is:

• the Russian Federation’s care for people who have lost their ability to work;
• implementation of guarantees for the population;
• framework ensuring the maintenance of a minimum established level life.

Principles of social protection

Social protection of the population is created in such a way that it can be based on the following basic principles:

• partnership. The state undertakes to fulfill its obligations to people regarding social protection, but partnership is an integral part of. Therefore, close cooperation between the state and private organizations is observed everywhere;
• economic justice. The structure of the state itself is largely based on economic relations. Without ownership of certain resources, which are obtained through the ability to work, the livelihoods of citizens cannot be supported. The state must equalize the capabilities of people by determining, based on the principle of economic justice, priorities for the distribution of funds, and each category of citizens must satisfy its own established individual needs to maintain comfortable life;
• adaptability. Social protection should work in such a way that it gradually improves itself, for which different parts of the entire system of social relationships functioning in the state are responsible;
• a priority state principles. The main task of the Russian Federation in the social direction is the need to help achieve a certain level life that will be acceptable to people who independently objective reasons they cannot do this;
• preventive measures for social protection. Identification of risk factors associated with social direction. Typically works on regional level, has its own levels of management priority, the main task of which is considered to be the most flexible combination of providing services on a paid or free basis to maintain normal conditions life.

Social protection bodies in the Russian Federation

Structure of bodies responsible for social status citizens consists of:

• government bodies (provide legal basis, strategy and tactics social policy);
• civil communities (associations, organizations, firms and enterprises);
• charitable and voluntary.

The Ministry of Labor is responsible for managing social protection at the federal level in Russia.

They are managed by Pension, Social Insurance and Medical Insurance Funds.

In the regions executive bodies Social protection in the Russian Federation is the Department. For questions in Moscow districts, you can contact the district administration.

Social protection objects

• pensioners, including single people;
• disabled veterans of the Great Patriotic War, families of fallen military personnel;
• unemployed;
• Chernobyl people;
• disabled people;
• orphans;
• large families and low-income people;
• single mothers;
• citizens without a place of residence;
• infected with HIV.

Another measure to protect the social protection of citizens is social insurance, but this area is generally considered auxiliary on a national scale.

It covers persons who have lost their ability to work, and also applies to those who support disabled citizens.

Social protection means

The means of the state for creating social protection include:

• regulatory restrictions. They are created so that through the use of certain tools it is not possible to influence the state unprotected layers population. For this purpose, minimum wages, benefit levels are established, there is free medicine And free education;
• social stimulants in the form of subsidies, preferential forms of assistance, services partially paid from the budget;
• analysis of the results of work carried out to maintain an average standard of living. As part of these programs, they are developing;
• the existence of non-state pension systems, which allows people to invest funds allocated to the budget for subsequent receipt of pensions, to contribute them to private funds on other terms;
• creation of a set of actions to provide services and social protection to disabled citizens. For example, medical supplies or supplies for sick people may be provided;
• organization of charitable foundations that direct funds to maintain a higher standard of living for different social groups.

Participants in insuring people against life difficulties that prevent them from maintaining a minimum standard of living are the state, non-state insurance funds and commercial as well as charitable organizations.

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Basic properties of living organisms. Questions about the origin of life, patterns historical development to various geological epochs have always been interested in humanity. The concept of life covers the totality of all living organisms on Earth and the conditions of their existence.
The essence of life is that living organisms leave behind offspring. Hereditary information is passed on from generation to generation, organisms self-regulate and recover during the reproduction of offspring. Life is a special quality highest form matter, capable of self-reproduction, leaving offspring.
The concept of life in different historical periods were given various definitions. The first is scientific correct definition gave F. Engels: “Life is a way of existence of protein bodies, and this way of existence consists essentially in the constant self-renewal of chemical components these bodies." When the metabolic process between living organisms and the environment ceases, proteins disintegrate and life disappears. Based on modern achievements biological science, the Russian scientist M.V. Volkenstein gave a new definition to the concept of life: “Living bodies that exist on Earth are open, self-regulating and self-reproducing systems built from biopolymers - proteins and nucleic acids.” This definition does not deny the presence of life on other planets outer space. Life is called an open system, as indicated by continuous process exchange of substances and energy with the environment.
Based on the latest scientific achievements modern biological science is given following definition life: “Life is an open, self-regulating and self-reproducing system of aggregates of living organisms, built from complex biological polymers - proteins and nucleic acids.”
Nucleic acids and proteins are considered the basis of all living things, since they function in the cell and form complex connections, which are part of the structure of all living organisms.
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Basic properties of living organisms

Living organisms differ from inanimate nature by their inherent properties. TO characteristic properties living organisms include: unity of chemical composition, metabolism and energy, similarity of levels of organization. Living organisms are also characterized by reproduction, heredity, variability, growth and development, irritability, discreteness, self-regulation, rhythm, etc.

Levels of life organization

All living organisms in nature consist of the same levels of organization; this is a characteristic biological pattern common to all living organisms. The following levels of organization of living organisms are distinguished: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic, biosphere.
1. Molecular genetic level. This is the most elementary level characteristic of life. No matter how complex or simple the structure of any living organism, they all consist of the same molecular compounds. An example of this is nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and other complex molecular complexes of organic and inorganic substances. They are sometimes called biological macromolecular substances. Occurs at the molecular level various processes vital functions of living organisms: metabolism, energy conversion. Transmission occurs at the molecular level hereditary information, individual organelles are formed and other processes occur.
2. Cellular level. The cell is structural and functional unit all living organisms on Earth. Individual organelles within a cell have a characteristic structure and perform a specific function. The functions of individual organelles in a cell are interconnected and perform common vital processes. U single-celled organisms (unicellular algae and the simplest) all life processes take place in one cell, and one cell exists as a separate organism. Remember unicellular algae, chlamydomonas, chlorella and protozoa - amoeba, ciliates, etc. multicellular organisms one cell cannot exist as a separate organism, but it is elementary structural unit body.

Tissue level

A collection of cells and intercellular substances similar in origin, structure and function forms tissue. The tissue level is characteristic only of multicellular organisms. Also, individual tissues are not an independent integral organism. For example, the bodies of animals and humans consist of four different tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous). Plant tissue are called: educational, integumentary, supporting, conductive and excretory. Remember the structure and functions of individual tissues.

Organ level

In multicellular organisms, the combination of several identical tissues, similar in structure, origin and function, forms organ level. Each organ contains several tissues, but among them one is the most significant. A separate organ cannot exist as whole organism. Several organs, similar in structure and function, combine to form an organ system, for example, digestion, respiration, blood circulation, etc.

Organismal level

Plants (Chlamydomonas, Chlorella) and animals (amoeba, ciliates, etc.), whose bodies consist of one cell, represent an independent organism) And an individual individual of multicellular organisms is considered as a separate organism. In each individual organism, all life processes characteristic of all living organisms occur - nutrition, respiration, metabolism, irritability, reproduction, etc. Each independent organism leaves behind offspring. In multicellular organisms, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems are not separate organism. Only an integral system of organs that specifically perform various functions forms a separate independent organism. The development of an organism, from fertilization to the end of life, takes a certain period of time. This individual development each organism is called ontogenesis. An organism can exist in close relationship with its environment.

Population-species level

A collection of individuals of one species or group that exists for a long time in a certain part of the range, relatively separately from other populations of the same species, constitutes a population. At the population level, simple evolutionary transformations are carried out, which contributes to the gradual emergence of a new species.

Biogeocenotic level

Collection of organisms different types and varying complexity of organizations, adapted to the same conditions natural environment, is called biogeocenosis, or natural community. The biogeocenosis includes numerous species of living organisms and natural environmental conditions. In natural biogeocenoses, energy accumulates and is transferred from one organism to another. Biogeocenosis includes inorganic, organic compounds and living organisms.

Biosphere level

The totality of all living organisms on our planet and their common natural habitat constitutes the biosphere level. On biosphere level modern biology decides global problems, for example, determining the intensity of formation of free oxygen by the Earth's vegetation or changes in concentration carbon dioxide in the atmosphere associated with human activities. The main role at the biosphere level is played by “living substances,” that is, the totality of living organisms inhabiting the Earth. Also at the biosphere level, “bio-inert substances” are important, formed as a result of the vital activity of living organisms and “inert” substances (i.e. conditions environment. At the biosphere level, the circulation of matter and energy occurs on Earth with the participation of all living organisms of the biosphere.

Levels of life organization

Levels of organization organic world- discrete states of biological systems, characterized by subordination, interconnectedness, and specific patterns.

The structural levels of the organization of life are extremely diverse, but the main ones are molecular, cellular, ontogenetic, population-species, bigiocenotic and biosphere.

1. Molecular genetic level life. The most important tasks of biology at this stage are the study of the mechanisms of transmission of genetic information, heredity and variability.

There are several mechanisms of variability at the molecular level. The most important of them is the mechanism of gene mutation - the direct transformation of the genes themselves under the influence external factors. Factors causing mutation, are: radiation, toxic chemical compounds, viruses.

Another mechanism of variability is gene recombination. This process occurs during sexual reproduction in higher organisms. In this case, there is no change in the total volume genetic information.

Another mechanism of variability was discovered only in the 1950s. This is a non-classical recombination of genes in which overall increase volume of genetic information due to the inclusion of new genetic elements in the cell genome. Most often, these elements are introduced into the cell by viruses.

2. Cellular level. Today, science has reliably established that the smallest independent unit of structure, functioning and development of a living organism is the cell, which is an elementary biological system, capable of self-renewal, self-reproduction and development. Cytology is the science that studies living cell, its structure, functioning as an elementary living system, studies the functions of individual cellular components, the process of cell reproduction, adaptation to environmental conditions, etc. Cytology also studies the characteristics of specialized cells, their formation special functions and development of specific cellular structures. Thus, modern cytology was called cell physiology.

Significant advances in the study of cells occurred in the early 19th century, with the discovery and description of cell nucleus. Based on these studies, it was created cell theory, which became greatest event in biology of the 19th century. It was this theory that served as the foundation for the development of embryology, physiology, and the theory of evolution.

The most important part of all cells is the nucleus, which stores and reproduces genetic information and regulates metabolic processes in the cell.

All cells are divided into two groups:

Prokaryotes are cells without a nucleus

Eukaryotes - cells containing nuclei

Studying a living cell, scientists drew attention to the existence of two main types of its nutrition, which made it possible to divide all organisms into two types:

Autotrophic - they produce what they need on their own. nutrients

· Heterotrophic - cannot do without organic food.

Later the following were clarified important factors, as the ability of organisms to synthesize necessary substances (vitamins, hormones), provide themselves with energy, dependence on ecological environment etc. Thus, the complex and differentiated nature of the connections indicates the need systematic approach to the study of life and at the ontogenetic level.

3. Ontogenetic level. Multicellular organisms. This level arose as a result of the formation of living organisms. The basic unit of life is the individual, and the elementary phenomenon is ontogenesis. Physiology studies the functioning and development of multicellular living organisms. This science examines the mechanisms of action various functions living organism, their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of an individual. In essence, this is the process of ontogenesis - the development of the organism from birth to death. At the same time, growth, movement of individual structures, differentiation and complication of the organism occur.

All multicellular organisms are composed of organs and tissues. Tissues are a group of physically united cells and intercellular substances to perform specific functions. Their study is the subject of histology.

Organs are relatively large functional units that combine various fabrics into certain physiological complexes. In turn, organs are part of larger units - body systems. Among them are the nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory and other systems. Internal organs Only animals have it.

4. Population-biocenotic level. This is a supraorganismal level of life, the basic unit of which is the population. In contrast to a population, a species is a collection of individuals that are similar in structure and physiological properties having common origin, can freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring. A species exists only through populations representing genetically open systems. Population biology is the study of populations.

The term “population” was introduced by one of the founders of genetics, V. Johansen, who gave this name to a genetically heterogeneous collection of organisms. Later, the population began to be considered an integral system that continuously interacts with the environment. It is the populations that are real systems through which species of living organisms exist.

Populations are genetically open systems, since the isolation of populations is not absolute and periodically it is not possible to exchange genetic information. It is populations that act as elementary units of evolution; changes in their gene pool lead to the emergence of new species.

Populations capable of independent existence and transformations are combined into the aggregate of the next supraorganismal level - biocenoses. Biocenosis is a set of populations living in a certain territory.

A biocenosis is a system closed to foreign populations; for its constituent populations it is an open system.

5. Biogeocetonic level. Biogeocenosis is a stable system that can exist for a long time. Equilibrium in a living system is dynamic, i.e. represents constant movement around a certain stability point. For its stable functioning it is necessary to have feedback between its control and execution subsystems. This way of maintaining a dynamic balance between various elements biogeocenosis, caused by the mass reproduction of some species and the reduction or disappearance of others, leading to a change in the quality of the environment, is called an environmental disaster.

Biogeocenosis is a holistic self-regulating system, which distinguishes several types of subsystems. Primary systems are producers that directly process nonliving matter; consumers - the secondary level at which matter and energy are obtained through the use of producers; then come second-order consumers. There are also scavengers and decomposers.

The cycle of substances passes through these levels in the biogeocenosis: life participates in the use, processing and restoration various structures. In biogeocenosis - unidirectional energy flow. This makes it an open system, continuously connected with neighboring biogeocenoses.

Self-regulation of biogeocenls is more successful the more diverse the number of its constituent elements is. The stability of biogeocenoses also depends on the diversity of its components. The loss of one or more components can lead to an irreversible imbalance and the death of it as an integral system.

6. Biosphere level. This highest level organization of life, covering all phenomena of life on our planet. The biosphere is living matter planets and the environment transformed by it. Biological metabolism is a factor that unites all other levels of life organization into one biosphere. At this level, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy occur, associated with the vital activity of all living organisms living on Earth. Thus, the biosphere is one ecological system. Studying the functioning of this system, its structure and functions - the most important task biology at this level of life. Ecology, biocenology and biogeochemistry study these problems.

The development of the doctrine of the biosphere is inextricably linked with the name of the outstanding Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. It was he who managed to prove the connection between the organic world of our planet, acting as a single indivisible whole, with geological processes on the ground. Vernadsky discovered and studied the biogeochemical functions of living matter.

All life on Earth is ordered and has a complex hierarchy from simple to complex - levels of organization of living nature.

Levels

The structure of living matter begins with a molecule - the smallest particle a substance consisting of atoms. The molecule belongs to inanimate nature, studied physics and chemistry. By interacting, molecules form substances from which tissues, organs and organisms as a whole are built. A detailed description is presented in the table of levels of organization of living nature.

Level	System elements	Processes
Molecular (molecular genetic)	Atoms, molecules, organic and non-organic organic compounds, biopolymers - DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates	Metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of genetic information
Cellular	Cell organelles, complexes of chemical compounds	Synthesis of organic compounds, transport chemical substances, division
Fabric	Specific cells, intercellular substance	Metabolism, growth, irritability, sensitivity, conductivity, etc.
Organ	Various types of tissues that form organs	The functioning of organs depending on their purpose: movement, gas exchange, excitability, digestion, etc.
Organismal (ontogenetic)	Organ systems that form a multicellular organism - a separate functional structure animal or plant origin	Harmonious functioning of all organs
Population-species	Groups of related individuals united in a population. They carry a single gene pool, are distinguished by the same morphological and behavioral signs, occupy a certain area	Organization of communities, interactions between individuals, adaptation to changing conditions, accumulation of genetic information, evolution
Biogeocenotic	Different populations, environmental factors	Relationship between populations and environment
Biosphere	Biogeocenosis, human activity (noosphere)	Interaction live and inanimate matter, cycle of substances in nature, human impact on the biosphere

Rice. 1. Levels of organization.

Each level of organization has its own patterns. To study a separate level, specialized areas of biology have been identified. For example, First level study molecular biology and biochemistry, cells are studied by cytology, tissues - histology, populations and their interaction with the environment - ecology.

Unicellular and multicellular

All organisms according to their structure are divided into two types:

• unicellular - consist of one cell;
• multicellular - consist of many interconnected cells.

Unicellular organisms are limited by a membrane, under which there is cytoplasm with organelles - the functional particles of cells. Unicellular organisms are similar in structure and function to the cells of multicellular organisms. However, they can move independently and lead a free lifestyle.

Representatives of unicellular organisms:

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• plants (eukaryotes) - chlamydomonas, chlorella, green euglena;
• animals (eukaryotes) - amoeba, ciliates;
• bacteria (prokaryotes) - coli, cocci.

Rice. 2. Single-celled organisms.

Multicellular organisms are more complexly organized. The most primitive are sponges, the most complex are mammals.

Rice. 3. Multicellular organisms.

Unlike unicellular organisms, multicellular organisms have more levels organizations. However, regardless of the complexity of the structure, all organisms interact with the environment at the biogeocenotic and biosphere levels.

Properties of organisms

All representatives of the biosphere (unicellular and multicellular) are united properties of living organisms:

• reproduction;
• metabolism;
• energy dependence;
• height;
• development;
• self-regulation;
• irritability;
• heredity;
• variability.

In addition, living organisms have a single chemical composition. The main elements of living matter are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are formed from them.

What have we learned?

From the 9th grade biology lesson we learned about the basic levels of living nature. Topic included short description the hierarchy of living nature, the characteristics of multicellular and unicellular organisms, as well as the properties of the organisms that make up the biosphere.

Test on the topic

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All living organisms in nature consist of the same levels of organization; this is a characteristic biological pattern common to all living organisms. The following levels of organization of living organisms are distinguished: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic, biosphere.

1. Molecular genetic level. This is the most elementary level characteristic of life. No matter how complex or simple the structure of any living organism, they all consist of the same molecular compounds. An example of this are nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and other complex molecular complexes of organic and inorganic substances. They are sometimes called biological macromolecular substances. At the molecular level, various life processes of living organisms occur: metabolism, energy conversion. With the help of the molecular level, the transfer of hereditary information is carried out, individual organelles are formed and other processes occur.

2. Cellular level. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms on Earth. Individual organelles within a cell have a characteristic structure and perform a specific function. The functions of individual organelles in a cell are interconnected and perform common vital processes. In unicellular organisms, all life processes take place in one cell, and one cell exists as a separate organism (unicellular algae, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella and protozoa - amoeba, ciliates, etc.). In multicellular organisms, one cell cannot exist as a separate organism, but it is an elementary structural unit of the organism.

3. Tissue level.

A collection of cells and intercellular substances similar in origin, structure and function forms tissue. The tissue level is characteristic only of multicellular organisms. Also, individual tissues are not an independent integral organism. For example, the bodies of animals and humans consist of four different tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous). Plant tissues are called: educational, integumentary, supporting, conductive and excretory.

4. Organ level.

In multicellular organisms, the combination of several identical tissues, similar in structure, origin and function, forms the organ level. Each organ contains several tissues, but among them one is the most significant. A separate organ cannot exist as a whole organism. Several organs, similar in structure and function, combine to form an organ system, for example, digestion, respiration, blood circulation, etc.

5. Organismic level.

Plants (Chlamydomonas, Chlorella) and animals (amoeba, ciliates, etc.), whose bodies consist of a single cell, are an independent organism. And an individual individual of multicellular organisms is considered as a separate organism. In each individual organism, all life processes characteristic of all living organisms occur - nutrition, respiration, metabolism, irritability, reproduction, etc. Each independent organism leaves behind offspring. In multicellular organisms, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems are not a separate organism. Only an integral system of organs that specifically perform various functions forms a separate independent organism. The development of an organism, from fertilization to the end of life, takes a certain period of time. This individual development of each organism is called ontogenesis. An organism can exist in close relationship with its environment.

6. Population-species level.

A collection of individuals of one species or group that exists for a long time in a certain part of the range, relatively separately from other populations of the same species, constitutes a population. At the population level, simple evolutionary transformations are carried out, which contributes to the gradual emergence of a new species.

7. Biogeocenotic level.

A collection of organisms of different species and varying complexity of organization, adapted to the same conditions of the natural environment, is called a biogeocenosis, or natural community. The biogeocenosis includes numerous species of living organisms and natural environmental conditions. In natural biogeocenoses, energy accumulates and is transferred from one organism to another. Biogeocenosis includes inorganic, organic compounds and living organisms.

8. Biosphere level.

The totality of all living organisms on our planet and their common natural habitat constitutes the biosphere level. At the biosphere level, modern biology solves global problems, for example, determining the intensity of the formation of free oxygen by the Earth's vegetation or changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere associated with human activity. The main role at the biosphere level is played by “living substances,” that is, the totality of living organisms inhabiting the Earth. Also at the biosphere level, “bioinert substances” are important, formed as a result of the vital activity of living organisms and “inert” substances, i.e., environmental conditions. At the biosphere level, the circulation of matter and energy occurs on Earth with the participation of all living organisms of the biosphere.