1. The concept of biogeocenosis and biogeocenology

In his everyday life, a person constantly has to deal with specific areas of the natural complexes surrounding him: areas of fields, meadows, swamps, and reservoirs. Any area of ​​the earth's surface, or natural complex, should be considered as a certain natural unity, where all vegetation, fauna and microorganisms, soil and atmosphere are closely interconnected and interact with each other. This relationship must be taken into account in any economic use of natural resources (plant, animal, soil, etc.).

Natural complexes in which vegetation has fully formed, and which can exist on their own, without human intervention, and if a person or something else disturbs them, they will be restored, and according to certain laws. Such natural complexes are biogeocenoses.

The most complex and important natural biogeocenoses are forests. In no natural complex, no type of vegetation are these relationships expressed so sharply and so multifacetedly as in a forest.

Forest represents the most powerful “film of life.” Forests play a dominant role in the composition of the Earth's vegetation cover. They cover almost a third of the planet’s land area – 3.9 billion hectares. If we consider that deserts, semi-deserts and tundras occupy about 3.8 billion hectares, and more than 1 billion hectares are waste, built-up and other unproductive lands, then it becomes obvious how great the importance of forests is in the formation of natural complexes and the functions they perform living matter on Earth. The mass of organic matter concentrated in forests is 1017–1018 tons, which is 5–10 times greater than the mass of all herbaceous vegetation.

That is why special importance was and is given to biogeocenological studies of forest systems and the term “biogeocenosis” was proposed by Academician V.N. Sukachev in the late 30s. 20th century in relation to forest ecosystems. But it is valid in relation to any natural ecosystem in any geographical region of the Earth.

Definition of biogeocenosis according to V.N. Sukachev (1964: 23) considered classic - “... this is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena over a certain extent of the earth’s surface (atmosphere, rock, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions), which has a special specificity of the interactions of these components that make it up and a certain type of metabolism and energy: among themselves and with other natural phenomena and representing an internal contradictory unity, in constant movement and development...”

This definition reflects all the essence of biogeocenosis, features and characteristics inherent only to it:

the biogeocenosis must be homogeneous in all respects: living and inanimate matter: vegetation, fauna, soil population, relief, parent rock, soil properties, depth and groundwater regimes;

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by the presence of a special, unique type of metabolism and energy,

All components of biogeocenosis are characterized by the unity of life and its environment, i.e. the features and patterns of life activity of a biogeocenosis are determined by its habitat, thus, biogeocenosis is a geographical concept.

In addition, each specific biogeocenosis must:

Be homogeneous in its history;

Be a fairly long-term established education;

Clearly differ in vegetation from neighboring biogeocenoses, and these differences must be natural and environmentally explainable.

Examples of biogeocenoses:

Mixed oak forest at the foot of the deluvial slope of southern exposure on mountain brown-forest medium-loamy soil;

Grass meadow in a hollow on loamy peaty soils,

A mixed-grass meadow on a high river floodplain on a floodplain soddy-gleyish medium loamy soil,

Larch lichen on Al-Fe-humus-podzolic soils,

Mixed broad-leaved forest with liana vegetation on the northern slope on brown forest soils, etc.

A simpler definition:“Biogeocenosis is the entire set of species and the entire set of components of inanimate nature that determine the existence of a given ecosystem, taking into account the inevitable anthropogenic impact.” The latest addition, taking into account the inevitable anthropogenic impact, is a tribute to modernity. During the time of V.N. Sukachev there was no need to classify the anthropogenic factor as the main environment-forming factor, as it is now.

The field of knowledge about biogeocenoses is called biogeocenology. To control natural processes, you need to know the laws to which they are subject. These patterns are studied by a number of sciences: meteorology, climatology, geology, soil science, hydrology, various departments of botany and zoology, microbiology, etc. Biogeocenology generalizes, synthesizes the results of the listed sciences from a certain angle, paying primary attention to the interactions of the components of biogeocenoses with each other and revealing general patterns governing these interactions.

The object of study of biogeocenology is biogeocenosis.

The subject of study of biogeocenology is the interaction of the components of biogeocenoses with each other and the general laws governing these interactions.

2. Component composition of biogeocenoses

The components of biogeocenosis not only exist side by side, but actively interact with each other. The main and obligatory components are biocenosis and ecotope.

Biocenosis, or biological community, is a set of three components living together: vegetation (phytocenosis), animals (zoocenosis) and microorganisms (microbocenosis).

Each component is represented by many individuals of different species. The role of all components: plants, animals and microorganisms in the biocenosis is different.

Thus, plants form a relatively constant structure of the biocenosis due to their immobility, while animals cannot serve as the structural basis of the community. Microorganisms, although most are not attached to the substrate, move at low speed; water and air transport them passively over considerable distances.

Animals depend on plants because they cannot build organic matter from inorganic matter. Some microorganisms (both all green and a number of non-green ones) are autonomous in this regard, since they are capable of constructing organic matter from inorganic matter using the energy of sunlight or the energy released during chemical oxidation reactions.

Microorganisms (microbes, bacteria, protozoa) play a large role in the decomposition of dead organic substances into mineral ones, i.e., in a process without which the normal existence of biocenoses would be impossible. Soil microorganisms can play a significant role in the structure of terrestrial biocenoses.

The differences (biomorphological, ecological, functional, etc.) in the characteristics of the organisms that make up these three groups are so great that the methods for studying them differ markedly. Therefore, the existence of three branches of knowledge - phytocenology, zoocenology and microcoenology, which study phytocenoses, zoocenoses and microbiocenoses, respectively, is quite legitimate.

Ecotop– a place of life or habitat of a biocenosis, a kind of “geographical” space. It is formed on one side by soil with a characteristic subsoil, with forest litter, as well as with one or another amount of humus (humus); on the other, an atmosphere with a certain amount of solar radiation, with a certain amount of free moisture, with a characteristic content of carbon dioxide, various impurities, aerosols, etc. in the air; in aquatic biogeocenoses, instead of the atmosphere, there is water. The role of the environment in the evolution and existence of organisms is beyond doubt. Its individual parts (air, water, etc.) and factors (temperature, solar radiation, altitudinal gradients, etc.) are called abiotic, or nonliving, components, in contrast to biotic components, represented by living matter. V.N. Sukachev did not classify physical factors as components, but other authors do (Fig. 5).

Biotope- this is an ecotope transformed by the biocenosis for “itself”. Biocenosis and biotope function in continuous unity. The dimensions of a biocenosis always coincide with the boundaries of the biotope, and therefore with the boundaries of the biogeocenosis as a whole.

Of all the components of a biotope, soil is closest to the biogenic component of the biogeocenosis, since its origin is directly related to living matter. Organic matter in the soil is a product of the vital activity of the biocenosis at different stages of transformation.

The community of organisms is limited by the biotope (in the case of oysters, by the boundaries of the shallows) from the very beginning of its existence.

Living organisms, mutually complementing and ensuring each other’s vital functions, form sustainable communities, and in combination with the habitat - a sustainable system, which is called ecosystem 1 (oikos - dwelling, place of residence).
Ocean, sea, river, tundra, taiga, desert, forest, puddle, rotten tree - all these are ecosystems.
As a complex, all the Earth's ecosystems form a single global ecosystem - biosphere 2 (bios - life and sphaira - ball).
Ecosystems were formed in the process of long evolution. This is a complex and stable natural mechanism, capable of resisting environmental and population changes through self-regulation.
In the process of evolution, a wide variety of species has formed in natural ecosystems. Structural unit of the type - population 3 (populus - population)- maintains a certain number and space, and also reproduces itself over many generations.
Ecosystem is a very broad concept and applies to both natural (for example, tundra, ocean) and artificial complexes (for example, an aquarium). Therefore, to designate an elementary natural ecosystem, ecologists also use the term “biogeocenosis 4”.
Biogeocenosis - a historically established set of living organisms (biocenosis 5) and the abiotic environment, together with the area of ​​the earth’s surface (biotope) they occupy. The border of the biogeocenosis is established along the border of the plant community (phytocenosis) - the most important component of the biogeocenosis.

2.Biocenosis

Biocenosis- a complex natural system. The entire complex of species living together and associated with each other is called a biocenosis. (“bios” - life, “tsenos” - community).
In nature, biocenoses come in different sizes. We can distinguish the biocenosis of a moss hummock, a decaying stump, meadows, swamps, and forests. We can create a man-made biocenosis - an aquarium, terrarium, greenhouse, greenhouse. In all cases, we identify a community of organisms in which species living together are adapted to a certain set of abiotic conditions and maintain their existence through connections with each other.
Any biocenosis is a complex natural system that is maintained through connections between species and has a complex internal structure.

Biocenosis structure

In addition to the diversity of species composition, biogeocenoses are characterized by a complex structure. Let's consider the biocenosis of a deciduous forest. Plants in the forest differ in the height of their above-ground parts. In this regard, several “floors” or tiers are distinguished in plant communities.
- arboreal - constitute the most light-loving species - oak, linden.
includes less light-loving and shorter trees - pear, maple, apple tree.
consists of bushes - hazel, euonymus and etc.
- grassy.
Plant roots are distributed in the same “floors” in the soil. Layering allows plants to better use sunlight and mineral reserves of the soil.

Biogeocenosis is a concept that combines three principles: “bios” (life), “geo” (earth) and “koinos” (general). Based on this, the word “biogeocoenosis” refers to a specific developing system in which living organisms and inanimate objects constantly interact. They are links in the same food chain and are united by the same energy flows. This concerns, first of all, the place of contact between living and inanimate nature. For the first time V.N. spoke about biogeocenosis. Sukachev, famous Soviet scientist and thinker. In 1940, he deciphered this concept in one of his articles, and this term began to be widely used in Russian science.

Biogeocenosis and ecosystem

The concept of “biogeocenosis” is a term that is used only by Russian scientists and their colleagues from the CIS countries. In the West, there is an analogue of the term, authored by the English botanist A. Tansley. He introduced the word “ecosystem” into scientific use in 1935, and by the early 1940s it had already become generally accepted and discussed. At the same time, the concept of “ecosystem” has a broader meaning than “biogeocenosis”. To some extent, we can say that biogeocenosis is a class of ecosystem. So what is an ecosystem? This is the connection of all types of organisms and their habitat into one single system, which is in balance and harmony, lives and develops according to its own laws and principles. At the same time, an ecosystem, unlike a biogeocenosis, is not limited to a piece of land. Therefore, biogeocenosis is part of the ecosystem, but not vice versa. An ecosystem can contain several types of biogeocenosis at once. Let’s say that the ecosystem of the belt includes the biogeocenosis of the continent and the biogeocenosis of the ocean.

Structure of biogeocenosis

The structure of biogeocenosis is a very broad concept that lacks certain indicators. This is explained by the fact that it is based on a variety of organisms, populations, and objects of the surrounding world, which can be divided into biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (environment) components.

The abiotic part also consists of several groups:

• inorganic compounds and substances (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide);
• organic compounds that serve as food for organisms of the biotic group;
• climate and microclimate, which determines the living conditions for all systems that are located in it.

c) V. Dokuchaev;

d) K. Timiryazev;

e) K. Moebius.

(Answer: b.)

2. The scientist who introduced the concept of “ecosystem” into science:

a) A. Tansley;

b) V. Dokuchaev;

c) K. Mobius;

d) V. Johansen.

(Answer: A . )

3. Fill in the blanks with the names of functional groups of the ecosystem and kingdoms of living beings.

Organisms that consume organic matter and transform it into new forms are called. They are represented mainly by species belonging to the world. Organisms that consume organic matter and completely decompose it into mineral compounds are called. They are represented by species belonging to ki. Organisms that consume mineral compounds and, using external energy, synthesize organic substances are called. They are represented mainly by species belonging to the world.

(Answers(sequentially): consumers, animals, decomposers, fungi and bacteria, producers, plants.)

4. All living things on Earth exist thanks to organic matter, mainly produced by:

a) mushrooms;

b) bacteria;

c) animals;

d) plants.

(Answer: G.)

5. Fill in the missing words.

A community of organisms of different species, closely interconnected and inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area, is called. It consists of: plants, animals. A set of organisms and components of inanimate nature, united by the cycle of substances and the flow of energy into a single natural complex, is called, or.

(Answers(sequentially): biocenosis, fungi and bacteria, ecosystem, or biogeocenosis.)

6. Of the listed organisms, producers include:

a) cow;

b) porcini mushroom;

c) red clover;

d) person.

(Answer: c.)

7. Select from the list the names of animals that can be classified as second-order consumers: gray rat, elephant, tiger, dysenteric amoeba, scorpion, spider, wolf, rabbit, mouse, locust, hawk, guinea pig, crocodile, goose, fox, perch , antelope, cobra, steppe turtle, grape snail, dolphin, Colorado potato beetle, bull tapeworm, kangaroo, ladybug, polar bear, honey bee, blood-sucking mosquito, dragonfly, codling moth, aphid, gray shark.

(Answer: gray rat, tiger, dysentery amoeba, scorpion, spider, wolf, hawk, crocodile, fox, perch, cobra, dolphin, bull tapeworm, ladybug, polar bear, blood-sucking mosquito, dragonfly, gray shark.)

8. From the listed names of organisms, select producers, consumers and decomposers: bear, bull, oak, squirrel, boletus, rose hip, mackerel, toad, tapeworm, putrefactive bacteria, baobab, cabbage, cactus, penicillium, yeast.

(Answer: producers - oak, rose hips, baobab, cabbage, cactus; consumers - bear, bull, squirrel, mackerel, toad, tapeworm; decomposers - boletus, putrefactive bacteria, penicillium, yeast.)

9. In an ecosystem, the main flow of matter and energy is transmitted:

(Answer: V . )

10. Explain why the existence of life on Earth would be impossible without bacteria and fungi.

(Answer: Fungi and bacteria are the main decomposers in Earth's ecosystems. They decompose dead organic matter into inorganic matter, which is then consumed by green plants. Thus, fungi and bacteria support the cycle of elements in nature, and therefore life itself.)

11. Explain why it is economically profitable to keep herbivorous fish in cooling ponds at thermal power plants.

(Answer: These ponds are heavily overgrown with aquatic vegetation, as a result, the water in them stagnates, which disrupts the cooling of waste water. The fish eat all the vegetation and grow well.)

12. Name organisms that are producers, but do not belong to the Plant Kingdom.

(Answer: photosynthetic flagellated protozoa (for example, green euglena), chemosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria.

13. Organisms that are not absolutely necessary in maintaining a closed cycle of nutrients (nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, etc.):

a) producers;

b) consumers;

c) decomposers.

1. Definition of ecology. Subject, tasks and objects of studying ecology.Ecology(from the Greek “oikos” - house, dwelling and “logos” - teaching) is a science that studies the conditions of existence of living organisms and the relationship between organisms and the environment in which they live. The subject of ecology is a collection or structure of connections between organisms and the environment. Ecological tasks: study of the relationship of organisms and their populations with the environment, study of the effect of the environment on the structure, vital activity and behavior of the organism, establishing the relationship between the environment and the size of populations. Objects of study- ecosystems, i.e. unified natural complexes formed by living organisms and habitats; individual types of organisms (organismal level) and their populations, i.e. a set of individuals of one species (population-species) and the biosphere as a whole (biosphere level)

2. Brief history of development. The role of A. Humboldt, J. Lamarck, C. Linnaeus, C. F. Roulier, C. Darwin, E. Haeckel, A. Tensley, V. V. Dokuchaev, V. I. Vernadsky in the formation of ecology. Brief history of development: 1) (until the 60s of the 19th century) the origin and formation of ecology as a science; 2) (after the 60s of the 19th century) the formation of ecology into an independent branch of knowledge; 3) (50s of the XX century - to the present) transformation of ecology into a complex science, incl. Includes the science of conservation. natural and surrounding environment. A.Humboldt(1769-1859) - laid the foundations of biogeography. J. Lamarck– “Philosophy of Zoology” - the theory of the evolution of the living world C. Linnaeus– created a taxonomic system of animals and plants. C.F. Roulier– laid the foundations of animal ecology.

Charles Darwin- a book about the origin of species through natural selection.

E. Haeckel– suggested the term “ecology”.

A. Tansley– introduced the concept of ecosystem.

V.V.Dokuchaev– the term “biocenosis”.

V.I.Vernadsky- created the doctrine of the biosphere.

3. Prominent environmental scientists of the 20th century: V.N. Sukachev, G. Odum, Y. Odum, N.F. Reimers, B. Nebel, B. Commoner and others.Development of ecology in Kazakhstan. V.N.Sukachev- introduced the concept of “biogeocenosis” into science. Yu.Odum- author of the classic work “Ecology”, N.F.Reimers- dictionary-reference book “Nature Management”, “Popular Biological Dictionary”, monograph “Hope for the Survival of Humanity. Conceptual ecology". B. Nebel- Environmental Science. How the world works. B.Commoner- author of the Laws of Ecology. Development of ecology in Kazakhstan. The concept of sustainable environmental development in Kazakhstan was adopted on May 14, 2007. Turn on includes: development of the ecological environment; achieving sustainable economic growth; rational use of energy resources (oil, gas, coal) for the growth of the republic’s ecology.

4. Basic concepts (terms) of ecology: biosphere, ecosystems, biogeocenoses, populations, communities, environmental factors

Biosphere(Greek “bios” - life “sphaira” - ball, sphere) – complex. external the shell of the Earth inhabited by organisms that together constitute the living matter of the planet.

Ecosystem(from the Greek oikos - dwelling, residence and system) - a natural complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, interconnected by metabolism and energy. Biogeocenoses- (Greek “bio”, “ge” - earth, “koinos” - general) a territorially (or aquatorially) unified system of living (animals, plants, microorganisms) and nonliving components that are interconnected by metabolism and energy. Populations- a collection of individuals of the same species, population. def. territory. Communities– the totality of co-living organisms is different. species. Environmental factors– defined. conditions and elements of the environment, cat. it turns out specific effect on the body. Abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic.

5.Ecological methods. 1) Ecosystem- paying attention to the phenomenon. flow of energy and circulation of substances between biotic. iabiotic componentpami. 2)Method of studying communities– identification and description of species, study of factors limiting distribution. 3) Population– uses mathematical models of growth, self-maintenance and population decline of certain species. 4) Evolutionary, historical– study of changes associated with the development of life on earth.

6. Subject, tasks and structure of general ecology. Eco item:– study of the relationship between man and nature. Tasks:·Study of anthropogenic changes in the environment. ·Developing methods for preserving and improving this environment in the interests of humanity. ·Forecasting environmental changes. situations in the future and on this basis, development of activities in the directions. to preserve and improve the human environment; to prevent it. changes in the biosphere. Autoecology– research individual connections of an individual organism (species, individuals) with the environment. Population e. (demoecology) – studies the structures and dynamics of populations separately. Considered as a specialist. section of autecology. Synecology(biocenology) - studies the relationship between populations, communities and ecosystems with the environment.

7. Levels of biological organization of living matter. Molecular- vital processes occur at this level (metabolism, nutrition, breathing, irritability, etc.). Subcellular. Cellular- Molecules combine into cells, and only then do they form substances necessary for the functioning of organs and organisms. Fabric a collection of cells with the same level of organization forms living tissue. Organ - At this level, systems of different organs are studied: shoot and generative systems in plants, respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems in animals. Organismal the first, the lowest level studied by general ecology. In the body, the interaction of organ systems is reduced to a single system of the individual organism. It can exist on its own! Life does not manifest itself outside of organisms. At this level, the life cycles of individual individuals, the laws of the formation of phenotypes and genotypes are studied. Population-species- a collection of individuals of the same species. Biocenotic - A collection of individuals of different species occupying a certain territory. Biosphere the highest, the relationship between macroecosystems, biogeocenoses (forest-steppe, forest-swamp, forest-tundra, etc.) is considered, the law of the cycle of substances and energy is studied in a global aspect.

8. Systems of the organismic and supraorganismal levels - organisms, populations, ecosystems, biosphere - as objects of ecological study. The organism is considered as an integral system that interacts with the external environment, both biotic and abiotic. Population. It is defined as a group of organisms of the same species (within which individuals can exchange genetic information), occupying a specific space and functioning as part of a biotic community. A population is a collection of individuals of the same species living in a certain territory, freely interbreeding and partially or completely isolated from other populations. Ecosystems- unified natural complexes formed by living organisms and their habitat, interconnected by the metabolism of matter and energy. The main subject of research in the ecosystem approach in ecology is the processes of transformation of matter and energy between the biota and the physical environment, i.e. the emerging biogeochemical cycle of substances in the ecosystem as a whole.

9. Issues and problems considered by general ecology. Sections of general ecology. General ecology (4 main sections): 1) Bioecology consists of the ecologies of natural biological systems: individuals, species (autoecology), populations and communities (synecology) and the ecology of biocenoses. 2) Geoecology studied biosphere shells of the Earth, including the underground hydrosphere, as components of the environment, the mineral basis of the biosphere and the changes occurring in them under the influence of natural and man-made processes. Turn on includes the study of landscapes, soils, surface and underground waters, rocks, air, and vegetation. 3) Human ecology- a set of disciplines that study the interaction of a person as a biological individual (human bioecology) and an individual with the natural, social and cultural environment around him. People's health is related to the environmental situation and lifestyle (medical ecology); a person is influenced by the environment of morality, views, traditions and subtle spirituality (ecology of the spirit). 4) Applied ecology is represented by a complex of disciplines related to various areas of human activity and the relationship between man and nature. It studies the mechanisms of technogenic and anthropogenic impacts on ecosystems, forms environmental criteria and standards in industry, transport and agriculture (ecology of natural-technical geosystems (NTGS) and agricultural ecology). For all directions main. yavl. the study of the survival of living beings in the surrounding environment. Studying general patterns of relationships between any living organisms and the environment (including humans as biological entities).

10. The meaning of the universal property of living nature systems - emergence. Emergence– the presence of special properties in a systemic whole that are not inherent in its subsystems and blocks, as well as in the sum of other elements not united by system-forming connections.

11. The doctrine of the biosphere- Biosphere, according to the teachings of Academician V.I. Vernadsky, is the outer shell of the Earth, including all living matter and the area of ​​its distribution (habitat). The upper limit of the biosphere is the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, above which life is impossible due to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The lower boundary of the biosphere is: lithosphere to a depth of 3-5 km and hydrosphere to a depth of 11-12 km

The most important components of the biosphere are:

Living matter (plants, animals, microorganisms);

Biogenic substance of organic origin (coal, peat, soil humus, oil, chalk, limestone, etc.); inert matter (rocks of inorganic origin);

Bioinert substance (products of decay and processing of rocks by living organisms).

The biosphere as a global ecosystem is characterized by the greatest diversity among other systems. The latter is due to many reasons and factors. These are different living environments (aquatic, ground-air, soil, organism);

12. Living matter is the entire set of bodies of living organisms in the biosphere, regardless of their systematic affiliation. The term was introduced by V. I. Vernadsky. The composition of living matter includes both organic (in the chemical sense) and inorganic, or mineral, substances . Vernadsky wrote: The idea that the phenomena of life can be explained by the existence of complex carbon compounds - living proteins, has been irrevocably refuted by the totality of empirical facts of geochemistry... Living matter is the totality of all organisms.

The mass of living matter is relatively small and is estimated at 2.4-3.6 × 1012 tons (in dry weight) and is less than 10−6 of the mass of other shells of the Earth. But it is “one of the most powerful geochemical forces on our planet.”

Living matter develops where life can exist, that is, at the intersection of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. In conditions unfavorable for existence, living matter goes into a state of suspended animation.

A distinctive feature of living matter is that the individual chemical compounds that make it up - proteins, enzymes, etc. - are stable only in living organisms (to a large extent, this is also characteristic of the mineral compounds that make up living matter). Living matter is in continuous chemical exchange with the cosmic environment surrounding it, and is created and maintained on our planet by the radiant energy of the Sun.

There are five main functions of living matter:

Energy. It consists in the absorption of solar energy during photosynthesis, and chemical energy through the decomposition of energy-saturated substances and the transfer of energy through the food chain of heterogeneous living matter.

Concentration. Selective accumulation of certain types of substances during life. There are two types of concentrations of chemical elements in living matter: a) a massive increase in the concentrations of elements in an environment saturated with these elements, for example, there is a lot of sulfur and iron in living matter in areas of volcanism; b) a specific concentration of a particular element, regardless of the environment.

Destructive. It consists of the mineralization of nonbiogenic organic matter, the decomposition of nonliving inorganic matter, and the involvement of the resulting substances in the biological cycle.

Environment-forming. Transformation of physical and chemical parameters of the environment (mainly due to non-biogenic matter).

Transport. Transport of matter against gravity and in the horizontal direction.

Living matter embraces and rearranges all chemical processes of the biosphere. Living matter is the most powerful geological force, growing with the passage of time. Paying tribute to the memory of the great founder of the doctrine of the biosphere, the following generalization A. I. Perelman proposed to call “Vernadsky’s law”

13. The law of biogenic migration of atoms by V.I. Vernadsky - The law of biogenic migration of atoms by V.I. Vernadsky - in ecology - the law according to which the migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole occurs

Or with the direct participation of living matter (biogenic migration);

Or it occurs in an environment whose geochemical features are determined by living matter .