“UDC 576.858.89 MAIN STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HELMINTOLOGY IN THE USSR OVER 50 YEARS Academician K. I. Scriabin V pre-revolutionary Russia helminthology as independent science did not exist, she was...”
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Academician K, I.
UDC 576.858.89
MAIN STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HELMINTHOLOGY
IN THE USSR FOR 50 YEARS
Academician K. I. Scriabin
In pre-revolutionary Russia, helminthology as an independent
science did not exist, it was one of the modest branches of zoology
and was completely separated from medicine and veterinary medicine.
Helminthology is a true creation of socialist culture, for it was born, developed and won a strong all-Union and international authority only in the conditions Soviet state, turning from a private section of zoology into a multifaceted complex biological, medical, veterinary and phytopathological. a science closely related to the tasks of communist construction.
Casting a retrospective glance at the path traveled by helminthological science and practice over the period of its existence Soviet power, one has to be amazed at the striking contrast that distinguishes our modernity from the recent pre-revolutionary past.
During the years of Soviet power, helminthology was transformed into a completely new scientific discipline, acquired not only a different volume, but a fundamentally new content, and set itself unprecedented noble state tasks closely related to the construction of communism.
Tsarist Russia did not have a single specialized research institution on helminthology. The helminthology course was not taught either in veterinary or medical higher schools, or in advanced training institutes for doctors. As a result, there was not a single helminthologist in our country.
Of course there were individual representatives zoological science, who studied, among other things, certain particular issues of helminthology. However, they numbered only a few, and both themselves and all other scientists did not consider them helminthologists, since their main specialty was other branches of biology, and work on helminthology was of a secondary, most often random nature. These were our professors A. II. Fedchenko, N. A. Kholodkovsky, V. O. Kler and others.
Thus, by the end of 1922 in Moscow, helminthological science was represented by three main directions - veterinary, medical and biological.
STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION OF SOVIET HELMINTOLOGY
The 50-year path of Soviet helminthological science and practice was characterized by a successive change of several main periods, and during the transition from one stage to another, the work of the previous period, of course, did not stop, but continued.
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The first stage in the construction of helminthology in our country was the organizational and propaganda period and work on creating personnel. Here we had to overcome serious difficulties.
The combination in helminthology of great theoretical depths with the widest range application sections in the field of medicine, veterinary medicine and agronomy, the general public was not fully educated; there was poor literacy among doctors of that time, which resulted in “denigration”
population and domestic animals increased progressively, since the population did not receive qualified care from doctors. Doctors did not specialize in helminthology, since it was not taught in universities and scientific institutions, as well as in practical medical and veterinary laboratories and experimental stations, it was not studied.
This situation dictated, first of all, the need to promote correct ideas about helminthology both among veterinarians and among the general population. Along with this, it was necessary to organize helminthological cells in the periphery as soon as possible.
This work, on the one hand, attracted many who were interested in our science, and on the other hand, it expanded the network of helminthological cells in scientific and pedagogical institutions periphery.
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The period of identifying helminths in the fauna of the USSR through the organization of expeditions. The second stage of the construction of helminthology in the USSR was characterized by the study of the helminth fauna of animals and humans in different zones USSR by the method of organizing specialized helminthological expeditions. Before the Great October revolution geographic map our country was, in helminthological terms, a solid white spot.
In medicine and veterinary medicine, the prevailing idea was that the helminth fauna of humans and animals, firstly, was very poor in species, and secondly, more or less homogeneous in different geographical zones.
Which helminths are common in one sixth globe?
What is the percentage of damage among different national population groups, in certain types of farm animals? In which parts of the country are there the main foci of the most economically significant helminthiasis? What is the intensity of invasions in a particular category of the population? What are the epidemiological and epizootological prerequisites that determine the prevalence of certain helminthiasis in certain areas? All these and many other questions required resolution.
It logically followed the need to begin mass helminthological reconnaissance. And a team of Soviet helminthologists began systematically organizing expeditions to various parts of our country to study the helminth fauna of the USSR. They carried out a detailed epidemiological analysis explaining the reason for the predominance or absence of certain invasions in certain areas. And since the reason for the “hardening”
identified, then we can already talk about the development of health-improving measures. As a result of the expeditions, a huge amount of valuable material was concentrated in the hands of helminthologists. It is concentrated in the Central Helminthological Museum of the All-Union Institute of Helminthology in Moscow. All these materials were collected using a single method, which has become widely used in our country and is called the “Method of complete helminthological dissections according to Scriabin.”
From 1919 to 1966, a team of Soviet helminthologists conducted 335 helminthological expeditions, covering all the main climatic and geographical zones of the USSR from Belarus to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic to the border with Afghanistan. As a result, quantitatively enormous material was collected (about half a million specimens of various vertebrates were opened). The expeditions organized by Moscow workers were the largest in scale ( Western Siberia, Far East, Northern Arctic, Yakutia, Transcaucasian republics and Central Asia etc.), they included biologists, doctors, and veterinarians.
The work of the expeditions played a huge role in the development of helminthological science and practice. They established a dependency various diseases from climatic and geographical factors, from everyday and professional aspects of the population, revealed the true helminthological status of people and animals in our country, forced us to re-evaluate the role of the helminthic factor in pathology and gave rise to the desire to fight mass “worming” through medicine and veterinary medicine . Since most expeditions organized courses in helminthology for doctors and veterinarians at their places of work, a network of peripheral helminthological research laboratories and experimental stations began to be created. Many cadets came to Moscow for internships. Subsequently, many of them grew into serious helminthologists. The expeditions introduced common sense ideas about helminthic diseases among the broadest sections of the population of the USSR and thereby promoted methods of personal and public prevention.
The material collected by the expeditions was regularly processed from the point of view of systematics, morphology, ecology, zoogeography, as well as epidemiology and epizootology by a large team of specialists. In addition, the main foci of very serious illnesses humans and animals (for example, a focus of opisthorchiasis among the population Soviet Arctic), which served as the basis for the implementation of health-improving measures by medical and veterinary authorities.
The development of helminth-faunistic collections collected by 335 specialized expeditions in all geographical zones of our country has enriched helminthological science with enormous new factual material and forced a concrete change in a number of old erroneous ideas about the role of helminths in pathology.
At the same time, causative agents of such serious diseases as pulmonary paragonimiasis, ocular thelaziosis, liver hepaticolosis, pulmonary tominxosis, intestinal nanophyetosis, dirofilariasis of the eye, renal dioctophimosis, hookworm disease, necatoriasis, fascioliasis and many others were identified.
Naturally, as a result of our faunistic work, the assessment by health authorities of both the role of helminths in human pathology and the organization of health-improving measures should have radically changed.
The publication of these monographic series began in 1947. By 1967, 22 volumes of the series “Trematodes of Animals and Humans”, 20 volumes of “Fundamentals of Nematodology” and 6 volumes of “Fundamentals of Cestodology” had been published. Some volumes of these series have been translated into English in the United States. The international value of these monographs lies in the fact that they allow scientists working in any part of our planet to produce precise definition to the type of each helminth found in any organ of any representative of the animal world.
By the end of this five-year period, we plan to completely complete the work of 2 main series on trematodes and nematodes. The two-volume book “Acanthocephala” was published in 1956-1958. edited by prof. V. I. Petrochenko.
When creating the mentioned monographs, we carried out a very labor-intensive, but interesting job: revision of all representatives of all classes of helminths described in the world literature, and based on the analysis of these materials, creation new system large taxonomic units of trematodes, cestodes and nematodes.
Third stage
Condemning the old methods of treating helminthiases in humans and animals, which were completely divorced from prevention, K. I. Scriabin in 1925
developed new principle“deworming”, which harmoniously combines elements of therapy and prevention. In 1934, the method of “preimaginal” deworming was introduced into practice, in which the causative agent of the disease is expelled from the host’s body at a stage of its development when it is not yet able to excrete external environment their sexual elements. This results in a double positive effect: the development of the disease is prevented and the pollution of the external environment by invasive elements is prevented.
The practical application of these and many other new methods and principles developed by a team of Soviet helminthologists gave a very positive results in the field of medicine and veterinary medicine: at first, a slow but gradually increasing attack on the helminthic enemy began with the integrated forces of scientists and practitioners.
Helminthology began not only to be recognized, but to actually feel and evaluate the results of its daring, both health authorities and Agriculture.
Fourth stage
The period of development of problems of experimental helminthology Around 1926, a team of Soviet helminthologists began to develop problems of experimental helminthology, which grew from year to year, involving more and more new theoretical and practical problems in the orbit of their research.
Work on the study of development cycles has unfolded on a broad front. different classes helminths. The results turned out to be very interesting:
A significant part of theses for the degree of candidate of biological sciences was defended by many young workers of central and peripheral institutions on topics devoted to the study of the biological cycles of helminths.
K.I. Scriabin proved that rhabditiform larvae of the causative agent of human strongyloidiasis can, without leaving the external environment, transform in the intestinal lumen into filariform larvae, which hematogenously through the lungs enter the mouth, are swallowed and turn into a sexually mature form.
Soviet researchers have enriched this section of helminthology with very important scientific and practical discoveries, many of which are used in medicine and veterinary medicine.
Helminthology has gained a wide range of experimental areas since 1942, when the USSR Academy of Sciences managed to organize an independent special Helminthological laboratory, located directly at the Biological Department (now in the General Biology Department).
This laboratory was created thanks to the assistance of the President of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Academician V. JI. Komarov and vice-president academician L.A. Orbeli. She began her work in Kazan during the height of the Great Patriotic War, consisting of 4 persons: academician. K.I. Skryabin (head of the laboratory), senior researcher E.M. Matevosyan and 2 laboratory assistants.
Over the 25 years of its activity, this laboratory has grown into a large research institution with a staff of 80 people, becoming a biological and theoretical center of Soviet helminthological science, in which experimental work in the most various directions. In 1965, 4 sectors were organized in this laboratory: 1) on the fauna, morphology and systematics of helminths; 2) on the biology and ecology of helminths; 3) on physiology, biochemistry of helminths and immunity during helminthiasis, and 4) on phytohelminthology.
During the existence of this laboratory, 16 doctoral and 55 master's theses, 17 volumes of “Proceedings of the Helminthological Laboratory of the USSR Academy of Sciences” and several thematic collections were published.
The creation of a specialized Helminthological laboratory in the USSR Academy of Sciences had an impact on the organization of similar laboratories in the academies of sciences of the union republics. In 1943, an independent laboratory was founded in the Kyrgyz branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (now the Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz SSR); in 1944 - in all academies of sciences in Transcaucasia.
They were followed by the creation of similar laboratories in the academies of sciences of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian republics, as well as in the Lithuanian and Latvian SSR. The only republic of our country where an independent helminthological laboratory has not yet been created is the Estonian SSR.
Study of biochemistry and physiology of helminths
There is no need to prove the need to develop these current problems of helminthology. In order to be able to consciously control the life processes of helminths, suppress their development, without causing harm to the host’s body, it is necessary to clearly understand all the subtleties of metabolic processes and physiological functions both the host and helminths at different stages of their development.
Immunological studies
Towards a systematic study of immunity in helminthiasis Soviet researchers started around 1930-1932. During these years, they faced the need to learn various sides relationships between host organisms and helminths. Therefore, in parallel with the development of principles and methods of combating helminthiases, research on theoretical and practical issues immunity and immunodiagnostics.
The first researchers who dealt with the issues of immunity during helminthiasis in our country were prof. R. S. Shultz and N. P. Shikhobalova, who began their research on the basis of the All-Union Institute of Helminthology. They deeply analyzed the scattered foreign and domestic literature and a number of works were published that outlined ways to study immunity and immunodiagnostics for helminthiasis.
We can state with satisfaction that the number of studies on various issues This problem in our country is growing every year. Research has expanded especially over the past 10 years, not only in quantitative terms, but also in terms of the variety and depth of issues covered in it.
Despite the fact that research on immunity and immunodiagnostics is carried out in our country in a number of scientific research institutions medical, veterinary and general biological profiles, we can indicate several cells in which these studies are currently being carried out most widely.
Many pressing issues are resolved by prof. Schultz and his staff at the Kazakh Research Veterinary Institute in Almaty. E. Ya. Davtyan works in close creative contact with R. S. Shultz at the Institute of Zoology of the Armenian SSR (Yerevan). Every year, research conducted at VIGIS on issues of immunity and allergies by V. S. Ershov, M. I. Naumycheva and their employees is expanding.
Work is underway at GELAN to general issues immunity N.P. Shikhobalova, 3. K. Leutskaya and colleagues. Basically, the issues of the nature of immunity and the role of vitamin A in its formation and the possibility of immunizing animals with helminth larvae inactivated by ionizing radiation are being addressed.
By now in Soviet literature Very valuable material has accumulated that proves the formation of immunity in animals infected with various helminths (trematodes, cestodes, nematodes). Experimental studies were carried out mainly on laboratory animals, although a number of valuable studies were also carried out on farm animals.
The study of the nature and mechanism of immunity in helminth infections has expanded, and a number of factors have been identified that influence the intensity of natural and acquired immunity. In recent years, a number of valuable studies have been carried out aimed at understanding the pathogenesis and immunity of current helminthiases in humans and farm animals. The course of many helminthiasis is currently explained by researchers from the standpoint of allergic restructuring of the body. Allergic reactions, in particular, explain many clinical phenomena during helminthiasis such as trichinosis, ascariasis, hookworm disease, and some pulmonary helminthiasis.
Soviet helminthologists pay a lot of attention to the issues of immunodiagnosis of helminthiasis in both humans and animals. If the first years of work mainly concerned an allergic reaction, then in subsequent years more attention researchers began to focus on serological reactions. In the first years, complement fixation reactions and the precipitation reaction were used, and in subsequent years, the attention of researchers was drawn to the reactions of hemagglutination, agglutination with adsorbed antigens and, partially, double diffusion in the body.
Currently the number researchers, dealing with the issues of immunity during helminthiasis, has grown greatly. Naturally, the number of works published annually has also increased significantly.
Studying the problems of phytohelminthology
In 1952, on the basis of GELAN, a second laboratory on plant helminths was organized under the leadership of the prominent biologist A. A. Paramonov. She enriched the theory of phytohelminthological science with serious achievements and developed a number of measures that have found practical application in agricultural production. In particular, the laboratory has developed and put into practice a new principle of “plant therapy”, which allows for health-improving measures to be carried out during the growing season of cultivated plants suffering from helminth infections. Received interesting results, from which it is clear that by acting on various chemical compounds (salicylic acid salts, ammonium nitrate and others), it is possible to sharply reduce the sexual function of highly pathogenic root-knot nematodes. Special measures have been developed to free potato fields from harmful stem nematodes.
A cadre of specialist phytohelminthologists has been created, a theory for forecasting the number of phytohelminths is being developed, and the influence of a number of biotic and abiotic factors. Work is being carried out to experimentally study the dynamics of the number of plant nematodes and their reactions to physical and chemical influences, aimed at reducing fertility and suppressing the viability of plant nematodes. Currently, agricultural practitioners have fully appreciated the importance of phytohelminthology as a science aimed at combating phytohelminthiasis, which harms all major crops of open and closed ground and causes multimillion-dollar losses to our country.
A. A. Paramonov created a fundamental four-volume monograph “Fundamentals of Phytohelminthology”, the first two volumes of which have already been published.
Over the past decade, several new phytohelminthology laboratories have been created in the academies of sciences of the Union republics, at the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and some agricultural institutes.
Studying the problems of entomohelminthology
Great merit in the study of insect helminths and in popularizing the problems of entomohelminthology belongs to the employee of the Voronezh Forestry Engineering Institute P. A. Polozhentsev, who studied mainly mermitids, and to the employee of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR E. S. Kiryanova, who studied gordids and some phytohelminths.
She discovered about 40 species of helminths in insects living on pine trunks (including 8 new to science).
Study of the fine histological structures of helminths This direction was started in the Helminthological Laboratory in 1953 by E. D. Logachev, who studied the integumentary and muscle tissues of flatworms. Currently, Yu. K. Bogoyavlensky continued and expanded using electron microscopy work on the fine structure of tissues of nematodes localized in different organs host and thereby adapted to different living conditions.
These works allowed us to resolve some controversial issues concerning the structures of the cuticle, hypodermis and muscular elements of nematodes.
Histological and histochemical materials will help in the future to resolve issues of phylogenetic relationship of individual systematic groups of helminths and establish functional significance histological structures.
Fifth stage Planning of helminthological science and practice The beginning of planning of helminthological research work should be considered 1930; practical planned measures in the field of combating helminths of humans and animals began to be implemented somewhat later.
Planning Center scientific problems until 1942, it was the All-Union Institute of Helminthology.
With the organization of the specialized Laboratory of Helminthology (GELAN) in the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1942, the main biological sections of helminthological science began to be planned by GELAN.
The principles of planning were to ensure that the entire network of helminthological institutions develops the most relevant topics, so that the scientific staff is aimed at solving the most vital problems. pressing issues, put forward by the practice of socialist production. Planning made it possible to avoid excessive parallelism and duplication of experimental research; for peripheral institutions it was possible to select a topic that would relate to the problems that are most relevant to the given area.
Planning helminthological studies made it possible to set broad issues of an all-Union scale for development by a large team of employees in such a way that each of them conducts their work in the aspect of specific local climatic-geographical and production and living conditions.
Planning research work finally made it possible to suspend the development of a topic that had already been resolved by some institution in the USSR or abroad.
When, in July 1937, the second All-Union Medical and Helminthological Meeting, at the proposal of K. I. Scriabin, recognized the need to organize, starting from the third five-year plan, planned work with human taeniasis (and thereby with finosis of cattle and pigs), the Helminthological Department of the Central Tropical Institute in Moscow considered it necessary to put forward as one of the general themes for 1938 “The experience of eliminating the taeniid focus.”
At the same time, a comprehensive and collective topic on veterinary medicine, “Study of the geographical distribution of the most important helminthiases of farm animals and their dynamics,” began to be carried out in a strictly planned manner.
In subsequent years, planning principles gradually began to be introduced into the practical activities of medical and veterinary workers. In the spring of 1937, the position of senior inspector for the control of helminthiasis in the USSR was established in the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR. Since the entire network of helminthological institutions in the USSR was organically connected with the system of antimalarial organizations, the first helminthologist inspector (Z. G. Vasilkova) began working in the antimalarial group of the People's Commissariat of Health.
Planning practical helminthological work in veterinary medicine was of a slightly different nature. In all republics, territories and regions, the number of dewormings carried out by practical veterinarians has consistently increased from year to year. Thus, in 1940, the number of animals treated with anthelmintic methods reached 14 million heads, and in 1956 - 50 million heads.
In subsequent years, Soviet helminthology moved from isolated experiments in the improvement of individual farms (collective farms, state farms) to mass events on large areas. The initiative in this regard was made by the Stavropol Territory. Since the autumn of 1940, a huge amount of work has been launched to radically improve the health of sheep farms throughout the region in relation to seven main helminthiases. During the autumn of 1940, veterinary workers in the Stavropol Territory performed 6,268 thousand helminthological procedures.
Over the 9-month period of implementation of health measures, losses of sheep breeding from helminth infections in the Stavropol Territory, under equal economic conditions, decreased by 3 times compared to the corresponding period of the previous year, and the total waste of sheep decreased by 2 1/2 times.
The example of the Stavropol Territory was followed by the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which received very good results as a result of the deployment of mass health work. Thus, in the Charovisky district, the death rate of sheep from helminthiasis decreased from 30 to 1%.
The scientific and methodological management of this event was carried out by the All-Union Institute of Helminthology.
IN post-war period Planned work to combat helminthiasis has resumed and continues to unfold on a progressive scale. Now antihelminthic measures are gradually covering the entire territory of the USSR.
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turn, a plan of scientific and practical measures to combat those helminthiasis that science has prepared for devastation.
As a preliminary experience, you should first of all deal with echinococcosis and coenurosis, since the complex of treatment and preventive measures for these two helminthiasis is almost identical.
It is advisable to join efforts to combat trichinosis and fascioliasis. As for the development of problems of a theoretical nature, it would be necessary to combine work on the biochemistry and physiology of helminths with immunological helminthology, as well as organize joint helminthological expeditions to areas not yet touched by faunal research.
It is extremely important to organize commissions from various countries to jointly test experimentally the comparative effectiveness of chemotherapeutic drugs used for deworming people and animals. Along with this, it would be advisable to expand collective work helminthologists different countries to study the influence ionizing radiation on the development and viability of helminths at different stages of their ontogenesis, as well as on the use of the isotope indicator method in various biochemical studies.
Management of the problem of combating echinococcosis was entrusted to the USSR, and with trichinosis - to the Polish People's Republic, and with fascioliasis - to the Hungarian People's Republic. The committees for the control of these helminth infections include representatives of all interested people's democracies.
Soviet helminthologists are bound by bonds great friendship with specialists from various continents of our planet and, above all, with the countries of the socialist camp.
In Bulgaria, on the basis of the biological department of the Academy of Sciences, on the initiative of K.I. Scriabin, an independent helminthological laboratory similar to our GELAN was created in 1953. In Czechoslovakia (Kosice) prof. Hovorka (now corresponding member of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences), a helminthological institute similar to our VIGIS was created.
protozoology and arachnoentomology.
THE PROBLEM OF “DEVASTATION” OF THE MOST PATHOGENIC HELMINTHS
My scientific worldview for many years recent years was guided by the following basic idea. I believe that creative work team of Soviet scientists combined with the growth general culture, the activity of the broad masses of the population and a strictly scientifically based plan for a complex of treatment and preventive measures, regulated state legislation, are capable of completely eliminating the most pathogenic helminths of humans and beneficial animals, regardless of their massive distribution and centuries-old history. With this conviction I entered helminthological science, and it naturally strengthened in me as the scientific and practical work of both myself and the students of my school expanded and deepened.
In October 1944, I first presented the rationale for the problem of devastation of helminths at the General Meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and my report was “The sanitary and economic significance of helminth infections in national economy USSR and the problem of their liquidation,” was published in 1945.
2* 367 In 1947, the publishing house of the Kyrgyz branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Frunze) published my book “Devastation in the fight against helminthiasis and other diseases of humans and animals.” In it I extended the principle of devastation to both protozoal and bacterial diseases.
By this time, 3 diseases had been eradicated in the USSR: 1) prof.
L. M. Isaev carried out the devastation of guinea worm in Uzbekistan (in 1932, the last patient infected with guinea worm was cured) and
As a result, A.M. Petrov developed and put into practice such a complex of health-improving measures, which allowed the animal farms of the Moscow region. completely eradicate fur-bearing animals from dangerous helminthiases.
The success of devastation of pathogenic helminth infections is based on the following basis.
1. Science is obliged, first of all, to decipher the life cycle of the helminth intended for devastation in all details, both in the body of definitive and intermediate hosts, and in environmental conditions (biological, epidemiological and epizootological analysis).
2. Science is obliged to develop accessible to the general public practical application diagnostic methods, as well as to achieve the search for the most effective anthelmintics.
3. Ultimately, science is obliged to combine methods of diagnosis, therapy and prevention into a single complex, which must undergo experimental testing, and then be included in the plan of state health measures.
4. Health and veterinary authorities are obliged to implement all the above achievements, prepared by science for devastation, into practice, maintaining constant control over its precise and precise implementation.
Based on these principles, it is necessary to recognize that science has already prepared for devastation a number of pathogenic helminthiases from among biohelminths, such as echinococcosis, alveococcosis, coenurosis, taeniasis, as well as some of the geohelminths (ankylostomiasis).
However, the practice of medicine and veterinary medicine does not use these achievements of helminthological science, and these helminth infections continue to have a detrimental effect on human health and the economics of livestock farming, causing mortality of animals and loss of high-value meat products.
In July 1937, at the 2nd All-Union Medical and Helminthological Meeting in Moscow, K.I. Scriabin made a proposal to organize, starting with the 3rd Five-Year Plan, a planned fight against human taeniasis (and thereby with phynoses in cattle). This proposal was approved by the meeting and accepted for implementation, and it was decided to place a single general scientific and practical topic on the main medical and helminthological institutions of the USSR: “Experience in eliminating the taeniasis focus.”
The meeting outlined the elimination of taeniasis as a mass disease within 20-25 years. As for human ascariasis, the fight against it should lead to a sharp reduction, primarily among the organized child population.
Thus, already in 1937, when the principle of devastation had not yet been formulated, the plan for medical and veterinary institutions provided for the elimination of taeniasis. Unfortunately, this work was interrupted by the 1941 war.
More than 25 years have passed since our victory. The issue of eradicating taeniahrynchiosis and hookworm infections was again raised by health authorities and included in the current five-year plan for 1966-1970. We must think that in this five-year period we will be able to achieve positive results and erase these helminthiasis from the face of Soviet land.
However, before this, it is necessary to put in enormous mass work from all levels of health authorities and veterinary services, not scattered, but coordinated with the development of a clear and specific plan for a strategic and tactical attack on these enemies.
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Helminthology studies:
morphology, physiology, biochemistry, ecology of helminths
helminth development cycles
geographical distribution and position in the zoological system (general helminthology)
clinical signs of helminthiasis
pathogenesis of helminthiasis
develops methods for their diagnosis, treatment and preventive measures.
Goals :
Determination of the species composition of helminths in humans and animals;
Devastation of helminths, that is, the complete eradication of their most pathogenic species by all developed methods of influencing them.
Tasks : a sharp decrease in the incidence of fascioliasis, ascariasis, echinococcosis and other diseases caused by helminths in the population
Helminth infections of the European North: Helminthiases are widespread: echinococcosis, diphyllobothriasis, trichinosis and some others. On the Northern Dvina and in Karelia, isolated cases of opisthorchiasis are known.
75. Biological foundations of epidemiology and prevention of helminthiases. Epidemiological classification of helminth infections (K.I. Scriabin, R.S. Shultz, V.S. Shulman). The concept of deworming and devastation. Modern principles of prevention and control of helminthiases.
Epidemiology is the science of the patterns underlying the occurrence and spread of infectious diseases in the human community and measures of prevention and control.
The subject of study of disease is morbidity—the totality of cases of disease in a certain territory at a certain time among a certain population.
The goal is to identify patterns of occurrence, spread and cessation of diseases and develop measures to prevent and combat them.
The object of E. infectious diseases is the epidemiological process, the patterns of its development and forms of manifestation.
Epidemiological surveillance of helminth infections is characterized by the specificity of the life cycles of helminths, which are much more complex than those of microbes and protozoa, and the increase in the number of species is associated with the obligatory changing stage of development and habitat throughout the life of the individual. Therefore, to assess the risk of infection with helminth infections, it is necessary, in addition to materials about the disease in humans, to additionally involve information about the presence of intermediate and definitive hosts, their prevalence of helminths and data regarding the contamination of environmental objects. Very often, the occurrence of permanent foci of helminthiases in the same territory is determined by the number of common hosts of pathogens. This circumstance indicates the need for an integrated approach to epidemiological surveillance of bio- and geohelminths.
Prevention: measures to reduce the incidence of helminthiasis are carried out in accordance with their biological characteristics, as well as the characteristics of each locality. The work is carried out according to a specific plan drawn up on the basis of current regulatory documents. The fight against helminthiases necessarily requires the comprehensive participation of medical workers, veterinary services, public utilities workers, education workers, and enterprise administration.
In 1931, Scriabin and Schultz identified groups of biohelminths and geohelminths, and later Shulman identified contact helminthiases.
Criteria:
type of life cycle (with or without change of hosts).
features of the development of the early phases of the helminth (larvae, eggs).
transmission mechanism.
Helminthology is closely related to many other biological sciences, medicine, veterinary medicine, it solves theoretical and applied problems.
Due to the varied localization of worms, therapists, pediatricians, neurologists, dermatologists, ophthalmologists and surgeons often deal with the pathologies they cause.
Features of helminths
- from a couple of weeks (with enterobiasis);
- up to several decades (with schistosomiasis).
The severity of the infestation depends on the number of worms that have entered the body and individual sensitivity. Worms live in almost all organs and enter the body in different ways, giving different symptoms.
In such cases, we are talking about exotic or atypical localization of worms. The diseases will be much more severe and can be diagnosed with great difficulty.
Flatworms
The body plane of worms is completely absent, and the internal organs are immersed in parenchyma - connective tissue.
Some worms can settle in the lungs, while others in the blood vessels:
- pelvis;
- abdominal cavity.
After entering the body, worms migrate through the vessels, as well as directly through the space between internal organs, along the body cavity.
In order to diagnose trematodes, helminthology suggests using methods for detecting eggs in feces, sputum and urine, depending on the location of the worms. Additionally, you may need to conduct an allergy test.
Since the class of flukes that live in the human body can also infect other mammals, the corresponding trematodes are usually classified as zoonotic pathologies. Therefore, it is impossible to completely eliminate them.
Based on the characteristics of the development cycle of flukes, they are divided into the following groups:
Taking into account the biology of tapeworms, which have medical significance, they should be divided into several groups.
There are worms that use humans as the final host, living in the human body as an intermediate host, and there are also helminths whose entire life cycle occurs in the human body.
In accordance with this, the routes of infection by worms, their pathogenic effects, as well as diagnosis, treatment and prevention are different.
However, this does not affect the intensity of reproduction in any way, since the fertility of tapeworms is enormous.
The video in this article reveals how tapeworms become infected.
Page 1
Helminthology is a multi-volume, exciting poem about subversive, sabotage activities grandiose world helminths, which systematically and systematically undermine human health and reduce livestock productivity.
Helminthology fascinates me because each individual phase of its historical development, each separate direction, even a single fragment of this science is fraught with enormous theoretical values and provides clearly tangible practical effectiveness.
The All-Union Institute of Helminthology (VIGIS) and four scholarships were established in his name.
First lectures on helminthology medical doctors read by K.I. Scriabin in Ukraine. In the same year, as already mentioned, a medical helminthological expedition began to work in the Donbass under the leadership of Konstantin Ivanovich.
The flourishing of this branch of helminthology can come only then, he wrote, when a systematic examination of the helminth fauna of individual areas, regions, provinces, districts, etc. Konstantin Ivanovich numerous expeditions to various regions of our country. Thanks to this work, the territory of the USSR, despite its vast expanses, was examined in terms of helminth fauna better than any other country.
Back in August 1942, I expressed my views on helminthology in the following, albeit pompous, expressions, which, however, exactly correspond to the actual essence of this multifaceted discipline.
The training of veterinary specialists in helminthology, in addition to VIGIS, in research and educational veterinary institutes is carried out by Corresponding Member of VASKhNIL I. V. Orlov, Professors P. A. Velichkin, T. E. Burdelev (Moscow), Professor R. S. Shultz (Alma-Ata), Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the UzSSR I. Irgashev, Professor V. M. Sadykov (Samarkand), Doctor of Veterinary Sciences V. Yu. Mitskevich (Leningrad), V. G. Evranova (Kazan), M. D. Klesov (Kharkov), X.
Even in the first years of the formation of helminthology in our country, Konstantin Ivanovich noted the great scientific and practical significance of work in the field of helminth geography, refuting the then existing idea that the principles of zoogeography could not find application in helminthology. Proponents of this opinion believed that external environmental conditions do not affect the life of the helminth, since it lives in the host’s body, where temperature conditions, chemistry and other factors are relatively stable.
The nature of teaching helminthology has also changed dramatically. Instead of fragmentary, random and often contradictory information that students received from teachers of various departments, now there is a systematic, scientifically based teaching about the whole variety of helminths, their relationships with the external environment and measures to combat them. Higher veterinary educational establishments began to produce veterinarians who widely use practical work modern methods combating invasive diseases.
Creation and development of helminthology in our country as an independent scientific discipline is inseparably connected with creative scientific and organizational activities outstanding Soviet scientist, academician Konstantin Ivanovich Scriabin.
Scriabin was not limited only to issues of helminthology.
Hero of socialist labor, academician Konstantin Ivanovich Scriabin.
There are not many scientists in the world who are as lucky as Konstantin Ivanovich Scriabin.
Starting with a simple accumulation of facts, he created helminthology as a science, led it through periods of formation, formation, and now says that he sees a time, even if it does not come very soon, when helminthologists will have nothing to do, because the objects they study will disappear, or rather, they will be destroyed by the people themselves.
It is impossible to imagine helminthology without the participation of Academician Konstantin Ivanovich Scriabin in it.
Under his direct leadership and partly with his participation, more than three hundred special expeditions were carried out, covering the entire territory of our country, all its zones.
Behind scientific works Academician K. I. Scriabin was awarded the title of Hero Socialist Labor, he was awarded Lenin Prize, twice State Prize and Golden medal named after I. I. Mechnikov.
A full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after Lenin, an honorary member of many academies of the world, Konstantin Ivanovich Scriabin continues his important and fruitful work, the essence of which he very well expressed back in 1962: “I asserted and continue to assert “that the problem of eliminating the most pathogenic helminths is realistically feasible.”
Helminthology is my specialty
M My specialty is helminthology, that is, I study those unsightly worm-like animals that lead a hidden lifestyle, penetrating all organs and tissues of animals and plants, depleting them and often leading to death.
It affects the human lungs, creating a picture similar to tuberculosis. I wanted to check whether Paragonimus is found in our country, primarily in areas adjacent to its main place of distribution, or not?
Unfortunately, little attention is still paid to helminths, and still relatively few doctors specialize in this profile.
Usually all helminths are called worms. This is not accurate, since in the strict sense of the word “worms” are helminths that live in the intestines. Can diseases such as ascariasis, which is widespread among children, be called helminthic? During the period of its development, roundworm is localized either in the intestines, then in the lungs of a person, or in his circulatory system. There are many similar examples that can be given.
Development of helminthology
Our helminthology began in veterinary medicine, since the enormous material damage caused by animal deaths, a decrease in milk yield and meat gain, forced us to study helminth infections in farm animals.
Already in 1919, the first special expedition to the shores of the Azov Sea took place. At the end of 1920, a helminthological department was organized at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Veterinary Medicine. In 1921, the first helminthological medical institution was created. It was a department at the Tropical Institute.
In January 1922, a commission for the study of the helminth fauna of the USSR began its activities, and in 1923 this commission became part of the Academy of Sciences. In 1923, a specialized educational department at the Omsk, and in 1925 at the Kazan Veterinary Institutes. At the same time, scientific departments appeared on the periphery: in 1923 in Yerevan, in 1924 in Kharkov, and in 1925 in Bukhara.
Other types of helminths develop much more difficult. Let's get acquainted with the development cycle of the liver fluke, which causes a serious disease in people and sheep - fascioliasis. In this case, helminths colonize the animal’s liver and clog the bile ducts. This can lead to the death of the sheep.
From the intestines of the sheep, fluke eggs fall into the water, the lid of the egg bends, and a free-living larva, the miracidium, emerges from the shell. Its lifespan is very short - only 30-40 hours, and during this time the miracidium must find a freshwater mollusk - the small pond snail - and penetrate into it.
In the liver of the pond snail, the miracidium turns into the second larval stage - the sporocyst, inside which the larvae of the third stage - redia - develop.
In their structure, redia are very different from sporocysts. They have an intestinal rudiment and a mouth opening. Inside the redia, the redia develop again. IN next stage- cercariae - the larvae are in many ways similar to the adult animal.
They have suckers, branched intestines, nervous system and a caudal appendage with which cercariae can swim. Coming out of the pond snail, the cercariae find a plant, attach to it, lose their tail and secrete a special shell around themselves.
The latter turn into sporocysts, and approximately 8 redia develop inside each. 15-20 cercariae grow inside them. Having made a simple calculation, we will see that the offspring exceeds 7 million larvae per year. Most of them, of course, die, but the likelihood that at least one of the offspring will survive is certainly high.
Helminthology as a science
Today, helminthology as a science is developing in many directions: medicine, animal husbandry, fur farming, fish farming, etc.
I would like to talk in more detail about devastation - the doctrine of a complex set of measures aimed at creating conditions under which helminths would be doomed either to physical extermination or biological extinction.
For the first time I will come up with the idea of devastation on general meeting USSR Academy of Sciences in 1944, and today we are raising the question of the complete destruction of some of the most pathogenic helminths on the territory of our country. I want to emphasize that scientists have completely deciphered the life cycles of many helminths. Now it is necessary for medical practitioners to implement the provisions and achievements of science into practice.
I am not unfounded when I talk about devastation - the destruction of serious diseases is indeed possible. In addition, there is a truly magnificent example. The famous Russian naturalist A.P. Fedchenko, traveling around Central Asia at the end of the last century, encountered a massive infection of the population with guinea worm in Bukhara.
Infection, as it was found out, occurs as follows. A person enters the water, the bubble bursts and billions of living larvae come out. They are swallowed by cyclops - small crustaceans that live in huge numbers in the reservoirs of Old Bukhara. When a person drinks water, Go can also swallow infected cyclops.
In 1925 local authorities a special resolution was adopted according to which all rishtosis patients had to undergo mandatory treatment. At the same time, they began to destroy the Cyclopes. The reservoirs were drained, the Cyclopes died. The bottom and walls of the reservoirs were cemented again, all cracks were sealed.
At the request of helminthologists, a water supply system was built in Bukhara and the specialty of water carriers was abolished. They, often entering the water, contaminated the reservoirs with larvae, since they themselves were almost entirely infected with guinea worm. Then the water carriers, along with the water, carried the infected Cyclopes throughout the city.
By 1932, the Guinea worm outbreak was eliminated. All this work was carried out under the leadership of Professor L.M. Isaev.
One more example
Severe diseases of sables and other representatives of the mustelid family - filaroidosis and scrabingylosis - that affected animals on fur-bearing state farms were completely eliminated. The first of these helminths settles in the lungs, and the second lives in the frontal sinuses of sables. Sick animals developed poorly, became sharply emaciated, and the quality of their fur deteriorated. Many animals died.
Live larvae of pathogens were isolated from the animals' droppings; it turned out that they do not grow or develop in the external environment. Consequently, their life cycle requires the presence of intermediate hosts. Doctor of Veterinary Sciences A. M. Petrov, who led the research, suggested, by analogy with other worms, that the larvae develop in terrestrial mollusks. The shellfish were infected with live larvae. The experience was a brilliant success.
The life cycles of these helminths are very similar. In the human body live sexually mature organisms reaching 6-8 or more meters in length. A huge number of eggs of these helminths are released from humans into the external environment.
Eggs, falling with grass into a cow or pig, continue their development there. The eggs hatch into larvae that penetrate the muscles and remain there. If a person eats such meat uncooked, he will become infected.
Meat culling in our country has been going on since the 80s of the last century. But, unfortunately, it often happens that infected organs are not destroyed. From here they can end up in human food, while some are eaten by various animals that feed near the slaughterhouse.
Thus, it turns out that these helminth infections do not disappear only because of insufficient organization, although they can be destroyed within two to three years.
If your hands are always clean, if you wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly, then there is very little chance of becoming infected, for example, with roundworm. Fans of barbecue and bloody steak need to remember that undercooked meat and fish products can be a source of infection.
If we eradicate ten helminths from humans and twenty from animals over the course of twenty to twenty-five years, and this is not a utopia, then I believe that a very large, very important economic, cultural and sanitary enterprise will be accomplished. To eradicate the most pathogenic helminths throughout the globe, a long period of time is needed, perhaps centuries, but we must start working now.
These works have long since become international. Since 1958, after an international helminthological conference held in Budapest, the Soviet Union was entrusted with leadership in the fight against echinococcosis, the Polish People's Republic - in trichinosis, and the Hungarian People's Republic - in the fight against fascioliasis. In these countries, international committees have been created and a lot of research work is being carried out.
Helminths belonging to geohelmiites develop without intermediate hosts, and animals can only play here the role of mechanical carriers or accumulators - reservoir hosts.
Representatives of the following systematic groups can exist at the expense of animals.
Roundworms include species pathogenic for humans such as roundworm, pinworm, whipworm, trichina and others. This also includes numerous plant pests.
Trichinella larva can long time found in the muscles of many mammals - rats, mice, pigs. If an infected animal is eaten, the calcareous shells are destroyed and the larvae penetrate the villi of the small intestine of the new host, where they reach sexual maturity.
Females give birth to live larvae, which penetrate the striated muscles through the lymphatic and circulatory systems. Here they curl and turn into muscular trichinella.
The remaining groups are of incomparably less importance.
Acanthocephalans have cylindrical body and a powerful trunk, seated with hooks bent back. With the help of this trunk, worms attach to the intestinal mucosa of vertebrates. The larvae live in the body of various insects.
Hairworm larvae live inside aquatic beetles - swimming beetles and water lovers, and adults - they are sometimes called “horsehair” - curled up into a ball and are often found in rivers. The legend that “horsehair” digs into the skin of bathing people is not based on anything. This is a completely safe group for humans.
Healthy lifestyle