Approaches to classification of environmental monitoring
There are many different approaches to the classification of environmental monitoring. They are usually divided depending on the nature of the problems solved during the research process, or according to the levels of organization of the monitoring object, according to the living environments being studied, etc. This classification includes the entire block of types of environmental monitoring, different approaches to monitoring the dynamics of both abiotic and biotic components of the biosphere and the response of natural ecosystems to these changes.
Thus, environmental monitoring involves both geophysical and biological components, which determines the widest range of research methods and methods used in its implementation. Environmental monitoring in general includes a very wide range of methods and methodological approaches, among which geophysical, chemical, and biological aspects are usually distinguished.
Note 1
An environmental monitoring system can be implemented at several levels that are not reducible to one another; for each of them there are specially developed programs. Among these levels, impact, regional and background monitoring are usually called.
The first of them is aimed mainly at monitoring the impact of specific objects on the environment, the second is not a study of the state of ecosystems in a certain region (it can be further subdivided according to the scale of the territory), and the third is to compare disturbed territories with reference ones.
Types of monitoring
Impact monitoring involves studying strong influences on the environment on a local scale. Program this level monitoring may include, for example, the study using special techniques of discharges or emissions of a particular enterprise. The ultimate goal in in this case is not so much to establish the structure and volumes of emitted substances as to evaluate them harmful effects to the natural environment. Depending on the characteristics of the surrounding ecosystems, the same quantitative indicators pollution can be practically harmless, or lead to catastrophic results. Due to the characteristics of the migration of pollutants in ecosystems, as well as the tendency of some of them to cumulate, impact monitoring should be quite long-lasting.
Regional monitoring usually involves the study of migration and transformation of pollutants in ecosystems, the study of the joint impact of various environmental, both natural and anthropogenic, factors characteristic of the study area. The subject of this level of monitoring is the condition environment within a more or less extensive region.
Background monitoring carried out on the basis of natural standards - biosphere reserves, where there is no human economic activity. Its purpose is to record the background state of the environment, which is very important for comparative assessments of anthropogenic impact on transformed territories.
Monitoring the condition of specially protected natural areas characterized by its own specificity. Its main tasks are determined primarily by the uniqueness of objects and their function.
Ecological monitoring of the environment is a modern form of implementing environmental activity processes using information technology, which ensures regular assessment and forecasting of the living environment of society and the operating conditions of ecosystems for making management decisions on environmental safety, conservation of the natural environment and rational environmental management. Environmental monitoring - This Information system observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the environment, created with the aim of highlighting the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.
Back in the late 60s, many countries realized that it was necessary to coordinate efforts to collect, store and process environmental data. In 1972, a conference on environmental protection was held in Stockholm under the auspices of the UN, where for the first time the need arose to agree on a definition of the concept of “monitoring”. It was decided to understand environmental monitoring as a comprehensive system of observations, assessments and forecasts of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The term appeared in addition to the term “environmental control.” Currently, monitoring is understood as a set of observations of certain components of the biosphere, specially organized in space and time, as well as an adequate set of environmental forecasting methods.
The main tasks of environmental monitoring: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state, determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of impact. The ultimate goal of environmental monitoring is to optimize human relations with nature and the environmental orientation of economic activity.
Environmental monitoring arose at the intersection of ecology, economics, biology, geography, geophysics, geology and other sciences. Highlight different kinds monitoring depending on the criteria: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) Geoecological (natural and economic) production and environmental; biosphere (global) geophysical; climatic; biological; public health, etc.
Depending on the purpose special programs general, crisis and background environmental monitoring of the environment is carried out (Fig. 14.1).
Rice. 14.1. Types and levels of environmental monitoring system
Source: compiled according to data from the Ministry of Environment and natural resources Ukraine: [ Electronic resource]. - Access mode: menr.gov.ua/monitoring
General environmental monitoring - these are optimal places, parameters and frequency of environmental observations in terms of quantity and placement, which allow, based on assessment and forecasting of the state of the environment, to support the adoption of appropriate decisions at all levels of departmental and national environmental activities.
Crisis environmental monitoring - these are intensive observations of natural objects, sources of man-made impact, located in areas of environmental tension, in zones of accidents and hazardous natural phenomena with harmful environmental consequences, with the aim of ensuring timely response to crises and emergencies environmental situations and making decisions on their liquidation, creation normal conditions for the life of the population and economy.
Background environmental monitoring - these are perennial comprehensive research specially designated objects nature protection zones for the purpose of assessing and predicting changes in the state of ecosystems remote from industrial and economic activities, or obtaining information to determine the average (background) level of environmental pollution in anthropogenic conditions.
In Ukraine, monitoring of the natural environment is carried out by many departments, within the framework of whose activities the corresponding tasks, levels and components of the monitoring subsystem are implemented. So, for example, in the monitoring system carried out in Ukraine, there are three levels of environmental monitoring environment: global, regional and local.
Target, methodological approaches and monitoring practices at different levels differ. The criteria for the quality of the natural environment are most clearly defined at the local level. The purpose of regulation here is to ensure such a strategy does not bring the concentrations of certain priority anthropogenic pollutants to an acceptable range, which is a kind of standard. It represents the values of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), which are established by law. Compliance of the quality of the natural environment with standards is monitored by the relevant supervisory authorities. The task of monitoring at the local level is to determine the parameters of the “emission field - concentration field” models. The object of influence at the local level is a person.
At the regional level, the approach to monitoring is based on the fact that pollutants, having entered the cycle of substances in the biosphere, change the state of the abiotic component and, as a consequence, cause changes in the biota. Any economic activity carried out on a regional scale affects the regional background - it changes the state of equilibrium of the abiotic and biological components. For example, the state of vegetation cover, primarily forests, significantly influences the climatic conditions of the region.
The goals of global monitoring are determined in the process of international cooperation within the framework of various international organizations, agreements (conventions) and declarations. Global environmental monitoring includes seven areas:
1. Organization and expansion of a warning system about threats to human health.
2. Assessment of global air pollution and its impact on climate.
3. Assessment of the quantity and distribution of contaminants in biological systems, especially in the food chain.
4. Assess critical issues that arise from agricultural activities and land use.
5. Assessment of the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental influences.
6. Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine organisms.
7. Establishment of an improved international disaster warning system.
The state environmental monitoring system carries out the following types of work: routine observations, operational work, special work. Regular work is carried out systematically following annual programs, at specially organized observation points. The need to perform operational work depends on cases of emergency pollution of the natural environment or natural Disasters; These works are performed in emergency situations.
The creation and operation of the State System of Environmental Monitoring of the Environment should contribute to the implementation of the state environmental policy, which provides for:
Environmentally rational use of the natural and socio-economic potential of the state, conservation favorable environment life of society;
Social, environmental and economically rational solution to problems arising from environmental pollution, hazardous natural phenomena, man-made accidents and disasters;
Development of international cooperation on the conservation of natural biodiversity, protection of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, prevention of anthropogenic climate change, forest protection and reforestation, transboundary environmental pollution, restoration natural state Dnieper, Danube, Black and Azov seas.
The state environmental monitoring system should become an integrated information system that will collect, store and process environmental information for a departmental and comprehensive assessment and forecast of the state of natural environments, biota and living conditions, and develop informed recommendations for the adoption of effective social, economic and environmental solutions at all levels of government executive power, improvement of relevant legislative acts, as well as the fulfillment of Ukraine’s obligations under international environmental agreements, programs, projects and events.
The functioning of the State Environmental Monitoring System is implemented according to the principles:
Systematic observations of the state of the natural environment and man-made objects that affect it, or are considered environmentally unstable;
Timely receipt and processing of observation data at departmental and general (local, regional and state) levels;
Comprehensive use of environmental information entering the system from departmental environmental monitoring services and other suppliers;
The objectivity of primary, analytical and forecast environmental information and the consistency of regulatory, organizational and methodological support for environmental monitoring of the environment carried out by the relevant services of ministries and departments of Ukraine, others central authorities executive power;
Compatibility of technical, information and software of its components; efficiency of communicating environmental information to executive authorities, other interested bodies, enterprises, organizations and institutions;
Availability of environmental information to the population of Ukraine and the world community.
The state environmental monitoring system must ensure the achievement of the following main goals:
1) increasing the level of adequacy of its information model to the actual ecological state of the environment;
2) increasing the efficiency of obtaining and reliability of primary data through the use of advanced techniques at all levels of government and local government;
3) increasing the level and quality of information services for consumers of environmental information at all levels of system operation based on network access to distributed departmental and integrated data banks;
4) integrated processing and use of information to make appropriate decisions.
So, monitoring implements a system of observations that make it possible to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity. The main blocks of this system are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of: the natural environment; anthropogenic changes in the state of the abiotic component of the biosphere (in particular changes in the levels of pollution of natural environments), the feedback of ecosystems to these changes and anthropogenic shifts associated with the influence of pollution, agricultural use of land, deforestation, transport development, urbanization, etc. Modern stage development of society involves the introduction of the latest information technologies into all spheres of life, the use of significant amounts of information and, accordingly, the availability of new and broad knowledge. It is necessary to develop an information strategy, including the development of the most effective methods its selection, processing and dissemination, which requires updating and development of the monitoring system itself.
By scale There are basic (background), global, regional, and impact monitoring.
on methods of conducting and objects of observation: aviation, space, surrounding a person environment.
Base monitoring monitors general biosphere, mainly natural, phenomena without imposing regional anthropogenic influences on them.
Global monitoring monitors global processes and phenomena in the Earth's biosphere and its ecosphere, including all their environmental components (main material and energy components ecological systems), and warnings about emerging extreme situations.
Regional monitoring monitors processes and phenomena within a certain region, where these processes and phenomena may differ both in natural nature and in anthropogenic influences from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere.
Impact monitoring is monitoring of regional and local anthropogenic impacts in particularly dangerous areas and places.
Monitoring the human environment monitors the state of the natural environment around humans and prevents emerging critical situations, harmful or hazardous to the health of people and other living organisms.
The implementation of monitoring requires the use of fairly well-developed mathematical software, including complexes of mathematical models of the phenomena being studied.
Model development specific phenomenon or natural system is associated with its choice conceptual structure and the presence of a closed package of machine programs. The most common type of models are sets differential equations, reflecting biological, geochemical and climate processes in the system under study. In this case, the coefficients of the equations either have a specific meaning or are determined indirectly through the approximation of experimental data.
Modeling a real natural system, based on experimental data, and conducting numerous experiments on it make it possible to obtain quantitative estimates of the interactions of various components of communities both in natural systems and those formed as a result of the invasion of the natural environment by human economic activity.
Objectives of the environmental monitoring system
The objectives of the environmental monitoring system are:
Observation of chemical, biological, physical parameters(characteristics);
Ensuring the organization of operational information.
The principles underlying the organization of the system:
Collectivity;
Synchronicity;
Regular reporting.
Based on the environmental monitoring system, a nationwide system of monitoring and control over the state of the environment has been created.
The assessment of the environment and public health includes the state of atmospheric air, drinking water, food, as well as ionizing radiation.
Environmental passport of the enterprise
Environmental passport of the enterprise is a document that is available at every enterprise; it is drawn up in accordance with GOST 17.0.0.04-90. Protection of Nature. Environmental passport of the enterprise. General provisions.
This document contains factual data on the impact of this facility on atmospheric air and water bodies and an assessment of these impacts, soil pollution, and waste management.
The environmental passport data is updated twice a year.
EIA procedure
In accordance with existing rules any pre-project and project documentation related to any business undertakings, development of new territories, location of production facilities, design, construction and reconstruction of economic and civil facilities must contain a section “Environmental Protection” and in it - a mandatory subsection of EIA - materials on environmental impact assessment planned activities. EIA is a preliminary determination of the nature and degree of danger of all potential types of impact and assessment of environmental, economic and social consequences implementation of the project; a structured process of taking into account environmental requirements in the system of preparing and making decisions on economic development.
EIA provides for options for decisions, taking into account territorial features and interests of the population. The EIA is organized and provided by the project customer with the involvement of competent organizations and specialists. In many cases, conducting an EIA requires special engineering and environmental surveys.
Main sections of the EIA
1. Identification of sources of impact using experimental data, expert assessments, creation of mathematical modeling installations, literature analysis, etc. As a result, sources, types and objects of impact are identified.
2. Quantification types of influence can be carried out using the balance or instrumental method. Using balance method the amount of emissions, discharges, and waste is determined. The instrumental method is the measurement and analysis of results.
3. Forecasting changes in the natural environment. A probabilistic forecast of environmental pollution is given taking into account climatic conditions, wind patterns, background concentrations, etc.
4. Forecasting emergency situations. A forecast of possible emergency situations, causes and likelihood of their occurrence is given. For each emergency situation, preventive measures are provided.
5. Determination of prevention methods negative consequences. Possibilities for reducing impact are determined using special technical means of protection, technologies, etc.
6. Selection of methods for monitoring the state of the environment and residual consequences. A monitoring and control system must be provided for in the designed technological scheme.
7. Ecological and economic assessment of design options. The impact assessment is carried out for all possible options with an analysis of damages and compensation costs for protection from harmful impacts after the project is implemented.
8. Presentation of results. It is carried out in the form of a separate section of the project document, which is a mandatory appendix and contains, in addition to the materials of the EIA list, a copy of approval from the Ministry of Health, state supervisory authorities responsible for the use of natural resources, the conclusion of a departmental examination, the conclusion of a public examination and the main disagreements.
Environmental assessment
Environmental assessment – establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determining the admissibility of the implementation of the object of environmental assessment in order to prevent possible adverse impacts of this activity on the environment and the associated social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental assessment ().
Environmental expertise involves a special study of economic and technical projects, objects and processes for the purpose of an informed conclusion about their compliance with environmental requirements, standards and regulations.
Environmental assessment, therefore, performs the functions of a promising preventive control project documentation and at the same time functions supervision for the environmental compliance of project implementation results. According to Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Expertise” These types of control and supervision are carried out by environmental authorities.
Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Expertise”(Article 3) states principles of environmental assessment, namely:
Presumptions of potential environmental hazards of any planned economic and other activities;
Mandatory conduct of a state environmental impact assessment before making decisions on the implementation of an environmental impact assessment project;
Comprehensive assessment of the impact of economic and other activities on the environment and its consequences;
Mandatory consideration of environmental safety requirements when conducting environmental assessments;
Reliability and completeness of information submitted for environmental assessment;
Independence of environmental impact experts in the exercise of their powers in the field of environmental impact assessment;
Scientific validity, objectivity and legality of environmental assessment conclusions;
Publicity, participation of public organizations (associations), accounting public opinion;
Responsibility of participants in environmental assessment and interested parties for the organization, conduct, and quality of environmental assessment.
Control questions
1. Formulate the concepts of monitoring, environmental monitoring.
2. Name the types of environmental monitoring.
3. Formulate the objectives and principles of organizing an environmental monitoring system.
4. What is an enterprise’s environmental passport and its contents?
5. What is the EIA procedure? For what purpose is it carried out?
6. List the sequence of stages of conducting an EIA.
7. What does environmental assessment include?
8. Formulate the principles of environmental assessment.
Types of damage from environmental pollution
The most objective criterion used in environmental assessment is the damage caused to the economy as a result of environmental pollution.
Distinguish between damage three types: actual, possible and prevented.
Under actual Damage refers to the actual losses and damage caused to the economy as a result of environmental pollution.
Possible damage is the damage to the economy that could have occurred in the absence of environmental protection measures.
Under prevented Damage refers to the difference between possible and actual damage.
The methodology for calculating damage involves taking into account the damage caused by increased morbidity in the population; damage agriculture, housing, communal and household services, industry and other types of damage.
The calculations are of an estimation nature due to the lack of reliable natural science and sociological information.
The most important issue in the strategy for regulating the quality of environmental protection is the issue of creating a system capable of identifying the most critical sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on public health and environmental protection, identifying the most vulnerable elements and parts of the biosphere susceptible to such impacts.
Such a system is recognized as a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment, capable of providing the necessary information for decision-making by the relevant services, departments, and organizations.
Environmental monitoring– a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The basic principle of monitoring is continuous tracking.
The purpose of environmental monitoring is information support for the management of environmental activities and environmental safety, optimization of human relations with nature.
There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria:
Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic),
Geoecological (natural and economic),
Biosphere (global),
Space,
Climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.
Depending on the severity of anthropogenic impact, impact and background monitoring are distinguished. Background (basic) monitoring– monitoring natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural environment, without anthropogenic influence. Carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves. Impact monitoring- monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.
Depending on the scale of observation, global, regional and local monitoring are distinguished.
Global monitoring – monitoring the development of global biosphere processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change).
Regional monitoring– monitoring natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal).
Local monitoring– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air condition in the city).
In the Russian Federation, the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) is functioning and developing, formed at three main organizational levels: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local (objective) with the aim of radically increasing the efficiency of the monitoring service. Based on the monitoring results, recommendations are developed to reduce the level of environmental pollution and a forecast for the future.
Monitoring systems are associated with environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments (EIA).
Standardization of environmental quality (ecological regulation)
Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. The human environment includes natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.
Environmental regulation– the process of establishing indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on the environment. Its main goal is to ensure an acceptable balance between ecology and economics. Such rationing allows for economic activity and preservation of the natural environment.
In the Russian Federation the following are subject to rationing:
Physical impact factors (noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields, radioactive radiation);
Chemical factors - concentrations of harmful substances in air, water, soil, food;
Biological factors – the content of pathogenic microorganisms in the air, water, food.
Environmental standards are divided into 3 main groups:
Technological standards - established for various industries and processes, rational use of raw materials and energy, minimizing waste;
Scientific and technical standards - provide for a system of calculations and periodic revision of standards, monitoring the impact on the environment;
Medical standards determine the level of danger to public health.
Standardization of environmental quality– establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).
The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum permissible standards (environmental standards) for human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.
The standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, as well as methods for determining them, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.
The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:
1. Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):
Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible level (MAL) of harmful physical influences (radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.)
2. Impact standards (production and economic):
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.
3. Comprehensive standards:
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.
Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for workers’ skin). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.
Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, vibration noise, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.
In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TPC - approximately permissible concentration, or TAC - approximately permissible level, respectively, are used.
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD)- this is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.
A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment (PDEN)– this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment, which does not lead to a violation of the stability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond the limits of its ecological capacity).
The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory.
The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators:
Stocks of animal and dead organic matter;
Efficiency of organic matter production or vegetation production;
Species and structural diversity.
The higher these indicators are, the more stable the ecosystem.
The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with certain goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.
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Lecture No. 14
Environmental monitoring
- Concept of environmental monitoring
- Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Monitoring classification
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
- Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
1. Concept of environmental monitoring
Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.
To identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly called monitoring.
The word "monitoring" is included in scientific circulation from English literature and comes from the English word " monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which in English has the following meaning: monitor, instrument or device for monitoring and constant control over something.
The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.
In our country, Yu.A. was one of the first to develop monitoring theory. Israel. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A. Israel back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the term “environmental monitoring” into the definition anthropogenic factor as the main reason for these changes. Monitoring environmentit calls a system of observation, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference on the Environment (1972) marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS/ GEMS).
Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:
- Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
- Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this condition.
Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system of observation, analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides necessary information for such control (Fig. 2).
Information system/monitoring/Management
Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.
2. Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Scientific and technical support for monitoring, assessing the forecast of the state of the environment;
- Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
- Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.)
The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures, organized into cycles: N 1 observations, O 1 assessment, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.)
Thus, monitoring is a complex structure, cyclically functioning and constantly developing in a spiral over time. current system
Rice. 4. Scheme of monitoring functioning over time.
3. Classification of monitoring.
- According to the scale of observation;
- By objects of observation;
- According to the level of contamination of observation objects;
- By factors and sources of pollution;
- According to observation methods.
By scale of observation
|
Level name monitoring |
Monitoring organizations |
|
Global |
Interstate monitoring system environment |
|
National |
State environmental monitoring system for the territory of Russia |
|
Regional |
Regional and regional environmental monitoring systems |
|
Local |
City, district environmental monitoring systems |
|
Detailed |
Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, fields, factories, etc. |
Detailed monitoring
The lowest hierarchical level is the detailed levelenvironmental monitoring implemented within territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, deposits, etc. Detailed environmental monitoring systems are the most important link in a higher-ranking system. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.
Local monitoring (impact)
It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN
Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances included in emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities here. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.
Regional monitoring
Conducted within a certain region, taking into account natural character, type and intensity of technogenic impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are united within one state into a single national monitoring network.
National monitoring
Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. In Russia it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within environmental program The UN has been tasked with uniting national monitoring systems into a single interstate network “Global Environmental Monitoring Network” (GEMN)
Global monitoring
The purpose of GSMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, in on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GSMOS deals with global warming, problems of the ozone layer, forest conservation, drought, etc. .
By objects of observation
- Atmospheric air
- in populated areas;
- different layers of the atmosphere;
- stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
- Groundwater and surface water bodies
- fresh and salt waters;
- mixing zones;
- regulated water bodies;
- natural reservoirs and watercourses.
- Geological environment
- soil layer;
- soils.
- Biological monitoring
- plants;
- animals;
- ecosystems;
- Human.
- Snow cover monitoring
- Background radiation monitoring.
Pollution level of observation objects
- Background (basic monitoring)
These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.
2. Impact
Focuses on the source of pollution or individual polluting impact.
By factors and sources of pollution
1. Ingradient monitoring
This physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.
2. Ingredient monitoring
This is monitoring of a single pollutant.
By observation methods
1. Contact methods
2. Remote methods.
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment
Assessment of the actual state is a key area within the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps make decisions to normalize the situation. Favorable situations can also be identified, indicating the presence of ecological reserves of nature.
The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum permissible and actual state of the ecosystem.
The method for analyzing observation results and assessing the state of the ecosystem depends on the type of monitoring. Typically, the assessment is carried out using a set of indicators or conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. As an example, we will consider only individual criteria.
In sanitary and hygienic monitoring they usually use:
1) comprehensive assessments sanitary condition natural objects based on a set of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.
Table 1.
Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary condition of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators
General principle The calculation of pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its maximum permissible concentration is determined, and then the obtained values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.
Let us give examples of calculating pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and quality surface waters(IZV).
Calculation of the air pollution index (API).
IN practical work use a large number of various ISAs. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of air pollution, for example, atmospheric visibility, transparency coefficient.
Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Unit indices of air pollution by one impurity.
2.Comprehensive indicators of air pollution by several substances.
TO unit indices relate:
Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units ( A ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to the maximum permissible concentration:
a = Cί / MPCί
This API is used as a criterion for the quality of atmospheric air by individual impurities.
Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases where single values of impurity concentration exceed a given level:
g = (m/n) ּ100%
where n - number of observations for the period under consideration, m - number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.
IZA (I ) as a separate impurity - quantitative characteristic level of atmospheric pollution by a separate impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for the danger SO 2 :
I = (C g /PDKss) Ki
where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes in reducing the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C g - average annual concentration of impurities.
For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:
|
Hazard Class |
||||
|
Ki value |
The calculation of IZA is based on the assumption that at the MPC level all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at different rates, which depend on the hazard class of the substance.
This IZA is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of atmospheric pollution over a period of time. this period time in a given area and to compare the degree of air pollution by various substances.
TO complex indexes relate:
The comprehensive city air pollution index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the city atmosphere:
KIZA=
where Ii - unit index of atmospheric pollution by the i-th substance.
The comprehensive index of air pollution by priority substances is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, calculated similarly to KIZA.
Pollution Index Calculations natural waters(WPI)can also be performed using several methods.
Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended normative document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.
First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological DP) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their maximum permissible concentration i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i /MPC i ). Next, find the sums of indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:
where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized water quality indicators.
In addition, to determine WPI, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive coli(LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification water bodies by degree of pollution (Table 2).
Comparing the corresponding indicators ( Sorg, Stox, BOD 20 etc.) with the estimated ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the assessment indicator. So, if according to all indicators water belongs to quality class I, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and classified as class II quality (moderate degree of contamination).
The types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution of a water body (Table 3).
Table 2.
Hygienic classification of water bodies by degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
Table 3
Possible types water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN4630-88)
|
Degree of pollution |
Possible uses of the same object |
|
Acceptable |
Suitable for all types of water use by the population with virtually no restrictions |
|
Moderate |
Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and household chains. Use as a source of domestic drinking water supply without reducing the level: chemical pollution at water treatment plants can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2 |
|
High |
There is an absolute danger of cultural and domestic water use on a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removal. toxic substances in the process of water treatment. Drinking water can lead to symptoms of intoxication and the development of isolated effects, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2 |
|
Extremely high |
Absolutely unsuitable for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water from a water body is dangerous to public health |
To assess water quality, the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation use the methodology for calculating WPI only based on chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, there are not 4, but 7 quality classes:
I - very clean water (WPI = 0.3);
II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);
III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);
IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);
V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);
VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);
VII - extremely dirty (WPI more than 10.0).
Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of soilcarried out according to indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:
- concentration factor chemical substance(TO i),
K i = C i / C fi
where C i actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;
With fi regional background content of the substance in soil, mg/kg.
In the presence of maximum permissible concentration i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiplicity of excess hygienic standards, i.e. according to the formula
K i = C i / MPC i
- total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the concentration coefficients of chemical substances:
Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)
Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration coefficient.
Indicative rating scale of soil pollution hazard according to total indicator presented in table. 3.
Table 3
|
Danger |
Change in health |
|
|
acceptable |
16 |
low level of morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations |
|
moderately dangerous |
16-32 |
increase general level morbidity |
|
dangerous |
32-128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of the cardiovascular system |
|
extremely dangerous |
128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, reproductive dysfunction |
Environmental monitoring has special meaning V global system environmental monitoring and, first of all, in monitoring renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
The following criteria can be used to characterize changes in the state of natural systems: balance of production and destruction; the amount of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are expressed numerically by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the Earth's vegetation cover are determined by changes in the area of forests.
The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.
The response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in it ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the system's response by integral indicators its states, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's look at some of them:
1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Consequently, monitoring changes in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example pH 100% , is the most important element of environmental monitoring.
2. Response to loss " acid rain"and other anthropogenic impacts may change the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that for any unfavorable conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.
Dozens of such indices have been proposed by different authors. Most Applications found indices based on information theory, for example, the Shannon index:
where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i is the number of individuals of the i-th species.
In practice, they deal not with the number of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the number of a species in a sample; replacing N i / N by n i / n , we get:
Maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and minimum diversity is observed when all species except one are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size and are dimensionless.
Y. L. Vilm (1970) calculated Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 unpolluted and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in polluted areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.
Assessment of the state of ecosystems based on species diversity is applicable to any type of impact and any ecosystem.
3. The system’s response may manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stress. As a universal integral criterion To assess the stability of ecosystems, V.D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called the measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or photosynthesis rate) to structural (diversity indices).
A feature of environmental monitoring is that the effects of impacts, subtle when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
Forecasting and assessing the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of monitoring the natural environment in the past and present, studying information series of observations and analyzing trends of changes.
At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various environments, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans is needed.
Next stage- forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic) may continue to exist for many years. Analysis of the predicted state allows you to select priority environmental measures and make adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.
Forecasting the state of ecosystems is essential for managing the quality of the natural environment.
In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale based on integral characteristics (averaged in space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. The leading methods among them are those based on the use of space assets. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations using satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural lands, marine phytoplankton, soil erosion, urbanized areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, a correlation is observed between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.
Satellite imaging provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; allows us to judge population growth based on the area of settlements; energy consumption based on the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; record increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect outbreaks forest fires and much more.
In Russia since the late 60s. There is a unified national system of observation and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of comprehensive observations of natural environments according to hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are organized according to a hierarchical principle.
The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CIS). Then the data enters the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is Main center data, which collects and summarizes information across the country. For this purpose, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.
Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESM) is being created, the purpose of which is to provide objective, comprehensive information about the state of the natural environment. The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System includes monitoring of: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic components of the natural environment.
Within the framework of the Unified State Electrical System, it is envisaged to create environmental information services. Monitoring is carried out Civil service observations (GOS).
Observations of atmospheric air in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. The observation network for surface water pollution in the Russian Federation as of January 1, 1996 consisted of 1928 points, 2617 sections, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of which - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. Within State monitoring geological environment (GMGS), the observation network included 15,000 observation points groundwater, 700 observation sites for dangerous exogenous processes, 5 test sites and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.
Among all the blocks of the USEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no uniform methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or regulating environmental quality. Consequently, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels, differentiated for terrestrial, aquatic and soil ecosystems.
To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its condition, but also to determine damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental protection measures, own economic mechanisms environmental protection.
Actual condition
environment
Environmental conditions
environment
For the state
environment
And the factors on
influencing it
Forecast
price
Observations
Monitoring
observations
State forecast
Assessment of actual condition
Assessment of the predicted state
Regulation of environmental quality
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
TASK
TARGET
OBSERVATION
GRADE
FORECAST
DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
IDENTIFICATION
for changes in the state of the environment
proposed environmental changes
observed changes and identifying the effect of human activities
causes of environmental change associated with human activities
to prevent
negative consequences of human activity
optimal relations between society and the environment
Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring
H 1
O 2
H 2
P 1
O 1