Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or activity. Attention can be represented as a cognitive process that ensures the ordering of information coming from outside, depending on the primacy and importance of the tasks facing a person.

Already from the definition of attention it follows that it is characterized, on the one hand, by focusing on what the consciousness is occupied with, and on the other hand by the concentration of consciousness on something that requires special awareness.

There may be cases in every person’s life when it is better to do something with dispersed attention, and sometimes a person is required to clearly concentrate attention on some subject.

Attention, as the action of concentrating mental effort, is possible only in relation to conscious attention, when it is directed to an object under the influence of necessity and a set goal; this manifests selectivity of attention, when a stimulus is selected on which a person must concentrate.

Distributed attention is also necessary for a person if he must perform several actions simultaneously. Great difficulties in performing complex tasks decrease with constant attention training, and performing these tasks becomes habitual. A person achieves automaticity, i.e. automatic processing of information occurs, therefore less cognitive resources are required to complete these tasks.

Some believe that attention is a cognitive mental process. Others associate attention with the will and activity of a person, based on the fact that any activity, including cognitive, is impossible without attention, and attention itself requires the manifestation of certain volitional efforts.

the physiological basis of attention is the mechanism of interaction between the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the cerebral cortex. This interaction occurs, as you already know, on the basis of the law of induction of nervous processes established by I.P. Pavlov, according to which excitation processes arising in some areas of the cerebral cortex cause (induce) inhibitory processes in other areas of the brain. If a person focuses his attention on an object, this means that this object caused excitement in the corresponding part of the cerebral cortex, while the remaining parts of the cortex turned out to be inhibited, as a result of which the person does not notice anything except this object. Since first one or another object of reality causes excitement in the human brain, the impression arises that the excited focus in the cerebral cortex seems to move along it, which determines the switching of attention from one object to another.

I. P. Pavlov resorted to a figurative comparison in order to explain this phenomenon: “If it were possible to see through the skull cap and if the place of the cerebral hemispheres with optimal excitability shone, then we would see on a thinking conscious person both in his cerebral hemispheres a light spot constantly changing in shape and size of bizarrely irregular outline moves, surrounded throughout the rest of the space of the hemispheres by a more or less significant shadow” 1.

This “bright spot” corresponds to the optimal focus of excitation, and the “shadow” corresponds to areas that are in an inhibited state.

Note that Pavlov often used the expression “optimal focus (area) of excitation.” What does it mean?

The fact is that at any moment in the cortex there are usually several foci of excitation, and one of them is predominant, but not in the sense that it is the strongest, but in the sense that it is the most favorable (the word “optimal” means “ best”, “most favorable”) for the course of mental processes, for cognitive and creative activity. It creates the most favorable conditions for the formation of new temporary connections; it is associated with clear perception, clear work of thought, and productive memorization. Often the focus of optimal arousal is also the strongest focus of excitation, but this is not always the case. For example, the most intense focus of excitement, resulting from a nervous shock or an abundance of impressions, is by no means optimal.

So, the physiological basis of attention is the presence in the cortex of an area of ​​optimal excitation and inhibition of other areas (according to the law of induction of nervous processes). This creates conditions under which the influence of extraneous stimuli is eliminated or weakened, since their signals fall on inhibited areas of the cerebral cortex.

Sometimes, under the influence of a person’s pronounced sense of purpose, his strong life attitudes and exciting interests, a strong optimal excitation center arises in the cerebral cortex, called the dominant (from the Latin word “dominance” - dominant). This center of excitation dominates, dominates over all other centers of excitation, not only in the sense that it suppresses and inhibits them. The dominant focus is able to intensify at the expense of other, minor centers of excitation, as if “attracting” their process of excitation to itself. The dominant differs from the focus of optimal excitation by greater strength and, most importantly, increased stability, duration, and durability. It is known, for example, that the composer Beethoven, the inventor Edison, and the writer Balzac could go for days without sleep or food, captivated by the creative process. The presence of a dominant can also be observed in some adolescents or

46. ​​Based on a person’s activity in organizing attention, three types of attention are distinguished: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Involuntary attention. In the psychological literature, several synonyms are used to denote involuntary attention. In some studies it is called passive, in others - emotional. Both synonyms help to reveal the features of involuntary attention. When they talk about passive attention to an object, they emphasize the lack of effort on the part of a person aimed at focusing on the object. When involuntary attention is called emotional, they highlight the connection between the object of attention and the experiences, interests, and needs of the individual associated with this object.

So, involuntary attention is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to its characteristics as a stimulus. A stronger stimulus against the background of the active ones attracts a person’s attention.

When presenting educational material, the teacher can increase or slow down the pace of speech, change intonation and thereby cause involuntary attention to an important passage of material. Monotonous, inexpressive speech is incapable of attracting and maintaining attention from the outside. Expressive speech attracts attention with its form.

The novelty of the stimulus causes involuntary attention. A new brand of car that appears on the street, or the latest issue of a wall newspaper will always be noticed. The onset and cessation of a stimulus evokes attention. With this in mind, it is sometimes more beneficial to pause the story, to take a long pause in order to attract the attention of the students, than to do voluntary attention. Synonyms for the words voluntary attention are the words active and volitional. All terms emphasize that in focusing attention on an object, the initiative belongs to the subject.

Voluntary attention is a consciously regulated concentration on an object, directed by the requirements of activity. With voluntary attention, concentration occurs not only on what is emotionally pleasant, but more on what should be done. Therefore, the psychological content of voluntary attention is associated with setting the goal of activity and volitional effort. comments to them.

When engaging in work activity, a person, regardless of his attitude to work, has a goal that must be achieved. When a driver is driving a car, an accountant is counting columns of numbers, a scientist is thinking through the results of an experiment, none of them can be unfocused if he wants to get positive results.

Voluntary concentration on an object involves volitional effort, which maintains attention. Voluntary attention, as a personality property, cannot be formed independently of the personality itself. Therefore, when organizing attention, the teacher must take into account a number of conditions that facilitate voluntary concentration.

Focusing on mental activity is facilitated if practical action is included in cognition. For example, it is easier to maintain attention on the content of a scientific book when reading is accompanied by note-taking. Conditions that facilitate the maintenance of voluntary attention include features of the workplace environment. There should be no distractions in the room. For example, conversations between students during a lesson make it difficult for those who are actively working to concentrate. Voluntary attention is supported by a verbal reminder to oneself about the goals of the activity, during which it is necessary to be especially attentive.

An important condition for maintaining attention is a person’s mental state. It is very difficult for a tired person to concentrate.

Post-voluntary attention. The third type of attention is post-voluntary. The term itself suggests that this type of attention occurs after voluntary attention has been evoked. In post-voluntary attention, the volitional tension required when concentrating in voluntary attention is reduced. Post-voluntary attention is focusing on an object due to its value for the individual.

External and internal attention. Depending on whether the object of attention is in the external world or whether it is sensations, thoughts, and experiences of the individual, externally directed, perceptual, and internal attention are distinguished. The distinction between perceptual and internal attention is important in the management of attention ^\"allows us to understand some personality characteristics. Externally directed attention is included in the perceptual activity of the New Age and the regulation of objective activity. Internal attention is associated with the individual’s awareness of his activity, his inner world, with self-awareness. It has no place in the animal world, where there is no awareness of one’s mental life. External and internal attention inhibit each other; it is difficult to be simultaneously focused on external and internal phenomena. The objects of internal attention are feelings, memories, thoughts. Maintenance internal attention is facilitated by reduced external actions: moving the lips, pronouncing individual words, gesturing, involuntary drawing, etc. Internal attention contributes to modeling a future action and its consequences, and is a necessary condition for the development of consciousness and self-awareness.

Depending on the forms of educational activities organized by the teacher, collective, group and individual attention can be distinguished.

Collective attention is the concentration of all students on one subject.

Group attention - focusing attention in groups while working in a team.

Individual attention - focusing on your task.

The properties of attention - directionality, volume, distribution, concentration, intensity, stability and switchability - are associated with the structure of human activity.

Concentration (concentration)) - highlighting an object by consciousness and directing attention to it. The role of concentrated attention may vary.

Sustainability of attention- the length of time during which a person can maintain his attention on an object. It is especially needed in conditions of monotonous and monotonous work, when complex but similar actions are performed for a long time.

Attention span- this is the number of objects that a person can strictly simultaneously perceive during perception in connection with any one task. You can cover 3-7 objects at the same time, although the objects are different.

Distribution- this is the ability to simultaneously perform several actions. It depends on individual characteristics and professional skills. No one can do two things at the same time without knowing how to do each separately.

Switching- this is the movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the setting of a new task

Lack of attention, called absent-mindedness. First view absent-mindedness is a frequent involuntary distraction from the main activity. A person cannot concentrate on anything, is distracted all the time, even interesting activities are sometimes interrupted due to instability of attention. Such absent-mindedness is the result of poor upbringing. The second type of absent-mindedness- a consequence of a person’s excessive concentration on work, when he, apart from his work, does not notice anything and sometimes is not aware of the surrounding events. This type of absent-mindedness is observed in people who are passionate about work, overwhelmed by strong emotions - scientists, creative workers in the field of art.

L.S. tried to trace the history of the development of attention, as well as many other mental functions. Vygotsky in line with his cultural and historical concept of their formation. In his opinion, the history of a child’s attention is the history of the development of the organization of his behavior, and that the key to the genetic understanding of attention should be sought not inside, but outside the child’s personality.

Voluntary attention occurs when the people around the baby direct his attention, guide him, subordinate him and thus give the child the means with which he himself masters his attention in later life.

The cultural development of attention lies in the fact that, with the help of an adult, the baby assimilates a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), through which he further directs his own behavior and attention.

Age-related development of attentionThe process of age-related development of attention according to the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky was introduced by A.N. Leontyev. With age, the child’s attention improves, but the development of externally mediated attention proceeds much faster than its development as a whole, especially natural attention.

Speaking about the physiological mechanisms of active attention, it should be noted that the selection of significant influences is possible only against the background of general wakefulness of the body associated with active brain activity. Detection of levels of wakefulness is possible both by external signs and with the help of an electroencephalograph (EEG) device, which determines its electrical activity by weak currents in the brain. Typically, there are 5 stages of wakefulness: deep sleep, drowsy state, quiet wakefulness, active (alert) wakefulness, excessive wakefulness. Effective attention is possible only at the stage of active and quiet wakefulness, while at other stages the main characteristics of attention change and can only perform certain functions. For example, in a drowsy state, a reaction to only 1-2 of the most important stimuli is possible, while reactions to the rest are completely absent. Therefore, for example, a tired mother can sleep soundly in the presence of various noises, but wake up from the slight movement of the child in the crib. Activation of the brain is carried out by its nonspecific system, including the reticular formation, diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, hippocampus, etc. Thus, irritation of the ascending reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex (the phenomenon of desynchronization), increases the mobility of nervous processes, and reduces sensitivity thresholds, which is very similar to the general state of attention of the body.

Among the “trigger” mechanisms of the reticular formation, the orienting reflex should be noted first of all. It is an innate reaction of the body to any change in the environment in humans and animals. There was a rustling sound in the room, and the kitten perked up, became wary, as they say, pricked up its ears and fixed its eyes in the direction of the sound. During the lesson, all students write an essay with concentration. But then the door to the classroom opened slightly; Despite being absorbed in work, all the students and the teacher himself turned their heads towards the door. I.P. Pavlov very aptly called this reflex the “what is it?” reflex.

However, all of the above is clearly not enough to explain the selective nature of attention and, therefore, it is necessary to become more deeply familiar with the complex processes occurring in the body. Usually, there are two main groups of mechanisms that filter irritations from the environment: peripheral and central. Peripheral mechanisms include the adjustment of sensory organs. Listening to a faint sound, a person turns his head in the direction of the sound and, at the same time, the corresponding muscle stretches the eardrum, increasing its sensitivity. When the sound is very strong, the tension of the eardrum weakens, which impairs the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear. Stopping or holding your breath during moments of highest attention also contributes to the sharpening of hearing. According to D.E. Broadbent, attention is a filter that selects information precisely at the inputs, i.e. on the periphery. He found that if a person was presented with information simultaneously in both ears, but, according to the instructions, he was supposed to perceive it only with the left, then other information supplied to the right ear was completely ignored. It was later shown that peripheral mechanisms select information based on physical characteristics. W. Neisser called these mechanisms pre-attention, linking them with relatively rough information processing (selecting a figure from the background, monitoring sudden changes in the external field).

The central mechanisms of attention are associated with the excitation of some nerve centers and inhibition of others. The release of external stimuli and the course of processes in this direction are determined primarily by the strength of nervous excitations, which primarily depends on the strength of external stimulation. Stronger excitations suppress weak excitations that occur simultaneously with them and determine the course of mental activity in the appropriate direction. It is also possible, however, to merge the actions of two or more simultaneous stimuli that reinforce each other. This type of interaction of excitations is also one of the basis for the release of irritations and the flow of processes in a certain direction.

The law of induction of nervous processes established by Charles Sherrington and widely used by I.P. Pavlov, according to which excitation arising in one area of ​​the cerebral cortex causes inhibition in other areas (so-called simultaneous induction) is essential for understanding the physiological picture of the dynamics of attention. or is replaced by inhibition of a given area of ​​the brain (sequential induction). At the same time, this area is characterized by favorable optimal conditions for excitation, so differentiations are easily developed here, new conditioned connections are successfully formed, this is currently the “creative department of the cerebral hemispheres.” The activity of other parts of the brain at this time is associated with what is usually called unconscious, automatic human activity.

Excitation in the cerebral cortex is not fixed at one point, but constantly moves. Pavlov figuratively described this process as follows: “If it were possible to see through the skull cap and if the place of the cerebral hemispheres with optimal excitability shone, then we would see in a thinking, conscious person how a bizarre thing, constantly changing in shape and size, moves through his cerebral hemispheres. a bright spot of irregular shape, surrounded throughout the rest of the hemispheres by a more or less significant shadow” [I.P. Pavlov. Poly. collection Op. T. 3, book. 1. P. 248]. It is this “bright spot” that corresponds to our clearer awareness of what affects us and causes this increased arousal.

The principle of dominance put forward by Academician A.A. Ukhtomsky is also of great importance for elucidating the physiological basis of attention. The concept of “dominant” denotes a temporarily dominant focus of excitation, which determines the functioning of the nerve centers at a given moment and thereby gives behavior a certain direction. Thanks to the peculiarities of the dominant, impulses flowing into the nervous system are summed up and accumulated, while simultaneously suppressing the activity of other centers, due to which the focus of excitation is further intensified. Thanks to these properties, the dominant is a stable source of excitation, which, in turn, helps explain the neural mechanism of long-term intensity of attention. The basis for the emergence of a dominant focus is not only the strength of a given irritation, but also the internal state of the nervous system, determined by previous influences and nerve connections already established in previous experience.

Neither the law of induction of nervous processes nor the doctrine of dominance fully reveals the mechanisms of attention, especially its voluntary nature. Unlike animals, people purposefully control their attention. It is the setting and clarification of activity goals that evokes, supports and shifts attention. The mechanism of occurrence of the dominant focus of excitation can be explained through the interaction of the first and second signal systems, carried out by selective irradiation of excitation from the speech (second) signal system to the first. In turn, the initial stimuli, reflected in speech, help clarify the goal and strengthen the focus of optimal excitability.

Recently, researchers of the physiological mechanisms of attention have noted a major role in the dynamics of neurophysiological processes. In particular, it was found that in healthy people, under conditions of intense attention, changes in bioelectrical activity occur in the frontal lobes of the brain. This activity is associated with the work of a special type of neurons located in the frontal regions. The first type of neurons - “novelty detectors” - are activated by the action of new stimuli and reduce activity as they become accustomed to them. In contrast, “expectation” neurons are excited only when the body encounters an object that can satisfy an actual need. In fact, these cells encode information about various properties of objects and, depending on emerging needs, the body focuses on one or another aspect of them. So, a well-fed cat does not perceive the mouse as writing, but will be happy to play with it.

Thus, attention is determined by the activity of a whole system of hierarchically interdependent brain structures, but their role in the regulation of different types of attention is unequal.

The highest nervous and mental activity of a person is always characterized by a certain direction and selectivity. Attention- this is the direction and concentration of consciousness, suggesting an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual.

There are involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention.

Involuntary attention associated with the general orientation of the individual. It arises independently of a person’s conscious intentions, without any effort on his part. The basis of involuntary attention is an orienting reflex, i.e. a reflex to a new or unexpected stimulus. Involuntary attention ensures quick and correct orientation of a person in constantly changing environmental conditions, highlighting those objects that can have the greatest life meaning at the moment.

Voluntary attention arises when a person sets himself a certain task and consciously develops a program of action. Solving the assigned tasks requires volitional efforts from a person to enter into work and perform various actions in work. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes. Thanks to the presence of voluntary attention, a person is able to actively, selectively “extract” the information he needs from memory, highlight the main, essential, and make the right decisions.

Post-voluntary attention comes after the arbitrary one. Voluntary attention is so drawn into work that then, without volitional efforts, a person can work further (for example, take notes on a book). Post-voluntary attention is characterized by long-term high concentration; the greatest intensity and fruitfulness of educational and work activities are associated with it.

The physiological basis of attention is the processes of excitation and inhibition and the characteristics of their movement and interaction in the cerebral cortex. The direction of higher nervous and mental activity of a person is always associated with the excitation of some cortical areas and the inhibition of others according to the law of induction. Among the excited areas of the cortex, the one that currently has the greatest significance stands out; it begins to dominate all the others. This ensures the selectivity of our activity and monitors its progress, so we can keep our attention on any object for a long time.

Any selective activity of the brain is associated with a certain level of its activity, which in turn is set by a special brain apparatus, including the reticular formation and the frontal lobes of the brain.

Brain activation may be related to physiological needs (e.g., hunger) or environmental stimuli (e.g.,

Danger signal). Stimuli can influence brain activity in two ways: through the reticular formation and specific sensory areas of the cortex and frontal lobes. This mechanism of brain activation underlies involuntary attention.

Voluntary attention is associated with the activity of the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and the formation of a dominant in a certain center of the brain (dominance of the focus of excitation).

Both attention mechanisms also include the limbic system, which provides autonomic and emotional support for mental activity. For example, when listening to weak sound signals, we hold our breath; When there is a danger signal, a feeling of fear arises.

Development of attention

The organization of voluntary attention depends on the development of speech and the formation of a dominant, so in children under 6-7 years of age this attention is significantly more difficult. The mechanisms underlying involuntary attention mature faster.

The morphological and functional basis of voluntary attention are formed only by the age of 12-13, when areas of the frontal lobes mature morphologically and functionally.

In pedagogical work, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the physiological mechanisms of attention. In elementary grades, mobilization of students' attention is possible due to the activation of involuntary attention mechanisms. At the same time, it is necessary to gradually form the voluntary attention of children.

Voluntary attention, although it is associated with the activity of certain structures of the brain, is largely influenced by educational influences that are carried out already in the early stages of a child’s life, when the mother directs his attention by pointing to a particular object.

Visual information is of great importance to attract the attention of schoolchildren. During lessons it is necessary to use models, tables, demonstrate experiments, and conduct laboratory work.

The organization of voluntary attention of students on the basis of only speech instructions becomes possible only with the end of the formation of its physiological mechanisms, i.e. by the age of 12-13.

Qualities of attention

Attention is characterized by various qualitative manifestations, which are called qualities, or properties, of attention. These include: stability, switching, distribution and attention span. Different qualities of attention may not be related to each other.

Sustainability of attention- time characteristic. It is determined by the duration of intense attention and depends on the stability of the dominant focus of excitation. An indicator of sustainability is high productivity of activity over a relatively long period of time. The stability of attention is thus characterized by both the duration of its preservation and the degree of concentration during the entire given period.

The stability of attention depends on the characteristics of the objects to which it is directed and the activity of the individual.

One of the important conditions for long-term concentration of attention is the variability and mobility of objects. It is impossible to maintain attention on the same object for any length of time if it itself does not change or cannot be viewed from different angles. Anything uniform reduces attention. Increasing the complexity of an object also increases the stability of attention. Complex objects cause active mental activity, which is what determines the duration of concentration. However, such complexity must be optimal, otherwise fatigue and loss of attention may quickly occur. The stronger the interest in the activity, the longer and more intense the concentration. Attention can be extremely stable when a person realizes the significance of the work being performed. Therefore, the formation of stable cognitive interests is one of the important conditions for increasing the attentiveness of students in the classroom and the success of the educational process.

An important role in maintaining stable concentration is played by the activity of the individual, which can manifest itself externally in practical actions with objects, or can be associated with the formulation and solution of various tasks that involve examining objects from different angles, highlighting new properties and qualities in them, revealing their content. , establishing connections.

Sustainability of attention is closely related to dynamic characteristics. One of them is fluctuations in attention by which we mean periodic short-term involuntary changes in the intensity of attention (intensification or weakening). For example, listening to the very faint, barely audible ticking of a clock, we either notice the sound or stop hearing it. These shifts occur spasmodically, in short periods of time.

Subjectively, such minor, short-term fluctuations within the framework of stable concentration are often not noticed and do not significantly affect the effectiveness of many activities.

The stability of attention changes over long periods of work. Such shifts are considered stages of concentration:

■ initial entry into work;

■ achieving concentration and then its micro-oscillations, overcome through volitional efforts;

■ decreased concentration and performance with increased fatigue.

Such changes in the stability of attention are observed in students throughout the lesson: difficulty concentrating and insufficient stability of attention at the very beginning of the lesson, then the ability to concentrate for as long as possible and some weakening of attention towards the end of the lesson due to the onset of fatigue.

Switching attention manifests itself in the deliberate transition of the subject from one activity to another, from one object to another.

Switching can be caused by: “a program of conscious behavior, characteristics of activity (when moving from one object, one action to another within a certain activity);

■ the need to be included in new activities;

■ the need for rest (when previous work has already led to fatigue).

If activity remains unchanged for a long time and only a change of objects or operations occurs, then it is possible to switch attention while maintaining its stability. Such switching during prolonged work prevents fatigue and thereby increases the stability of attention, but it should not be too frequent.

The success of switching depends on a number of conditions, in particular, on the characteristics of previous and subsequent activities. Thus, the success of switching decreases significantly when moving from easy to difficult activities, from more interesting to less interesting. It is much more difficult to move on to a new activity if the previous one has not been completed. The success of switching also depends on how much attention was drawn to the previous activity: with deep concentration, switching is difficult to achieve. Of great importance is how important the new activity is for the individual and how clear its purpose is.

There are significant individual differences in attention shifting. Some people move quickly and easily from one activity to another, while for others it takes a long time and considerable effort. It is assumed that individual typological features are due to differences in the mobility of nervous processes. At the same time, it is possible to improve switching performance through exercise.

The educational process involves a change in types and forms of activity (change of subjects during the school day, stages of studying material in lessons), which necessitates a shift in the attention of students. Rational switching of attention is also important from the point of view of mental work hygiene, since it helps maintain performance.

Exists involuntary switching of attention from the main activity to objects that are not important for its successful implementation.

There are significant individual differences in “interference tolerance,” that is, an individual's ability to work with concentration in the presence of distracting stimuli. Presumably they are associated with the strength of nervous processes. For example, in individuals with strong nervous processes, when solving various kinds of intellectual tasks in conditions that seem to promote distraction, work efficiency may even increase slightly. With weak nervous processes, the same impact can lead to a deterioration in mental performance.

Distribution of attention - this is a property with which the possibility of simultaneous execution (combination) of two or more different types is associated.

ness (several actions). A high level of attention distribution is one of the prerequisites for the success of many modern types of work.

The distribution of attention in teaching activities is of great importance. A teacher explaining material in a lesson must monitor the content of his speech, control the logic, sequence of presentation and at the same time observe how students perceive the material. He needs to monitor the work of the entire class and each student individually, and react if students are distracted or violate discipline. When questioning students, you need to be able to listen to one student's response while keeping the entire class in view. The ability to distribute attention is largely determined by the professional training of the teacher, good knowledge of the subject being taught, the perfection of the lesson plan, etc.

The more complex the combined activities or tasks to be solved, the more difficult it is to distribute attention. If the activity becomes very complex, then performing it simultaneously with another is almost impossible. It is quite difficult to combine two types of mental activity. Distribution of attention is more effective when combining motor and mental activity. The productivity of mental activity may decrease to a greater extent than motor activity. In all cases, the main condition for successful distribution of attention is the automation of at least one of the simultaneously carried out activities.

The ability to distribute attention is formed in the process of mastering an activity; it can be developed through exercises and the accumulation of relevant skills.

Attention span determined by the number of simultaneously clearly perceived objects. It has been established that when perceiving many simple objects (letters, numbers, figures, etc.) in a time of 0.07-0.1 s, the attention span of an adult is 5-7 elements. The amount of attention depends on the characteristics of perceived objects. For example, words up to 14 letters are easily perceived. At the same time, perceiving the object as a whole, a person may not notice errors in it.

The attention span of younger schoolchildren is very limited. The main condition for its expansion is the formation of the ability to group, systematize, and combine perceived material according to its meaning.

The boundaries between volume, distribution and switching of attention are almost elusive; they are sides of a single act. In work activities that require quick and coordinated actions, switching can turn into distribution, and the act of distribution can be supplemented and replaced by a quick switching of attention.

Attention disorders

One of the attention disorders is absent-mindedness, which may manifest itself in the inability to concentrate for long periods of time and in being easily and frequently distracted. Absent-mindedness is one of the reasons for decreased performance and disorganized behavior.

The causes of absent-mindedness are manifold. As a stable personality trait, absent-mindedness is an indicator of weakness of voluntary attention and can be the result of improper upbringing (spoiled child, impunity, habit of a variety of impressions, etc.). You can fight such absent-mindedness through the formation of strong-willed personality traits. Constant absent-mindedness can be explained by poor health or a general disorder of the child’s nervous system. Absent-mindedness can also be temporary - as a result of excessive emotional arousal or overwork. In the latter case, it more often appears at the end of the school day and week.

They also talk about absent-mindedness in cases when a person, being deep in work, absorbed in his thoughts and experiences, does not see or hear anything except what he is doing. He does not notice his surroundings and does not react, for example, to questions addressed to him. Such absent-mindedness is caused by pronounced selectivity of attention, its exceptional concentration and intensity. Excessively high concentration on one object can lead to difficulty distributing and switching attention. In everyday life, in practical activities, such absent-mindedness complicates a person’s relationship with the outside world, therefore it is considered as a lack of attention.

In school life, absent-mindedness manifests itself in the so-called errors “not according to the rules” (omission of letters and words when copying, replacing symbols in mathematical calculations, etc.), in the lack of necessary school supplies discovered during the lesson by the student (the necessary notebook was forgotten, wrong textbook, etc.), insufficient involvement of the student in the course of the lesson, etc. In children, especially of primary school age, absent-mindedness is quite common.

In addition to absent-mindedness, there are other attention disorders. These include excessive mobility of attention, that is, a constant transition from one object and type of activity to another, or, conversely, inertia, low mobility of attention, pathological fixation on a limited range of ideas and thoughts. Such disturbances of attention are observed in some organic diseases of the brain, primarily its frontal lobes.

Psychologically based consideration of the qualities of attention, as well as its possible disorders and impairments, is a necessary condition for the correct organization of the cognitive process.

CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. At what age is voluntary attention formed, what is its significance?

2. What forms of memory are distinguished?

3. How can you improve your memory?

4. What are emotions, what is their physiological basis?

5. What is attention?

6. What are the main properties of attention?

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Physiological basis of attention

The primary fact in which attention is expressed is that certain moments, as if coming to the fore, acquire dominant, dominant significance for the flow of mental processes. The physiological basis of attention, in accordance with this, is the nature of the processes in the nervous system, which received its most detailed expression in the principle of dominance Ukhtomsky. 153 To designate this phenomenon, Pavlov speaks of the center of optimal excitability.

“In the higher levels and in the cerebral cortex, the principle of dominance,” writes Ukhtomsky, “is the physiological basis of the act of attention and objective thinking.”

Previous attempts to explain attention, which dominated the psychological literature, can be, according to Dürr's classification, divided into path-finding theories (Ebbinghaus), theories braking, or delays(Wundt), and theories support(Muller).

The principle of dominance, according to Ukhtomsky, is “the general working principle of nerve centers.” Ukhtomsky uses the term “dominant” to mean “the dominant focus of excitation.” In the normal activity of the central nervous system, its current variable tasks in a constantly changing environment cause in it variable “dominant centers of excitation.” These centers of excitation, attracting newly emerging waves of excitation and inhibiting other neutral areas, can significantly diversify the work of the centers. “The external expression of the dominant is the stationary supported work or working posture of the body.” In this case, the dominant is not a topographically single point of excitation in the central nervous system, but a certain constellation of centers with increased excitability in various floors of the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the autonomic system. It therefore manifests itself in a whole complex of symptoms throughout the body - in the muscles, in secretory work, and in vascular activity. In the presence of dominant excitation, side, subdominant, irritations can reinforce the dominant, because the influence of the dominant is expressed primarily in the desire of emerging excitations to be directed to the dominant center of excitation, strengthen its excited state and switch to the associated outflow path ( dominant reinforcement rule). But this relationship between the dominant and subdominants is not constant. If it were such, once the established dominant would remain unchanged. Meanwhile, the dominant moves from one constellation of centers to another. The focus of excitation that has been dominant for some time becomes subdominant, and as a result of the struggle between the subdominant and the dominant, a new focus acquires dominant significance. Each change of dominant entails a change of attitudes, which are an external expression of the change of dominant processes in the higher levels of the central nervous system. Psychologically, a change in dominance is revealed in a switch of attention. Psychological studies have shown that a variety of weak stimuli during the process of attention contribute to its concentration. Ukhtomsky refers to these psychological data in support of his principle of dominance and its relationship to subdominants. In particular, Maiman experimentally established that the process of intellectual work proceeds more effectively in a normal environment than in absolute, deathly silence. Some additional irritations that break monotony increase the overall tone of the body; not too strong additional irritations strengthen the main ones, which switch them to their paths. Everyday experience convinces us of this pedagogically extremely important position for the rational organization of work.

Pavlov's doctrine of the centers of optimal excitability and Ukhtomsky's doctrine of the dominant provide reference points for clarifying the physiological substrate of attention.

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Physiological basis of attention

The physiological basis of attention is the mechanisms by which we direct attention to objects of interest to us. The simplest such mechanism is the physical reorientation of our sensory sensors towards these objects:

In the case of vision, this means moving your gaze so that the object of interest falls on the most

sensitive area of ​​the retina;

In the case of hearing, this is turning the head to face the source of sound, for a more complete and high-quality perception of this sound, or bringing one ear closer to a nearby sound source;

In the case of touch, this is touching with the hand some other object that interests us;

In the case of smell, this is the active drawing in of air (sniffing);

In the case of taste, this is a “test for the teeth”.

Another type of mechanism is the peculiarities of the functioning of the brain, the activation of certain areas when the object of attention changes. Research has suggested that the brain has two separate systems that select input signals:

A system associated with object localization and which is responsible for choosing one location among all others, as well as for switching from one location to another (this is the so-called posterior system, because the brain structures that form it - part of the parietal cortex and some subcortical structures - are located in back of the brain;

The system associated with the internal properties of an object (for example, shape and color) is the anterior system, which includes anterior structures: the anterior cingulum and some subcortical centers.

It is shown that the object of attention is selected either by its location or by its internal property. And the algorithms for such a choice are implemented in completely different parts of the brain.

Once the object of attention is selected, other interesting things happen. If, for example, attention to a particular object was selected on the basis of “color,” then the areas of the visual cortex that process color are activated. In general, areas of the brain related to the properties to which attention is directed increase their activity.

Attention, like any mental process, has a physiological expression. In general, the physiological basis for the release of individual stimuli and the flow of processes in a certain direction is the excitation of some nerve centers and the inhibition of others. The stimulus causes activation of the brain. Activation of the brain is carried out primarily by the reticular formation. Irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex, increases the mobility of nervous processes, and reduces sensitivity thresholds. In addition, the diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, etc. are involved in brain activation.

According to the law of induction of nervous processes, established by C. Sherrington, excitation that occurs in one area of ​​the cerebral cortex causes inhibition in other areas (the so-called simultaneous induction) or is replaced by inhibition in a given area of ​​the brain (sequential induction). The area of ​​the cerebral cortex in which the phenomenon of irradiation occurs is characterized by optimal conditions for excitation, so differentiation is easily developed here and new conditioned connections are successfully formed. The activity of other parts of the brain at this time is associated with what is usually called unconscious, automatic human activity.