Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.

The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads and serve to create sound game.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
• Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept with various sides, have different semantic meanings and stylistic overtones. Without synonyms it is impossible to build a bright and figurative phrase, the speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

• complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
• stylistic - have same value, but at the same time relate to different styles speech (finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms – words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to one part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in figuratively. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Paths that are meant to hide true meaning expressions by easy ridicule.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated.
Personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls).
Periphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. The metaphor is aimed at external comparison objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and artistic works.

Types of stylistic figures

Name of syntactic structure	Description
Anaphora	Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence.
Epiphora	Application identical words and expressions at the end of neighboring sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in same shape. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
Gradation	Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning.
Default	Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical appeal	An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects.
A rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures speech to convey expression, tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Multi-Union	Multiple repetition identical conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism.
Antithesis	A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such revolutions are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. IN scientific publications And official business speech such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.

March 22, 2015

Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are paths, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in oral speech each person.

What are means of artistic expression?

The term "paths" comes from Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means “turn of speech.” They are used to give figurative speech, with their help poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless in works of art, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
• Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
• Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Video on the topic

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: On New Year's midnight the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: At the faculty international relations A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying.
• Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are used less often in speech modern man, but this does not diminish their importance in literary heritage great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Paraphrase is used to avoid repetition in literary text or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
• Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, and omissions in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive sentence ends with a rhetorical exclamation. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in Pushkin (“To Chaadaev,” “To the Sea”), in Lermontov (“The Death of a Poet”), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
• Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntactic parallelism - comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
• Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all tropes with examples

For high school students and graduates humanities faculties and it is important for philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing but black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
Historicisms	Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	There were roes (snakes) in this area.
Stylistic tropes (examples)
Metaphor	You have nerves of iron, my friend.
Personification	The foliage sways and dances with the wind.
	The red sun sets below the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three plates.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses quality products.
Periphrase	Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about a lion).
Allegory	You are a real ass (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours already!
	Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all!
Syntactic figures (examples)
	There are so many people with whom I can be sad, There are so few people I can love.
	We'll go through the raspberries! Do you like raspberries? No? Tell Danil, Let's go through the raspberries.
Gradation	I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence)	When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look...
Multi-Union	I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not so (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything and nothing to me.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

Trails

- Trope- allegory. In a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative meaning in order to enhance the imagery of the language, artistic expressiveness speech.

Main types of trails:

- Metaphor

- Metonymy

- Synecdoche

- Hyperbola

- Litotes

- Comparison

- Periphrase

- Allegory

- Personification

- Irony

- Sarcasm

Metaphor

Metaphor- a trope that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has given rise to many genres.

An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.

A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs a function, and

Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

Metonymy

- Metonymy- a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is denoted by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor - “by similarity.” A special case of metonymy is synecdoche.

Example: “All flags are visiting us,” where flags replace countries (a part replaces the whole).

Synecdoche

- Synecdoche- a trope consisting of naming a whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.

Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.

Examples:

- “The buyer chooses quality products.” The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

- “The stern moored to the shore.”

A ship is implied.

Hyperbola

- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose in mountains”)

Litotes

- Litotes , litotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate softening.

Litotes is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is called differently inverse hyperbola. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Here is an example of litotes

Comparison

- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to identify new properties in the object of comparison that are important for the subject of the statement.

Night is a well without bottom

In comparison, there are: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison is taking place. One of the distinctive features of comparison is the mention of both objects being compared, while the common feature is not always mentioned.

Periphrase

- Periphrase , paraphrase , paraphrase- in the stylistics and poetics of a trope, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.

Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter’s creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).

In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion,” “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).

Allegory

- Allegory- a conventional depiction of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, and morality tales; V fine arts is expressed by certain attributes. Allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in the fine arts. The main way of depicting allegory is generalization human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire figurative meaning

Example: allegory of “justice” - Themis (woman with scales).

Allegory of time governed by wisdom (V. Titian 1565)

The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, seasons - by means of their corresponding flowers, fruits or activities, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death - through a clepsydra and a scythe.

Personification

- Personification- a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits, For example:

And woe, woe, woe!
And grief was girded with a bast ,
My legs are tangled with washcloths.

Or: personification of the church =>

Irony

- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (contrasted) with the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.

According to Aristotle's definition, irony is “a statement containing ridicule of someone who really thinks so.”

- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart, smart...”. Here positive statements have negative connotations.

Sarcasm

- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic ridicule, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the enhanced contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate deliberate exposure of the implied.

Sarcasm is a harsh mockery that can be opened with a positive judgment, but in general always contains a negative connotation and indicates a deficiency in a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to which it is happening.

Like satire, sarcasm involves the fight against hostile phenomena of reality by ridiculing them. Ruthlessness and harshness of exposure are a distinctive feature of sarcasm. Unlike irony, the highest degree of indignation, hatred, is expressed in sarcasm. Sarcasm is never characteristic technique a humorist who, revealing what is funny in reality, always portrays it with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.

Example: your question is very smart. Are you perhaps a real intellectual?

Tasks

1) Give a brief definition of the word trope .

2) What kind of allegory is depicted on the left?

3) Name as many types of trails as possible.

Thank you for your attention!!!

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of ​​laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwined with other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.

LITOTA ( Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger,” “a hut on chicken legs,” “a little man as big as a fingernail.”
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to

comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

By you into the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“ nerves of steel"), distractions ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;

The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a bountiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is "swords" - warriors. The most common metonymy is in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is “the pen falls asleep.”

PERIPHRASE(Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

Why are you looking at me?

Dark blue?

And what are you calling about?

On a merry day in May,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE(Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!

3) Singular in the sense of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:

We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacement species concept generic:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON– a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

The way the beast will howl,

Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - internal state character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special kind comparisons are so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case represent the forms of the instrumental case used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE - a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Moroz - commander of the patrol

Walks around his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE(French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,

Spewing wild curses on the way.

And I see: half the people are sitting.

Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY(Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with your free speech

All those who have their mouths covered.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM(Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE(French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION(from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - stylistic figure, hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You're downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Rus'!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.

...When suddenly he came out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth at them...

A.N. Krylov

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON(asyndeton) – a sentence with no conjunctions between in homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

MULTI-UNION (polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure is asyndeton.

By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...

M. Lermontov

And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

He passes the doorman with an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea.

IN blue sky the stars are shining.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic features literary works(“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly Clouds - Eternal Wanderers.”

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

PARCELLATION- expressive syntactic device intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER(French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

They shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora; consonance of ends poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS(Greek elleipsis - prolapse, omission) - figure poetic syntax, based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. IN artistic speech conveys the excitement of the speaker or the tension of the action:

We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.

Day in dark night in love,

Spring is in love with winter,

Life into death...

And you?... You're into me!

In the lyrics there are poems written in unspeakable constructions, i.e. with widespread use ellipsis, for example the poem by A. Fet “Whisper, timid breathing...”

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - appendix) - a figurative definition that gives additional artistic characteristics to someone or something (“lonely sail”, “golden grove”),

a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or characteristics.
The sign expressed by the epithet, as it were, is attached to the object, enriching it in semantic and emotionally. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:

But I love, golden spring,
Your continuous, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, without stopping for a moment,
Like a child without care or thoughts...

N. Nekrasov

The properties of an epithet appear in a word only when it is combined with another word denoting an object or phenomenon. So, in the example given, the words “golden” and “wonderfully mixed” acquire the properties of a synthetic in combination with the words “spring” and “noise”. Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize certain aspects, but also transfer to it from another object or phenomenon (not directly expressed) a new, additional quality:

And we, poet, haven’t figured it out,
Didn't understand infantile sadness
In your seemingly forged poems.

V. Bryusov.

Such epithets are called metaphorical. An epithet emphasizes in an object not only its inherent, but also possible, conceivable, transferred features and characteristics. Various (meaningful) parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb) can be used as an epithet.
A special group of epithet includes constant epithets, which are used only in combination with one specific word: “living water” or “dead water”, “good fellow”, “greyhound horse”, etc. Constant epithets are characteristic of works of oral folk art .

EPIPHORA(Greek epiphora - repetition) - stylistic figure, opposite anaphora: Repeating the last words or phrases. Rhyme- type of epiphora (repetition of the last sounds).

The guests came ashore

Tsar Saltan invites them to visit...

A. S. Pushkin

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not presuppose an answer; it only enhances the emotionality of the statement and its expressiveness.

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, a structure of speech in which this or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation. The rhetorical exclamation sounds emotional, with poetic inspiration and elation:

Yes, to love as our blood loves
None of you have been in love for a long time!

RHETORICAL APPEAL(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures. In form, being an appeal, a rhetorical appeal is conditional in nature. It imparts the necessary author’s intonation to poetic speech: solemnity, pathos, cordiality, irony, etc.:

And you, arrogant descendants
The famous meanness of the famous fathers...

M. Lermontov

DEFAULT - unspokenness, reticence. A deliberate break in a statement that conveys the emotion of the speech and assumes that the reader will guess what was said.

I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, dear features!

I. A. Bunin

Although he was afraid to say
It wouldn't be hard to guess
Whenever... but the heart, the younger,
The more fearful, the stricter...

M. Yu. Lermontov

Every house is foreign to me, every temple is empty to me,

And everything is equal, and everything is one.

But if on the road – bush

Stands up, especially - rowan …

M.I. Tsvetaeva

VERSE SIZES

JAMB- two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

HOREUS – disyllabic foot with stress on the first syllable

DACTYL– three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable

AMPHIBRACHIUS– three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

ANAPAEST– three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable

PYRRHIC– additional disyllabic foot, consisting of two unstressed syllables

SPONDEE– an additional foot consisting of two stressed syllables

RHYME

abab– cross, aabb- steam room, Abba – ring (encircling), aabssb- mixed

MEN'S– the emphasis falls on last syllable rhyming words

WOMEN'S– stress falls on the penultimate syllable of rhyming words

Language device	Definition	Example
Anaphora (unity of principle)	Repeating words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence	Hands are releasedwhen a person reads one thing in newspapers, but sees something else in life. Hands let goconstant confusion, mismanagement, massive bureaucracy.Hands are releasedwhen you realize that no one around you is responsible for anything and that no one cares. This is what gives up! (R. Rozhdestvensky)
Antithesis (oppositions))	A sharp contrast of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast	All world literature I divide it into 2 types -literature at home and literature of homelessness. Literature achieved harmony and literature of longing for harmony. Crazy rampantDostoevsky-and a powerful slow rhythmTolstoy. HowdynamicTsvetaeva and howstaticAkhmatova! (F. Iskander)
Question-and-answer form of presentation	A form of speech in which the author, as it were, makes the reader his interlocutor, attracts him to the discussion of important issues, makes him think about them.	Many believe that fighting manifestations of fascism is the job of law enforcement agencies. Well, what about us ourselves? Pawns, or what? Pieces of history? Slaves of time and circumstances? Yes, no single institution of society alone can cope with human phobia and inhumanity - this is the task of all of us.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration.	Russia is stricken with a severe ideological disease, whichmore severe than H-bomb 20th century.The name of this disease is xenophobia (I. Rudenko).
Gradation	A syntactic construction within which homogeneous means of expression are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of a feature.	Vedas and truth: what's the point?courage, fearlessness, selfless courage, if there is no conscience behind them?!Bad, unworthy, stupid and disgustinglaugh at a person. (L. Panteleev)
Grotesque	Artistic exaggeration to the point of incredible, fantastic.	If some universal saboteurs were sent to destroy all life on Earth and turn it into dead stone, if they carefully developed this operation of theirs,they could not act more intelligently and insidiously than we, the people living on Earth, act.(V. Soloukhin)
Inversion	Reverse order words in a sentence. (In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition comes before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition comes after it, the complement comes after the control word, the circumstances of the manner of action come before the verb. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than established by the grammatical rules).	The month is updark night, looks lonely from a black cloud at theOlya Desert, ondistant villages, onnearby villages.(M. Neverov) Dazzlingly brightflames burst out of the oven(N. Gladkov) I don't believe itin the good thoughts of today's new Russians. (D. Granin)
Irony	Type of foreign statement when outwardly positive assessment mockery is hidden.	Men's suits for sale, one style. What colors? ABOUT,huge selectioncolors!Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish-gray, slate, slate, sandpaper, cast iron color, coconut color, peat, earthen, garbage, cake color and the color that in the old days was called “the robber’s dream.”In general, you understand, the color is one, pure mourning at a poor funeral. (I. Ilf, E. Perov)
Compositional joint	Repeating at the beginning of a new sentence a word from a previous sentence, usually ending it.	We went to this glorylong years. Long yearsour people lived one thing: everything for the front, everything for victory, because only after it is simple humanlife. Life, for which millions died.
Contextual (or contextual) anonyms	Words that are not contrasted in meaning in a language and are anonymous only in the source text.	An inferiority complex canruinhuman soul. Or maybeelevateto heaven. Something similar is happening with atomic energy. It canwarm upall Earth. Can isplitit into a thousand parts. (S. Dovlatov)
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms		It was true,old table lamp,bought on consignmentsomeone else's antiquity, which does not evoke any memories, and therefore is not expensive in any way (D. Granin) That was leading... appeared before metwo angels...two geniuses. I speak:angel geniuses- because both of them had no clothes on their scorched bodies and strong, long wings rose behind their shoulders. (I. Turgenev)
Lexical repetition	Repetition of the same word in the text.	- ThesePeople– yoursrelatives? “Yes,” he said. - All thesepeople are relatives? “Absolutely,” he said. - Peopleall over the world? All nationalities?Peopleof all eras? (S. Dovlatov)
Litotes	Artistic understatement.	We with our ambitions are lessforest ants.(V. Astafiev)
Metaphor (including expanded)	Transferring to an object or phenomenon any sign of another phenomenon or object (an extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently carried out throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole	There were, are and, I hope, there will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil people, otherwise there would be disharmony in the world,it would skew, ……… capsize and sink. It is cleansed, the soul is what it seems to me,the whole world held its breath, this bubbling, menacing world of ours began to think, ready to fall to its knees with me, to repent, to fall with its withered mouth to the holy spring of goodness...(N. Gogol)
Metonymy	Transfer of meaning (renaming) based on the contiguity of phenomena.	Winter. Freezing. The village is smokinginto the cold clear sky with gray smoke (V. Shukshin). MourningMozartsounded under the arches of the cathedral (V. Astafiev).Black tailcoatsrushed around in groups and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol).
Homogeneous members offers	A syntactic means of expressiveness that allows: a) emphasize different qualities anything B) see the dynamics of action C) see, hear, understand something in detail.	The vaults of the cathedral are filled with the singing of the organ. From the sky. above. floats-then rumble, then thunder, thengentlevoicelovers thencallVestal Virgins then the roulades of the horn, thensoundsharpsichord, thentalkrolling stream... The hall is full of peopleold and young, Russian and non-Russian, evil and kind, strong and bright, tired and enthusiastic, all kinds. If we are destineddie, burn, disappear, then let now, let at this moment, fate punish us for all our evil deeds and vices. (V. Astafiev)
Oxymoron	A combination in an image or phenomenon of incompatible concepts.	Sweet tormenthe, an exile, experienced when he returned to Russia.Anxious-joyfulthe expectation changed in him calm confidence V tomorrow. (N. Krivtsov)
Occasionalisms	Individually-authored neologisms.	How can we ensure that our truth is notexpandedat the expense of the rights of others. (A. Solzhenitsyn)
Personification (personification)	Assigning properties of living beings to inanimate objects.	Hops, crawling along the ground, grabs hold of oncoming herbs, but they turn out to be rather weak for it,and he crawls, groveling, further and further.....He must constantlylook around and fumblearound you,looking for something to grab onto, something to lean onreliable earthly support. (V. Soloukhin)
Parcellaria	Intentional fragmentation of a sentence into meaningful semantic parts.	There lived a fragile, disease-causing young man in Germany.Stuttered from uncertainty. Avoided entertainment. And only at the piano did he transform. His name was Mozart. (S. Dovlatov)
Periphrase	A descriptive expression used in place of a word.	Special place The word “gold” occupied his dictionary. Whatever you want was called gold. Coal and oil- “black gold”.Cotton-"White gold".Gas- “blue gold”.(V. Voinovich)
A rhetorical question	Expressing a statement in interrogative form.	Who among us has not admired the sunrise, the summer meadows, the raging sea? Who hasn’t admired the shades of color in the evening sky? Who hasn’t froze in delight at the sight of a suddenly appearing valley in mountain gorges? (V. Astafiev)
Rhetorical exclamation	Expressing a statement in exclamatory form.	What magic, kindness, light in the word teacher! And how great is his role in the life of each of us! (V. Sukhomlinsky)
Rhetorical appeal	A figure of speech in which the author’s attitude towards what is being said is expressed in the form of an address.	My dears!But who, besides us, will think about us? (V. Voinovich) And you, mentally wretched vandals,Are you also shouting about patriotism? (P. Voschin)
Sarcasm	Caustic irony.	And every time, openly slacking at work (“it will do..!”, blinding something at random (“it will change..!”), without thinking through something, without calculating, without checking (“oh well, it will work out..!” "), turning a blind eye to our own negligence (“I don’t care..!”), we ourselves, with our own hands,own so-called laborWe are building training grounds for the upcoming demonstration of mass heroism, preparing ourselves for tomorrow’s accidents and catastrophes! (R. Rozhdestvensky)
Comparative turnover(including detailed comparison)	Comparison of objects, concepts, phenomena to emphasize a particularly important feature. The comparison can be passed: 1) using comparative unionshow, exactly, as if, as if, what, as if, etc.	The night, like a gloomy oratorio of ancient masters, grew in the garden, where the stars were scattered likered, blue and white hyacinth petals...
2) Using wordssimilar to, similar to, similar, reminiscent, Similar to...	And the officethe master looked more like the abode of a warlock than a simple musician.
3) Genitive case of a noun.	Varnish on the violinwas the color of blood.
4) Instrumental case of a noun.	The old master never attended mass because his playing was socrazy takeoffto the impossible, perhaps forbidden...
5) Comparative turnover.	Along with her, painful impatience grew in the master’s soul and,like a thin icy stream of water,the calm fire of creativity was flooded.
6) Denial (i.e. not comparison, but opposition of one object or phenomenon to another).	Not a violin - a soulthe musician sounded in this yearning melody.
7) Subordinate comparative.	Next to him, perhaps for a long time, walked a short, flexible stranger with a black and curly beard and a sharp look, how the German Minnesingers were depicted in the old days (the author of all examples is N. Gumilyov)
Syntactic parallelism	Identical (parallel) construction of several adjacent sentences and paragraphs.	What is a clerk? This is the displacement of a verb, that is, movement, action, by a participle, gerund, noun (especially verbal!), which means stagnation, immobility. It's a jumble of nouns indirect cases, most often long chains of nouns in the same case - genitive, so that it is no longer possible to understand what refers to what and what is being discussed. This is the displacement of active revolutions by passive ones, almost always heavier, more cumbersome. (N. Gogol)
Epithet	An artistic definition, that is, colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in a certain word.	There is only minesubmissive, etherealsoul, it oozes with incomprehensible pain and tearsquietdelight... Let the vaults of the cathedral collapse, and instead of the executioner aboutbloody, criminally builtthe path will carry music into people's heartsgenius, but non-bestialkiller roar. (V. Astafiev)
Epiphora	The same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.	How the French influenced Pushkin -we know. How Schiller influenced Dostoevsky -we know.How Dostoevsky influenced all modern world literature -we know.

Here are options for completing tasks

A) From this passage, write down one example of personification, simile and epithet.

The wind is screeching, rushing like mad, red clouds are rushing, low, as if torn to shreds, everything is unfurled, mixed, overwhelmed, a zealous downpour swayed in sheer columns, lightning blinds with fiery green, abrupt thunder shoots like from a cannon, there is a smell of sulfur...

I.S. Turgenev “Pigeons”

(from the series “poems in prose”)

Answer: 1) The wind screeches - personification

2) shoots like a cannon - comparison

3) zealous downpour - epithet

b) Drawing a picture of a thunderstorm, I.S. Turgenev uses comparisons. Write them out from the text, answer the question: for what purpose does the author use these artistic means?

Answer:

rushing around like crazy

like clouds torn to shreds

the downpour swayed in vertical columns

shoots like a cannon

Using comparisons, the author draws a powerful movement of nature, disturbing and at the same time cleansing. Storms and thunderstorms instill fear in the hero of the story and at the same time it is fun for him! You can imagine in this picture both a mad, indomitable animal, ready to trample all living things, and heavy streams of water that from a distance look like moving pillars, and you can hear the cannonade of an approaching battle.

Trope is the use of words and expressions in a figurative meaning in order to create an artistic image, which results in an enrichment of meaning. The tropes include: epithet, oxymoron, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, pun, irony, sarcasm, periphrasis. None piece of art can't do without tropes. The artistic word is multi-valued; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound.

Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative meaning; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the related phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The uniqueness of metaphor as a type of trope is that it represents a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is repressed and completely replaced by the second (what it was compared with).

“A bee from a wax cell / Flies for a field tribute” (Pushkin)

where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, and the first terms are replaced by the second. Metaphors, like any trope, are based on the property of a word that in its meaning it is based not only on essential and general qualities objects (phenomena), but also to all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. For example, in the word "star" we, along with the essential and general meaning(celestial body) we have a number of minor and individual characteristics- the radiance of a star, its remoteness, etc. M. arises through the use of “secondary” meanings of words, which makes it possible to establish new connections between them (the secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected; cells - its closeness, etc. .d.). For artistic thinking, these “secondary” signs, which express moments of sensory clarity, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of this subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties.

Metonymy is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, like a metaphor, with the difference from the latter that this replacement can only be made by a word denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporary, etc.) connection with the object (phenomenon), which is denoted by the replaced word. The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, in the greater real interconnection of the replacing members, and on the other hand, in its greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not given in this phenomenon directly. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general, but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity, receiving in every specific case its class saturation and use.

“All flags will visit us,” where flags replace countries (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship between the replacing members, and on the other, by greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring,” the meaning of which is metonymically extended from an action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

Synecdoche is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, namely, the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting a part of the named object or a single object.

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.

"The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

"The stern has moored to the shore." A ship is implied.

Hyperbole is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.

"I've said this a thousand times"

“We have enough food for six months”

“We spent four years preparing our escape, we saved three tons of food.”

Litotes is the reverse of hyperbole, a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate understatement, belittlement and destruction, with the goal of enhancing expressiveness. Essentially, litotes is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole.

"A horse as big as a cat"

"A person's life is one moment"

"Waist no thicker than a bottleneck"

Personification is an expression that gives an idea of ​​a concept or phenomenon by depicting it in the form of a living person endowed with properties this concept(for example, the Greeks and Romans depicted happiness in the form of a capricious goddess of fortune, etc.).

Very often, personification is used to depict nature, which is endowed with certain human traits and “animated”:

"the sea laughed"

"... The Neva rushed to the sea all night against the storm, unable to overcome their violent foolishness... and argue

it became impossible for her... The weather became even more ferocious, the Neva swelled and roared... and suddenly, like a frenzied beast, it rushed at the city... Siege! Attack! evil waves, like thieves, climb into the windows,” etc.

Allegory is a conventional depiction of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue. Thus, the difference between an allegory and related forms of figurative expression (tropes) is the presence in it of specific symbolism, subject to abstract interpretation; therefore, the fairly common definition of allegory as an extended metaphor is essentially incorrect (J. P. Richter, Fischer, Richard Meyer), since the metaphor lacks that logical act of reinterpretation, which is integral to allegory. Of the literary genres based on allegory, the most important are: fable, parable , morality But allegory can become the main artistic device any genre in cases where abstract concepts and relationships become the subject of poetic creativity.

“I wrung out such allegories and equivocations that, it seems, a century would not have made any sense.”

Antonomasia is a figure of speech expressed in replacing a title or name with an indication of some significant feature of the subject (for example: a great poet instead of Pushkin) or its relationship to something (the author of "War and Peace" instead of Tolstoy; Peleus' son instead of Achilles). In addition, antonomasia is also considered a replacement common noun own (Aesculapius instead of doctor).

Epithet - refers to tropes; it is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object or phenomenon. An epithet is a hidden comparison and can be expressed as an adjective, an adverb, a noun, a numeral or a verb. Thanks to its structure and special function in the text, the epithet acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) gain color and richness.

Nouns: “Here he is, a leader without squads,” “My youth! My dark dove!”

Periphrasis is a syntactical-semantic figure consisting of replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive one verbose expression. School and classical stylistics distinguishes several types of periphrases:

I. As a grammatical figure:

• a) the property of an object is taken as a control word, and the name of the object is taken as a controlled word: “The poet used to amuse the khans of poetry with rattling pearls” (a paraphrase of the word “verse”);
• b) the verb is replaced by a noun formed from the same stem with another (auxiliary) verb: “an exchange is made” instead of “is exchanged.”

II. As a stylistic figure:

c) the name of the object is replaced by a descriptive expression, which is an expanded trope (metaphor, metonymy, etc.): “send me, in Delisle’s language, a twisted steel piercing the tarred head of the bottle, i.e. a corkscrew”

Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, giving the description a special imagery, clarity, and figurativeness.

Examples: trope fiction

“There, like a black iron leg, the poker ran and jumped.”

"White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake"