List of figurative means of expression for the Unified State Examination. Main tropes and stylistic figures

Expressiveness of Russian speech. Means of expression.

Visual and expressive means of language

TRAILS -use of the word in figurative meaning. Lexical argument

List of tropes	Meaning of the term	Example
Allegory	Allegory. A trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image.	In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf.
Hyperbola	A means of artistic representation based on exaggeration	Huge eyes, like spotlights (V. Mayakovsky)
Grotesque	Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character	The mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Irony	Ridicule, which contains an assessment of what is being ridiculed. A sign of irony is a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly expressed, but its opposite, implied.	Where are you getting your head from, smart one? (I. Krylov).
Litotes	A means of artistic representation based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole)	The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck (N. Gogol).
Metaphor, extended metaphor	Hidden comparison. The type of trail in which individual words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. Sometimes the entire poem is an expanded poetic image	With a sheaf of your oat hair You belong to me forever. (S. Yesenin.)
Metonymy	A type of trope in which words are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from settlement to residents, from organizations to participants, from authors to works	When will the shore of hell take me forever, When will Pero, my joy, fall asleep forever... (A. Pushkin.) I ate on silver and gold. Well, eat another plate, son.
Personification	Such an image of inanimate objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings, the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel	What are you howling about, wind? night, Why are you complaining so madly? (F. Tyutchev.)
Periphrase (or paraphrase)	One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most characteristic features, enhancing the figurativeness of speech	King of beasts (instead of lion)
Synecdoche	A type of metonymy consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of the whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacing a species concept with a generic concept	All flags will be visiting us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. We all look at Nap oleons.
Epithet	Figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties	The grove dissuaded golden with Birch's cheerful tongue.
Comparison	A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon	The fragile ice lies on the chilly river like melting sugar. (N. Nekrasov.)

FIGURES OF SPEECH

A generalized name for stylistic devices in which a word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. Grammatical argument.

Figure	Meaning of the term	Example
Anaphora (or unity)	Repeating words or phrases at the beginning of sentences poetic lines, stanzas	I love you, Petra’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance...
Antithesis	Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms	And the new so denies the old!.. It ages before our eyes! Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer! The leaders are younger. It's already older! Kinder morals.
Gradation	(graduality) - a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance	I do not regret, do not call, do not cry, Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Inversion	Rearrangement; a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech	He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps.
Lexical repetition	Intentional repetition of the same word in the text	Forgive me, forgive me, forgive me! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I don’t hold any grudges, I promise you that, But only you will forgive me too!
Pleonasm	Repetition similar words and revolutions, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect.	My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick.
Oxymoron	A combination of words with opposite meanings that do not go together.	Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence.
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal	Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the goal of getting an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader. Exclamations and addresses enhance emotional perception	Where will you gallop, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, this is just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.)
Syntactic parallelism	A technique consisting in similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas.	I lookI look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing...
Default	A figure that leaves the listener to guess and think about what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.	You'll be going home soon: Look... So what? my To tell the truth, no one is very concerned about fate.
Ellipsis	A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning	We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.)
Epiphora	A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition of a word or phrase at the end of poetic lines	Dear friend, and in this quiet At home. The fever hits me. I can't find a quiet place HomeNear the peaceful fire. (A. Blok.)

VISUAL POSSIBILITIES OF VOCABULARY

Lexical argument

Terms	Meaning	Examples
Antonyms, contextual antonyms	Words with opposite meanings. Contextual antonyms - it is in the context that they are opposite. Outside the context, this opposition is lost.	Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire... (A. Pushkin.)
Synonyms, contextual synonyms	Words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms - it is in the context that they are close. Without context, intimacy is lost.	To desire - to want, to have a desire, to strive, to dream, to crave, to hunger
Homonyms	Words that sound the same but have different meanings.	Knee - a joint connecting the thigh and lower leg; passage in birdsong
Homographs	Different words that match in spelling but not in pronunciation.	Castle (palace) – lock (on the door), Flour (torment) – flour (product)
Paronyms	Words that are similar in sound but different in meaning	Heroic - heroic, double - dual, effective - valid
Words in figurative meaning	Unlike direct meaning words, stylistically neutral, devoid of imagery, figurative - figurative, stylistically colored.	Sword of justice, sea of ​​light
Dialectisms	A word or phrase that exists in a certain area and is used in speech by the residents of this area	Draniki, shanezhki, beetroot
Jargonisms	Words and expressions that are outside literary norm, belonging to some kind of jargon - a type of speech used by people united by common interests, habits, and activities.	Head - watermelon, globe, pan, basket, pumpkin...
Professionalisms	Words used by people of the same profession	Galley, boatswain, watercolor, easel
Terms	Words intended to denote special concepts of science, technology, and others.	Grammar, surgical, optics
Book vocabulary	Words characteristic of writing and having a special stylistic coloring.	Immortality, incentive, prevail...
Prostorechnaya vocabulary	Words, colloquial use, characterized by some roughness, reduced character.	Blockhead, fidgety, wobble
Neologisms (new words)	New words emerging to represent new concepts that have just emerged. Individual author's neologisms also arise.	There will be a storm - we will argue And let's be brave with her.
Obsolete words (archaisms)	Words displaced from modern language others denoting the same concepts.	Fair - excellent, zealous - caring, stranger - foreigner
Borrowed	Words transferred from words in other languages.	Parliament, Senate, deputy, consensus
Phraseologisms	Stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure, reproduced in speech as entire lexical units.	To be disingenuous - to be a hypocrite, to beat the crap - to mess around, to hastily - quickly

EXPRESSIVE-EMOTIONAL VOCABULARY

Conversational.	Words that have a slightly reduced level compared to neutral vocabulary stylistic coloring characteristic of spoken language, emotionally charged.	Dirty, loud, bearded
Emotionally charged words	Estimatedcharacter, having both positive and negative connotations.	Adorable, wonderful, disgusting, villain
	Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation.	Cute, little bunny, little brain, brainchild

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY

Grammatical argument

1. Expressive usage case, gender, animation, etc.	Something air it is not enough for me, I drink the wind, I swallow the fog... (V. Vysotsky.) We are relaxing in Sochach. How many Plyushkins divorced!
2. Direct and figurative use verb tense forms	I'm comingI went to school yesterday and I see announcement: “Quarantine.” Oh and was delighted I!
3. Expressive use of words from different parts of speech.	Happened to me most amazing story! I got unpleasant message. I was visiting at her place. The cup will not pass you by this.
4. Use of interjections and onomatopoeic words.	Here's closer! They gallop... and into the yard Evgeniy! "Oh!"- and lighter than the shadow Tatyana jump to the other entrance. (A. Pushkin.)

SOUND EXPRESSIVENESS

Means	Meaning of the term	Example
Alliteration	A technique for enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds	Hissingfoamy glasses and blue flames of punch...
Alternation	Alternation of sounds. Change of sounds occupying the same place in a morpheme in different cases its use.	Tangent - touch, shine - shine.
Assonance	A technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds	The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.)
Sound recording	A technique for enhancing the visual quality of a text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture	For three days I could hear how on a boring, long road They tapped the joints: east, east, east... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)
Onomatopoeia	Using the sounds of language to imitate the sounds of living and inanimate nature	When the mazurka thunder roared... (A. Pushkin.)

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF SYNTAX

Grammatical argument

1. Rows homogeneous members offers.	When empty And weak a person hears flattering feedback about his dubious merits, he revels in with your vanity, gets arrogant and completely loses your tiny ability to be critical of your own actions and to your person.(D. Pisarev.)
2. Offers with introductory words, appeals, isolated members.	Probably,there, in their native places, just as in my childhood and youth, the ashes bloom in the swampy backwaters and the reeds rustle, who made me, with their rustling, their prophetic whispers, that poet, who I have become, who I was, who I will be when I die. (K. Balmont.)
3. Expressive use of sentences different types(complex, complex, non-union, one-part, incomplete, etc.).	They speak Russian everywhere; this is the language of my father and my mother, this is the language of my nanny, my childhood, my first love, almost all moments of my life, which entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality. (K. Balmont.)
4. Dialogic presentation.	- Well? Is it true that he is so good-looking? - Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say. Slender, tall, blush all over his cheek... - Right? And I thought his face was pale. What? What did he look like to you? Sad, thoughtful? - What do you? I've never seen such a mad person in my life. He decided to run with us into the burners. - Run into the burners with you! Impossible!(A. Pushkin.)
5. Parcellation - a stylistic technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even individual words in a work in order to give the speech intonation expression through its abrupt pronunciation. Parcel words are separated from each other by dots or exclamation marks, subject to other syntactic and grammatical rules.	Liberty and Fraternity. There will be no equality. Nobody. No one. Not equal. Never.(A. Volodin.) He saw me and froze. Numb. He fell silent.
6. Non-union or asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions, which gives the text dynamism and swiftness.	Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. To be afraid of wolves, don’t go into the forest.
7. Polyconjunction or polysyndeton - repeating conjunctions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the parts of the sentence connected by the conjunctions.	The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity. I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint.

Tests.

1. Choose the correct answer:

1) On that white April night Petersburg I saw Blok for the last time... (E. Zamyatin).

a) metaphorb) hyperbole) metonymy

2.You'll freeze in the shine of moonlight,

You're moaning, doused with foam wounds.

(V. Mayakovsky)

a) alliterationb) assonancec) anaphora

3. I drag myself in the dust and soar in the skies;

Strange to everyone in the world - and ready to embrace the world. (F. Petrarch).

a) oxymoronb) antonymc) antithesis

4. Let it fill up with years

life quota,

costs

only

remember this miracle

tears apart

mouth

yawn

wider than the Gulf of Mexico.

(V. Mayakovsky)

a) hyperbolab) litotav) personification

5. Choose the correct answer:

1) It was drizzling with beaded rain, so airy that it seemed that it did not reach the ground and mist of water mist floated in the air. (V. Pasternak).

a) epithetb) similec) metaphor

6.And in autumn days The flame that flows from life and blood does not go out. (K. Batyushkov)

a) metaphorb) personificationc) hyperbole

7. Sometimes he falls in love passionately

In your elegant sadness.

(M. Yu. Lermontov)

a) antithesis) oxymoronc) epithet

8.The diamond is polished with a diamond,

The line is dictated by the line.

a) anaphora b) comparison c) parallelism

9. At the mere suggestion of such a case, you would have to tear out the hair from your head by the roots and let go streams... what am I saying! rivers, lakes, seas, oceans tears!

(F.M. Dostoevsky)

a) metonymy b) gradation c) allegory

10. Choose the correct answer:

1) Black tailcoats rushed about separately and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol)

a) metaphorb) metonymy c) personification

11. The quitter sits at the gate,

With my mouth wide open,

And no one will understand

Where is the gate and where is the mouth.

a) hyperbolab) litotav) comparison

12. C insolent modesty looks into the eyes. (A. Blok).

a) epithetb) metaphorc) oxymoron

Option	Answer

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 20–23.

This excerpt discusses language features text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert into the blanks (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the numbers of the terms from the list. Write down the corresponding number in the table under each letter.

Write down the sequence of numbers without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

“Telling the reader the story of the holiday organized by Mitrich, N.D. Teleshov generously uses a wide variety of means of artistic expression. On lexical level it is worth noting active use(A)_____ (“theirs” in sentence 17, “adjust” in sentence 36, “Mitrich”), as well as such a trope as (B)_____ (in sentence 2). Among other means of expressiveness, one can distinguish such a device as (B)_____ (for example, in sentences 15–16, 57–58), and such a syntactic device as (D)_____ (in sentences 3, 68, 69).”

List of terms

1) synonyms

2) comparison

3) metonymy

5) colloquial vocabulary

6) series of homogeneous members

7) rhetorical exclamations

8) anaphora

9) rhetorical appeals

A	B	IN	G

(1) It was Christmas Eve...

(2) The guard of the resettlement barracks, a retired soldier, with a gray beard like mouse fur, named Semyon Dmitrievich, or simply Mitrich, approached his wife and said cheerfully:

- (3) Well, woman, what a trick I came up with! (4) I say, the holiday is coming... (5) And for everyone it is a holiday, everyone rejoices at it... (6) Everyone has their own: who has new clothes for the holiday, who will have feasts... (7) For example, your room will be clean, I will also have my own pleasure: I’ll buy myself some sausages!..

- (8) So what? – the old woman said indifferently.

- (9) Otherwise, - Mitrich sighed again, - it will be like a holiday for everyone, but, I say, for the kids, it turns out there is no real holiday... (10) I look at them - and my heart bleeds : oh, I think it’s wrong!.. (11) It’s known, orphans... (12) Neither mother, nor father, nor relatives... (13) It’s awkward!.. (14) So I thought of this: it’s necessary amuse the children! (17) They’ll bring a Christmas tree, decorate it with candles and gifts, and their kids will just jump for joy!.. (18) The forest is close to us - I’ll cut down the Christmas tree and give the kids such fun!

(19) Mitrich winked cheerfully, smacked his lips and went out into the yard.

(20) Wooden houses covered with snow and covered with boards were scattered around the yard here and there. (21)C early spring and until late autumn settlers passed through the city. (22) There were so many of them, and they were so poor that good people They built these houses for them, which Mitrich guarded. (23) By autumn the houses were vacated, and by winter there was no one left except Mitrich and Agrafena and a few more children, no one knows whose. (24) These children’s parents either died or went to an unknown place. (25) Mitrich had eight such children this winter. (26) He settled them all together in one house, where he was going to have a holiday today.

(27) First of all, Mitrich went to the church warden to ask for some cinders of church candles to decorate the Christmas tree. (28) Then he went to the resettlement official. (29) But the official was busy; without seeing Mitrich, he ordered to say “thank you” to him and sent fifty dollars.

(30) Returning home, Mitrich did not say a word to his wife, but just chuckled silently and, looking at the coin, figured out when and how to arrange everything.

(31) “Eight children,” Mitrich reasoned, bending the clumsy fingers on his hands, “that means eight candies...”

(32)...It was a clear frosty afternoon. (33) With an ax in his belt, in a sheepskin coat and a hat, Mitrich returned from the forest, dragging a Christmas tree on his shoulder. (34) He was having fun, although he was tired. (35) In the morning he went to the city to buy candy for the children, and sausage for himself and his wife, which he was a passionate hunter for, but he rarely bought it and ate it only on holidays.

(36) Mitrich brought the tree and sharpened the end with an ax; then he adjusted it so that it would stand, and when everything was ready, he dragged it to the children in the barracks.

(37) When the tree warmed up, the room smelled of freshness and resin. (38) The children’s faces, sad and thoughtful, suddenly became cheerful... (39) No one yet understood what the old man was doing, but everyone was already anticipating pleasure, and Mitrich looked cheerfully at the eyes fixed on him from all sides.

(40) When the candles and sweets were already on the tree, Mitrich thought: the decoration was sparse. (41) No matter how keen he was on his idea, he could not hang anything on the tree except eight candies.

(42) Suddenly such a thought came to him that he even stopped. (43) Although he loved sausage very much and treasured every piece, the desire to treat him to glory overpowered all his considerations:

- (44) I’ll cut each one a circle and hang it on a string. (45) And a slice of bread, and also for the Christmas tree.

(46) As soon as it got dark, the tree was lit. (47) It smelled of melted wax, resin and herbs. (48) Always gloomy and thoughtful, the children screamed joyfully, looking at the lights. (49) Their eyes perked up, their faces blushed. (50) Laughter, screams and chatter enlivened for the first time this gloomy room, where from year to year only complaints and tears were heard. (51) Even Agrafena threw up her hands in surprise, and Mitrich, rejoicing from the bottom of his heart, clapped his hands. (52) Admiring the Christmas tree and the children having fun, he smiled. (53) And then he commanded:

- (54) Public! (55) Come! (56) Taking a piece of bread and sausage from the tree, Mitrich dressed all the children, then took Agrafena for himself.

- (57) Look, the orphans are chewing! (58) Look, they’re chewing! (59) Look! (60) Rejoice! - he shouted. (61) And then Mitrich took the harmonica and, forgetting his old age, started dancing with the children. (62) The children jumped, squealed and twirled merrily, and Mitrich did not lag behind them. (63) His soul was filled with such joy that he did not remember whether such a holiday had ever happened in his life.

- (64) Public! – he finally exclaimed. – (65) The candles are burning out. (66) Get yourself some candy, and it’s time to go to bed!

(67) The children screamed joyfully and rushed to the tree, and Mitrich, touched almost to the point of tears, whispered to Agrafena:

- (68) Good!.. (69) We can say directly: right!..

(according to N.D. Teleshov*)

*Nikolai Dmitrievich Teleshov (1867–1957)- Russian Soviet writer, poet, organizer of the famous circle of Moscow writers “Sreda” (1899–1916). The story “Yolka Mitrich” (1897) is included in the cycle “Migrants”, dedicated to great resettlement beyond the Urals, to Siberia, where peasants were given plots of land.

Explanation (see also Rule below).

“Telling the reader the story of the holiday organized by Mitrich, N.D. Teleshov generously uses a wide variety of means of artistic expression. At the lexical level, it is worth noting the active use of (A) colloquial vocabulary(“theirs” in sentence 17, “adjust” in sentence 36, “Mitrich”), as well as such a trope as (B) comparison(in sentence 2). Among other means of expressiveness, one can distinguish such a technique as (B) anaphora(for example, in sentences 15–16, 57–58), and a syntactic device such as (D) rhetorical exclamations(in sentences 3, 68, 69).”

List of terms

2) comparison B (with sulfur, like mouse fur, beard)

5) colloquial vocabulary A

7) rhetorical exclamations G ( namely exclamations: Good! Right!)

8) anaphora B ((15)Vidal I saw a lot of people... both ours and all kinds... (16) Vidal, how they like to amuse children on holidays.. Identical construction of the beginning of the sentence)

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G
5	2	8	7

Answer: 5287

Answer: 5287

Rule: Linguistic means of expression. Task 26

ANALYSIS OF MEANS OF EXPRESSION.

The purpose of the task is to determine the means of expression used in the review by establishing correspondence between the gaps indicated by letters in the text of the review and the numbers with definitions. You need to write matches only in the order in which the letters appear in the text. If you do not know what is hidden under a particular letter, you must put “0” in place of this number. You can get from 1 to 4 points for the task.

When completing task 26, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it semantic, and grammatical connection . Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc. It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence. You can carry out this division, knowing that all means are divided into TWO large groups: the first includes lexical (non-special means) and tropes; secondly, figures of speech (some of them are called syntactic).

26.1 TROPIC WORD OR EXPRESSION USED IN A FIGUREABLE MEANING TO CREATE AN ARTISTIC IMAGE AND ACHIEVE GREATER EXPRESSIVENESS. Tropes include such techniques as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperbole and litotes.

Note: The assignment usually states that these are TRAILS.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

1.Epithet(in translation from Greek - application, addition) - this is a figurative definition that marks an essential feature for a given context in the depicted phenomenon. An epithet differs from a simple definition artistic expression and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

Epithets include all “colorful” definitions that are most often expressed adjectives:

sad orphaned land(F.I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I.A. Bunin).

Epithets can also be expressed:

-nouns, acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of the subject: winter sorceress; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);

-adverbs, acting as circumstances: In the wild north stands alone...(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind (K. G. Paustovsky);

-participles: waves rush thundering and sparkling;

-pronouns, expressing superlative degree one or another state of the human soul:

After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, still which! (M. Yu. Lermontov);

-participles and participial phrases : Nightingales in vocabulary rumbling announce the forest limits (B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language except the words not remembering kinship(M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

2. Comparison- This figurative technique, based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another. Unlike metaphor, comparison is always binary: it names both compared objects (phenomena, characteristics, actions).

The villages are burning, they have no protection.

The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy,

And the glow like an eternal meteor,

Playing in the clouds frightens the eye. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed different ways:

Instrumental case form of nouns:

Nightingale vagrant Youth flew by,

Wave in bad weather Joy fades away (A.V. Koltsov)

Comparative form of an adjective or adverb: These eyes greener sea ​​and our cypresses darker(A. Akhmatova);

Comparative phrases with conjunctions like, as if, as if, etc.:

Like a predatory beast, to the humble abode

The winner breaks in with bayonets... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

Using the words similar, similar, this is:

On the eyes of a cautious cat

Similar your eyes (A. Akhmatova);

Using comparative clauses:

Golden leaves swirled

In the pinkish water of the pond,

Like a light flock of butterflies

Flies breathlessly towards a star. (S. A. Yesenin)

3.Metaphor(in translation from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word. A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language(“erased”): golden hands, a storm in a teacup, moving mountains, strings of the soul, love has faded;

2) artistic(individual author’s, poetic):

And the stars fade diamond thrill

IN painless cold dawn (M. Voloshin);

Empty skies clear glass(A. Akhmatova);

AND blue, bottomless eyes

They bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphor happens not just single: it can develop in the text, forming entire chains of figurative expressions, in many cases - covering, as if permeating the entire text. This extended, complex metaphor, a complete artistic image.

4. Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts. Most often, personifications are used to describe nature:

Rolling through the sleepy valleys, the sleepy mists lay down, And only the sound of a horse's tramp is lost in the distance. The autumn day has faded, turning pale, with the fragrant leaves curled up, and the half-withered flowers are enjoying dreamless sleep.. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

5. Metonymy(translated from Greek - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. Adjacency can be a manifestation of connection:

Between action and the instrument of action: Their villages and fields for a violent raid He doomed to swords and fires(A.S. Pushkin);

Between an object and the material from which the object is made: ... or on silver, I ate on gold(A. S. Griboyedov);

Between a place and the people in that place: The city was noisy, flags crackled, wet roses fell from the bowls of flower girls... (Yu. K. Olesha)

6. Synecdoche(in translation from Greek - correlation) - this a type of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Most often, transfer occurs:

From less to more: Even a bird does not fly to him, And a tiger does not come... (A.S. Pushkin);

From part to whole: Beard, why are you still silent?(A.P. Chekhov)

7. Periphrase, or periphrasis(translated from Greek - a descriptive expression) is a phrase that is used instead of any word or phrase. For example, Petersburg in verse

A. S. Pushkin - “Peter’s creation”, “ full countries beauty and wonder", "city of Petrov"; A. A. Blok in the poems of M. I. Tsvetaeva - “a knight without reproach”, “blue-eyed snow singer”, “snow swan”, “almighty of my soul”.

8.Hyperbole(in translation from Greek - exaggeration) - this is figurative expression containing an excessive exaggeration of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, action: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(N.V. Gogol)

And at that very moment there were couriers, couriers, couriers on the streets... can you imagine, thirty five thousands only couriers! (N.V. Gogol).

9. Litota(translated from Greek - smallness, moderation) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, action: What tiny cows! There is, right, less than a pinhead.(I. A. Krylov)

And walking importantly, in decorous calm, the horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a short sheepskin coat, in large mittens... and from the nails myself!(N.A. Nekrasov)

10. Irony(in translation from Greek - pretense) is the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. Irony is a type of allegory in which mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment: Why, smart one, are you delirious, head?(I. A. Krylov)

26.2 “NON-SPECIAL” LEXICAL VISUATIVE AND EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF LANGUAGE

Note: In assignments it is sometimes indicated that this is a lexical device. Typically, in a review of task 24, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as a single word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics. Please note: these are the products most often needed find in task 22!

11. Synonyms, i.e. words of the same part of speech, different in sound, but identical or similar in lexical meaning and differing from each other either in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring ( brave - brave, run - rush, eyes(neutral) - eyes(poet.)), have great expressive power.

Synonyms can be contextual.

12. Antonyms, i.e. words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning ( truth - lie, good - evil, disgusting - wonderful), also have great expressive capabilities.

Antonyms can be contextual, that is, they become antonyms only in a given context.

Lies happen good or evil,

Compassionate or merciless,

Lies happen dexterous and awkward,

Prudent and reckless,

Intoxicating and joyless.

13. Phraseologisms as a means of linguistic expression

Phraseologisms (phraseological expressions, idioms), i.e. phrases and sentences reproduced in ready-made form, in which the integral meaning dominates the meanings of their constituent components and is not a simple sum of such meanings ( get into trouble, be in seventh heaven, bone of contention), have great expressive capabilities. The expressiveness of phraseological units is determined by:

1) their vivid imagery, including mythological ( the cat cried like a squirrel in a wheel, Ariadne's thread, sword of Damocles, Achilles heel);

2) the classification of many of them: a) to the category of high ( the voice of one crying in the wilderness, sink into oblivion) or reduced (colloquial, colloquial: like a fish in water, neither sleep nor spirit, lead by the nose, lather your neck, hang your ears); b) to category linguistic means with a positive emotional-expressive coloring ( to store like the apple of your eye - trade.) or with a negative emotional-expressive coloring (without the king in the head - disapproved, small fry - disdained, worthless - despised.).

14. Stylistically colored vocabulary

To enhance expressiveness in the text, all categories of stylistically colored vocabulary can be used:

1) emotional-expressive (evaluative) vocabulary, including:

a) words with a positive emotional-expressive assessment: solemn, sublime (including Old Slavonicisms): inspiration, future, fatherland, aspirations, hidden, unshakable; sublimely poetic: serene, radiant, enchantment, azure; approving: noble, outstanding, amazing, brave; endearments: sunshine, darling, daughter

b) words with a negative emotional-expressive assessment: disapproving: speculation, bickering, nonsense; dismissive: upstart, hustler; contemptuous: dunce, crammer, scribbling; abusive/

2) functionally and stylistically colored vocabulary, including:

a) book: scientific (terms: alliteration, cosine, interference); official business: the undersigned, report; journalistic: report, interview; artistic and poetic: azure, eyes, cheeks

b) colloquial (everyday): dad, boy, braggart, healthy

15. Vocabulary limited use

To enhance expressiveness in the text, all categories of vocabulary of limited use can also be used, including:

Dialectal vocabulary (words that are used by residents of a particular area: kochet - rooster, veksha - squirrel);

Colloquial vocabulary (words with a pronounced reduced stylistic connotation: familiar, rude, dismissive, abusive, located on the border or outside the literary norm: beggar, drunkard, cracker, trash talker);

Professional vocabulary (words that are used in professional speech and are not included in the system of common literary language: galley - in the speech of sailors, duck - in the speech of journalists, window - in the speech of teachers);

Slang vocabulary (words characteristic of youth slang: party, frills, cool; computer: brains - computer memory, keyboard - keyboard; soldier: demobilization, scoop, perfume; criminal jargon: bro, raspberry);

The vocabulary is outdated (historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the objects or phenomena they denote: boyar, oprichnina, horse-drawn horse; archaisms are outdated words naming objects and concepts for which new names have appeared in the language: forehead - forehead, sail - sail); - new vocabulary (neologisms - words that have recently entered the language and have not yet lost their novelty: blog, slogan, teenager).

26.3 FIGURES (RHETORICAL FIGURES, STYLISTIC FIGURES, FIGURES OF SPEECH) ARE STYLISTIC DEVICES based on special combinations of words that go beyond the scope of normal practical use, and aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. The main figures of speech include: rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal, repetition, syntactic parallelism, polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, inversion, parcellation, antithesis, gradation, oxymoron. Unlike lexical means, this is the level of a sentence or several sentences.

Note: In the tasks there is no clear definition format indicating these means: they are called syntactic means, and a technique, and simply a means of expressiveness, and a figure. In task 24, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

16.Rhetorical question is a figure that contains a statement in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it is used to enhance the emotionality, expressiveness of speech, and to attract the reader’s attention to a particular phenomenon:

Why did he give his hand to insignificant slanderers, Why did he believe false words and caresses, He who comprehended people from a young age?.. (M. Yu. Lermontov);

17.Rhetorical exclamation is a figure that contains a statement in the form of an exclamation. Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of certain feelings in a message; they are usually distinguished not only by special emotionality, but also by solemnity and elation:

That was on the morning of our years - Oh happiness! oh tears! O forest! oh life! oh sunshine! O fresh spirit of birch. (A.K. Tolstoy);

Alas! The proud country bowed to the power of a stranger. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

18.Rhetorical appeal- this is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. It serves not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but rather to express the attitude towards what is said in the text. Rhetorical appeals can create solemnity and pathosity of speech, express joy, regret and other shades of mood and emotional state:

My friends! Our union is wonderful. He, like the soul, is uncontrollable and eternal (A.S. Pushkin);

ABOUT, deep night! Oh, cold autumn! Mute! (K. D. Balmont)

19.Repeat (positional- lexical repetition, lexical repetition)- this is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of any member of a sentence (word), part of a sentence or a whole sentence, several sentences, stanzas in order to attract special attention to them.

Types of repetition are anaphora, epiphora and pickup.

Anaphora(translated from Greek - ascent, rise), or unity of beginning, is the repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of lines, stanzas or sentences:

Lazy the hazy noon breathes,

Lazy the river is rolling.

And in the fiery and pure firmament

Clouds are melting lazily (F.I. Tyutchev);

Epiphora(translated from Greek - addition, final sentence of a period) is the repetition of words or groups of words at the end of lines, stanzas or sentences:

Although man is not eternal,

That which is eternal - humanely.

What is a day or an age?

Before what is infinite?

Although man is not eternal,

That which is eternal - humanely(A. A. Fet);

They got a loaf of light bread - joy!

Today the film is good in the club - joy!

A two-volume edition of Paustovsky was brought to the bookstore. joy!(A.I. Solzhenitsyn)

Pickup- this is a repetition of any segment of speech (sentence, poetic line) at the beginning of the corresponding segment of speech following it:

He fell down on the cold snow,

On the cold snow, like a pine tree,

Like a pine tree in a damp forest (M. Yu. Lermontov);

20. Parallelism (syntactic parallelism)(in translation from Greek - walking next to) - identical or similar construction of adjacent parts of the text: next to worthwhile offers, poetic lines, stanzas, which, when correlated, create a single image:

I look at the future with fear,

I look at the past with longing... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

I was a ringing string for you,

I was your blooming spring,

But you didn't want flowers

And you didn't hear the words? (K. D. Balmont)

Often using antithesis: What is he looking for in a distant land? What did he throw in his native land?(M. Lermontov); Not the country is for business, but business is for the country (from the newspaper).

21. Inversion(translated from Greek - rearrangement, inversion) is a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of any element of the text (word, sentence), giving the phrase a special stylistic coloring: solemn, high-sounding or, conversely, colloquial, somewhat reduced characteristics. The following combinations are considered inverted in Russian:

The agreed definition comes after the word being defined: I’m sitting behind bars in dungeon dank(M. Yu. Lermontov); But there were no swells running through this sea; the stuffy air did not flow: it was brewing great thunderstorm(I. S. Turgenev);

Additions and circumstances expressed by nouns, come before the word they refer to: Hours of monotonous battle(monotonous clock strike);

22.Parcellation(translated from French - particle) - stylistic device, which consists in dismembering a single syntactic structure sentences consisting of several intonation-semantic units - phrases. At the place of division of a sentence, a period, an exclamation point and question marks, ellipsis. In the morning, bright as a splint. Scary. Long. Ratnym. Was broken rifle regiment. Our. In an unequal battle(R. Rozhdestvensky); Why isn't anyone outraged? Education and healthcare! The most important areas of society! Not mentioned in this document at all(From newspapers); It is necessary for the state to remember the main thing: its citizens are not individuals. And people. (From newspapers)

23. Non-union and multi-union - syntactic figures, based on deliberate omission, or, conversely, deliberate repetition of conjunctions. In the first case, when omitting conjunctions, speech becomes condensed, compact, and dynamic. The actions and events depicted here quickly, instantly unfold, replacing each other:

Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.

Drumming, clicks, grinding.

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,

And death and hell on all sides. (A.S. Pushkin)

When multi-union speech, on the contrary, slows down, pauses and repeated conjunctions highlight words, expressively emphasizing their semantic significance:

But And grandson, And great-grandson, And great-great-grandson

They grow in me while I grow... (P.G. Antokolsky)

24.Period- a long, polynomial sentence or a very common simple sentence, which is distinguished by completeness, unity of topic and intonational division into two parts. In the first part, the syntactic repetition of the same type of subordinate clauses (or members of the sentence) occurs with an increasing increase in intonation, then there is a significant pause separating it, and in the second part, where the conclusion is given, the tone of voice noticeably decreases. This intonation design forms a kind of circle:

If I wanted to limit my life to the home circle, / When a pleasant lot ordered me to be a father, a husband, / If I were captivated by the family picture for even a single moment, then it’s true that I wouldn’t look for another bride besides you. (A.S. Pushkin)

25.Antithesis or opposition(in translation from Greek - opposition) is a turn in which opposing concepts, positions, images are sharply contrasted. To create an antithesis, antonyms are usually used - general linguistic and contextual:

You are rich, I am very poor, You are a prose writer, I am a poet(A.S. Pushkin);

Yesterday I looked into your eyes,

And now everything is looking sideways,

Yesterday I was sitting before the birds,

All larks these days are crows!

I'm stupid and you're smart

Alive, but I'm dumbfounded.

O cry of women of all times:

“My dear, what have I done to you?” (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

26.Gradation(in translation from Latin - gradual increase, strengthening) - a technique consisting in the sequential arrangement of words, expressions, tropes (epithets, metaphors, comparisons) in order of strengthening (increasing) or weakening (decreasing) of a characteristic. Increasing gradation usually used to enhance the imagery, emotional expressiveness and impact of the text:

I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend(A. A. Blok);

Glowed, burned, shone huge blue eyes. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Descending gradation is used less frequently and usually serves to enhance the semantic content of the text and create imagery:

He brought mortal resin

Yes, a branch with withered leaves. (A.S. Pushkin)

27.Oxymoron(in translation from Greek - witty-stupid) - this is a stylistic figure in which they usually combine incompatible concepts, usually, contradictory friends friend ( bitter joy, ringing silence and so on.); it turns out new meaning, and the speech acquires special expressiveness: From that hour began for Ilya sweet torment, lightly scorching the soul (I. S. Shmelev);

Eat joyful melancholy in the red of dawn (S. A. Yesenin);

But their ugly beauty I soon comprehended the mystery. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

28. Allegory– allegory, transmission of an abstract concept through a concrete image: Foxes and wolves must win(cunning, malice, greed).

29.Default- a deliberate break in the statement, conveying the emotion of the speech and suggesting that the reader will guess what was unspoken: But I wanted... Perhaps you...

In addition to the above syntactic means of expressiveness, the tests also contain the following:

-exclamation sentences;

- dialogue, hidden dialogue;

-question-and-answer form of presentation a form of presentation in which questions and answers to questions alternate;

-rows of homogeneous members;

-citation;

-introductory words and constructions

-Incomplete sentences– sentences in which any member is missing that is necessary for completeness of structure and meaning. Missing sentence members can be restored and contextualized.

Including ellipsis, that is, omission of the predicate.

These concepts are covered in the school syntax course. That is probably why these means of expression are most often called syntactic in reviews.

In the Russian language, additional expressive means are widely used, for example, tropes and figures of speech

Tropes are speech patterns that are based on the use of words in a figurative meaning. They are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the writer or speaker.

The tropes include: metaphors, epithets, metonymy, synecdoche, comparisons, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, personification.

Metaphor is a technique in which words and expressions are used in a figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity or comparison.

And my tired soul is enveloped in darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

An epithet is a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, or characteristics. Usually an epithet is a colorful definition.

Your thoughtful nights are transparent twilight. (A S. Pushkin)

Metonymy is a means that is based on replacing one word with another based on contiguity.

The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch. (A.S. Pushkin)

Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy - transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.

And you could hear the Frenchman rejoicing until dawn. (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Comparison is a technique in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Typically comparative conjunctions are used.

Anchar, like a formidable sentinel, stands alone in the entire universe. (A.S. Pushkin).

Hyperbole is a trope based on excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.

For a week I won’t say a word to anyone, I keep sitting on a stone by the sea... (A. A. Akhmatova).

Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole, an artistic understatement.

Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble... (A.S. Griboyedov)

Personification is a means based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones.

The silent sadness will be consoled, and the joyful joy will reflect. (A.S. Pushkin).

Periphrasis is a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, or phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive phrase in which the characteristics of an object, person, or phenomenon not directly named are indicated.

"King of beasts" instead of lion.

Irony is a technique of ridicule that contains an assessment of what is being ridiculed. Irony always has a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly stated, but what is implied.

Thus, the example mentions Count Khvostov, who was not recognized as a poet by his contemporaries due to the mediocrity of his poems.

Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, was already singing in immortal verses the misfortunes of the Neva banks. (A.S. Pushkin)

Stylistic figures are special expressions that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expressiveness.

It must be emphasized once again that stylistic figures make our speech informationally redundant, but this redundancy is needed for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore for a stronger impact on the addressee

These figures include:

And you, arrogant descendants…. (M.Yu. Lermontov)

A rhetorical question is a structure of speech in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement.

And will the desired dawn finally rise over the fatherland of enlightened freedom? (A S. Pushkin)

Anaphora - repetition of parts of relatively independent segments.

It’s as if you curse days without light,

As if gloomy nights scare you...

(A. Apukhtin)

Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me

I can't find a place in a quiet house

Near the peaceful fire. (A.A. Blok)

Antithesis is an artistic opposition.

And day, and hour, and in writing, and orally, for the truth, yes and no... (M. Tsvetaeva)

An oxymoron is a combination of logically incompatible concepts.

You, who loved me with the falsehood of truth and the truth of lies... (M. Tsvetaeva)

Gradation is a grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence into in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or decreasing emotional and semantic significance

I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry... (With A. Yesenin)

Silence is a deliberate interruption of speech based on the guesswork of the reader, who must mentally complete the phrase.

But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus... (A.S. Pushkin)

Polyunion - repetition of a conjunction, perceived as redundant, creates emotionality in speech.

And for him they were resurrected again: deity, inspiration, life, tears, and love. (A.S. Pushkin)

Non-union is a construction in which unions are omitted to enhance expression.

Swede, Russian, chops, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, grinding... (A.S. Pushkin)

Parallelism is the identical arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text.

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon.. (V.V. Mayakovsky).

Chiasmus - cross arrangement parallel parts in two adjacent sentences.

Automedons (coachman, driver - O.M.) are our fighters, our troikas are indomitable... (A.S. Pushkin). The two parts of the complex sentence in the example, according to the order of the members of the sentence, are as if in a mirror image: Subject - definition - predicate, predicate - definition - subject.

Inversion is the reverse order of words, for example, placing the definition after the word being defined, etc.

At the frosty dawn, under the sixth birch tree, around the corner, near the church, wait, Don Juan... (M. Tsvetaeva).

In the example given, the adjective frosty is in the position after the word being defined, which is inversion.

To check or self-check on the topic, you can try to solve our crossword puzzle

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Maznevoy

Did you like it? Don't hide your joy from the world - share it

The task itself already has a hint, for example: name the trope in sentence No. And there are only 4 main tropes: metaphor -extended metaphor; epithet, comparison, personification(“animate metaphor”), as well as hyperbole, litotes, allegory, metonymy, synecdoche. Other means that are proposed in KIM (in the task) are either stylistic, or syntactic devices, or lexical means.

So, we divide all techniques into four groups: 1. Trails; 2. Stylistic means.3. Syntactic means(techniques)4. Vocabulary - lexical means. 5. Phonetic possibilities. Sound aids.

Unified State Exam. Task B8. Visual and expressive means of language(these are tropes, or artistic techniques)

Fine-expressive means of language are the techniques by which the visual appearance of a phenomenon, designed for sensory-emotional perception, is reproduced in the imagination.

1. TRAILS (Fine and expressive means of language)

Paths (Greek tropos - turnover) - the use of the word not in a literal, but in a figurative, allegorical sense.

The most important types of trails:

Comparison - comparison of phenomena and concepts with other phenomena. The fragile ice lies on the icy river like melting sugar. Joy crawls like a snail

Epithet (Greek epitheton - application) - artistic definition. Marmalade mood A. Chekhov. The golden grove dissuaded Birch with a cheerful language. (S. Yesenin):

A) epithets expressed by nouns (Mother Volga, Father Don, wind-tramp);

B) epithets expressed by adjectives(bright eyes, sable eyebrows, green wine, damp earth);

B) epithets expressed by adverbs:

You love sadly and difficultly.

And a woman’s heart - jokingly A.S. Pushkin

A constant epithet is a well-established definition of heroes, images in folklore: burning tears, a red sun, a good fellow, a little path, a fierce enemy

Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a hidden comparison based on the hidden likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast (the forest is noisy, the garden is empty, the weather is stormy):

A) personification – a figure of speech in which words denoting the properties and signs of phenomena of the animate world are used in descriptions of outwardly similar phenomena of the inanimate world. In other words, personification is the attribution of properties of living beings to inanimate objects:

Over darkened Petrograd

November was breathing autumn cold A.S. Pushkin

The Terek howls, wild and angry. M.Yu. Lermontov;

Silent sadness will be consoled... A.S. Pushkin

b ) expanded metaphor:

But the church is on a steep hill

Visible between the clouds to this day,

And they stand at her gate

Black granites are on guard,

They are covered with snow cloaks, And on their chests, instead of armor, eternal ice burns. M. Lermontov

Metaphorical epithet is a combination of the functions of epithet and metaphor: foggy youth, golden dreams, gray morning, iron will, silk eyelashes, heart of stone, iron will (these are established phrases, reminiscent of phraseological units in the form adj + noun)

Symbol (Greek symbolon – symbol) – an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon:

Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! A.S. Pushkin

Here the sun is a symbol of reason, happiness and knowledge.

An example of an expanded symbol is M. Lermontov’s poem “Sail”. A symbol is a concept that is deeper than a metaphor.

Allegory - type of allegory; an abstract idea, a concept embodied in a concrete image. Or an expanded simile, the components of which form a system of allusions, i.e. designation of specific phenomena through the signs of these phenomena. Thus, the goddess of justice Themis was depicted with scales and blindfolded. Human sins were measured with scales; blindfolded eyes allegorically pointed to the impartiality and objectivity of the goddess-judge. This is where expressions such as scales of justice and blind justice came from. Allegory is often used in fables and fairy tales, where animals, objects, and natural phenomena act as carriers of properties.

Metonymy (Greek metonomadzo – to rename).

This is a technique in which words are replaced not on the basis of similarity (as in metaphor), but on the basis of different types of connections between phenomena. This connection can be of several types:

A) connection of the vessel with its contents (drank two glasses, ate a bowl of soup, ate seven glasses);

B) the connection between the material and the thing made from it (amber on the Tsaregrad pipes, porcelain and bronze on the table; there is gold);

C) the connection of actions and circumstances with the place where they took place (violent Rome rejoices; this is his Waterloo);

D) the connection of things with their property, purpose or character (crafty dagger, bloody lesson);

D) communication general concepts with specific ones (the city takes courage, bloody villainy);

E) the connection between mental phenomena and characteristic forms their manifestations. (Compare: to be sad, to yearn - to sigh; to expose oneself to danger because of one’s stupidity - to sharpen an ax on oneself, to chop off a branch under oneself).

Synecdoche (special kind metonymy) - (Greek synecdoche - understanding through something) - replacement of words based on quantitative relationships, for example, the name of a greater in the meaning of a smaller, a whole in the meaning of a part and vice versa. “All the flags will come to visit us.” “We keep looking at Napoleons.” - A.S. Pushkin

“Everything sleeps - man, beast, and bird” - N. Gogol. “Swede, Russian – stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin”

Gradation gradualism (Strengthening or weakening) – usually involves the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing or decreasing strength (“I spoke, convinced, demanded, ordered.”)

Oxymoron

Paraphrase(s)- signifying trope(king of beasts - lion; the owner of the taiga is the tiger, Northern Palmyra, North Venice- all St. Petersburg, the golden-domed capital - Moscow, the mother of all Russian cities - Kiev)

2. Stylistic figures.

Stylistic figures are expressions that are constant in meaning and design and have certain artistic capabilities.

anaphora, or unity of command:

I swear by the first day of creation,

I swear on his last day,

I swear by the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph

M.Yu. Lermontov;

Epiphora , or ending, is extremely rare in Russian verse, typical of Eastern poetry:

I have not found a confidante except my soul,

I haven’t found anything more selfless than my own heart...

And I haven’t found heart captivity anywhere more terrible.

pleonasm – repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

gradation . This technique consists in the fact that it is not the same word that is repeated, but semantically close words, that is, words that are close in meaning, which, gradually reinforcing each other, create one image, usually expressing a sequentially increasing or decreasing feeling, thought, and they also recreate an event or action: In the old days they loved to eat well, they loved to drink even better, and even better they loved to have fun (N.V. Gogol);

My comrades burned in tanks

To ashes, to ashes, to the ground. (Slutsky) Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts - A.S. Pushkin"

Oxymoron (oxymoron) - a turn of speech in which a new expressive meaning arises as a result of combinations of words with opposite meanings (good-natured ferocity, hot Snow, wretched luxury, living corpse, Dead souls).

Irony (Greek eironeia - pretense) - can take the form of any other trope. This is a turn of phrase in which words characterizing a phenomenon are used in order to achieve a comic effect in the opposite meaning (philosopher at eighteen years old, A.S. Pushkin. Where, smart one, are you wandering from? I. Krylov.)

hyperbola – artistic exaggeration (a feast for the whole world; a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper, N.V. Gogol);

litotes - a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation (a boy the size of a finger; a man the size of a fingernail, Nekrasov, he does not shine with intelligence).

alogism

3. Lexical means. Visual possibilities of vocabulary.

A) lexical repetitions- deliberate repetition of a word to draw the reader’s attention (Take care of your penny, a penny won’t give you away, you can ruin everything in the world with a penny. N.V. Gogol);

pleonasm - repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates one or another stylistic effect:

My friend, my friend,

I am very, very sick.

I don’t know where this pain came from... S. Yesenin.

Phraseologisms (winged words) – stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure. Pretentious, hastily, without fluff or feather, Knight without fear and reproach

synonyms - words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms are close in context.

antithesis – comparison of phenomena that are opposite in meaning and significance. (Compare: the first day of creation is the last day, M.Yu. Lermontov);

Contextual antonyms are opposite in context. Out of context, the meaning changes (Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire - A. Pushkin)

Evaluative vocabulary– emotionally charged words containing evaluation: simpleton, smartass, clever, vocal.

Homonyms words that sound the same but have different meanings passage in birdsong, trade in passage

Paronyms – words similar in sound, but different in meaning: heroic - heroic, effective - valid

Vernacular (colloquial vocabulary, or reduced, or colloquial) - words of colloquial use, distinguished by some rudeness: blockhead, fidgety, wobble.

Dialectisms - words that exist in a certain area. Draniki, mshars, Buryaki.

Borrowed words are words transferred from other languages. PR, parliament, consensus, millennium.

Book vocabulary - words that are characteristic of written speech and have a special stylistic connotation. Immortality, incentive, prevail

Jargonisms – words that are outside the literary norm./ Argo / - Head - watermelon, globe, pumpkin...

Neologisms – new words that arise to denote new concepts. Sitting, shopping, music video director, marketing.

Professionalisms (special vocabulary)- words used by people of the same profession. Galley.

Terms – special concepts in science, technology...Optics, catarrh.

Outdated words (archaisms)- words displaced from the modern language by others denoting the same concepts. Thrifty - caring, joy - joy, youth - young man, eye - eye, neck

Expressive spoken vocabulary- emotionally charged words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary. Dirty, loud, bearded.

Palindrome - a word, phrase, line that is read equally from left to right and from right to left (tavern)

4. Syntactic means

pass – a form of laconic, “slogan” style. Its strength lies in brevity, and brevity depends on how skillfully the words with the most meaningful meaning and picture quality are selected and left in the phrase. (We sat down - in the ashes! Hail - in the dust! In swords - sickles and plows. V.A. Zhukovsky);

For incomplete sentences see blank(often in dialogue, slogan)

Default, or ellipsis- a form that reproduces the speech of a very excited person. The default is close to omission:

Father... Mazepa... execution - with a prayer

Here, in this castle, is my mother... /The figure allows the listener to guess for himself what will be discussed/.

rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal– to enhance the expressiveness of speech, do not require a response:

Where are you galloping, proud horse?

And where will you put your hooves? A.S. Pushkin

Do you know Ukrainian night? Oh, you don’t know Ukrainian night! N.V.Gogol.

A number of homogeneous members -these are groups of homogeneous members that complicate the structure of a sentence. Any members of a sentence can be homogeneous, with the help of which the meaning of the sentence is more meaningfully and fully conveyed

asyndeton – a list of phenomena, actions, events when the necessary conjunctions are deliberately omitted. The effect of rapidity of changing images, feelings, emotional intensity, excitement:

The booths and women flash past,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Pharmacies, shops, fashion.

Balconies, lions on the gates,

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

A.S. Pushkin

Multi-Union (polysyndeton) - a special introduction of additional conjunctions to give speech smoothness, majesty, and sometimes to emphasize an epically calm, narrative manner:

And the sling, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger.

The years are kind to the winner...

A.S. Pushkin

Parcellation – deliberate violation of sentence boundaries

It was a Volga. Ashy. With a Moscow number. (Usually, when parcelling, 2 sentences are indicated. To correctly determine this technique, you need to re-read the previous sentence and the subsequent one).

Incomplete sentences– in which a member of the sentence is missing that could be restored from the context. There is another turn ahead, and another one behind it.

Question-answer form of presentation– A form of presentation in which questions and answers to the question alternate.

Syntactic parallelism– a figurative comparison of two similar phenomena, compositionally expressed in the form of parallel phrases:

Black raven in the gentle twilight,

Black velvet on dark shoulders

A.Blok;

The graves are overgrown with grass -

The pain grows old.

M. Sholokhov.

Negative parallelism: emphasize the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

It’s not the wind that bends the branch,

It’s not the oak tree rustling, -

My heart is groaning

Like an autumn leaf trembling.

S.Stromilov

Parallelism serves to compare natural phenomena with human mood.

Enough, white birch, raging over the water,

Come on, stupid girl, play pranks on me - a similar syntactic construction.

alogism – association as homogeneous members of different species significance aimed at creating a comic effect. (As soon as I passed the exams, I immediately went with my mother, furniture and brother... to the dacha, A.P. Chekhov);

inversion – violation of standard word order, reverse: The sail turns white lonely

She is slim, her movements

That swan of desert waters

Reminds me of a smooth ride

That is a doe's quick striving. A.S. Pushkin.

Italics – highlighted word, key

Ellipsis - omission of any member of the sentence. Men - for axes. We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. V. Zhukovsky

5. Sound means of expression. Phonetic means (Rare)

Alliteration - a technique of enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds. Like a winged lily, / Hesitating, Lala-Ruk enters

Assonance - a technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds. The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I’m sick... A. Pushkin

Sound recording - a technique for enhancing the visual quality of the text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture. Nightingale: “Then it suddenly scattered in small shots throughout the grove” I. Krylov

Onomatopoeia- imitation of the sounds of living and inanimate nature using the sounds of language. When the mazurka thunder roared...A. Pushkin

• Some techniques may be in stylistics and tropes, or in syntax and stylistics - you need to be careful and distinguish: figurative meaning (figurative) is tropes; if the structure of the sentence itself, its construction is syntax. And if you produce an effect on the reader, highlighting the peculiarity of the phrase as the key to the problem of the text - this is stylistics.

Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when necessary emotional impact on listeners or readers. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special means language.

The word is the basis visual expressiveness speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads and serve to create sound game.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
• Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept with various sides, have different semantic meanings and stylistic overtones. Without synonyms it is impossible to build a bright and figurative phrase, the speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

• complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
• stylistic - have same value, but at the same time relate to different styles speech (finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms – words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to one part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Paths that are meant to hide true meaning expressions through slight ridicule.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated.
Personification	The reception in which inanimate objects attributes the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls).
Periphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. The metaphor is aimed at external comparison objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

Name syntactic construction	Description
Anaphora	Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence.
Epiphora	Application identical words and expressions at the end of neighboring sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in same shape. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
Gradation	Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning.
Default	Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical appeal	An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects.
A rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures speech to convey expression, tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Multi-Union	Multiple repetition identical conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism.
Antithesis	A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such revolutions are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. IN scientific publications and in official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.