39. World War I: the course of military operations in 1914-1915. Results and consequences of the main battles.
40. World War I: the course of military operations in 1916-1918. Results and consequences of the main battles.
Beginning of the First World War
Germany, in accordance with a pre-developed management plan lightning war, “Blitzkrieg” (Schlieffen Plan), sent the main forces to the western front, hoping to defeat France with a quick blow before the completion of the mobilization and deployment of the Russian army, and then deal with Russia.
The German command intended to deliver the main blow through Belgium to the unprotected north of France, bypass Paris from the west and take the French army, the main forces of which were concentrated on the fortified eastern, Franco-German border, into a huge “cauldron”.
On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and on the same day the Germans invaded Luxembourg without any declaration of war.
France appealed to England for help, but the British government, by a vote of 12 to 6, refused France's support, declaring that "France should not count on help that we are currently unable to provide," adding that "if the Germans invade to Belgium and will occupy only the “corner” of this country closest to Luxembourg, and not the coast, England will remain neutral.”
To which the French Ambassador to Great Britain, Kambo, said that if England now betrays its allies: France and Russia, then after the war it will have a bad time, regardless of who the winner is. The British government, in fact, pushed the Germans to aggression. The German leadership decided that England would not enter the war and moved on to decisive action.
On August 2, German troops finally occupied Luxembourg and Belgium was given an ultimatum to allow German armies to enter the border with France. Only 12 hours were given for reflection.
On August 2, Germany declared war on France, accusing it of “organized attacks and aerial bombardments of Germany” and “violating Belgian neutrality.”
On August 4, German troops poured across the Belgian border. King Albert of Belgium turned for help to the guarantor countries of Belgian neutrality. London, contrary to its previous statements, sent an ultimatum to Berlin: stop the invasion of Belgium or England will declare war on Germany, to which Berlin declared “betrayal.”[source not specified 89 days] After the ultimatum expired, Great Britain declared war on Germany and sent to help France 5.5 divisions.
The First World War has begun.
Progress of hostilities
Having crossed the Belgian border on the morning of August 4, the German army easily swept away the weak barriers of the Belgian army and moved deeper into Belgium. Bypassing and blocking well-fortified Belgian fortresses: Liege, Namur (fell on August 25) and Antwerp (fell on October 9), the Germans drove the Belgian army in front of them and took Brussels on August 20, reaching the Belgian-French border on the same day.
On August 14-24, the Border Battle took place: in the Ardennes, near Charleroi and Mons. English French troops suffered a heavy defeat, losing about 150 thousand people, and the Germans invaded France from the north on a broad front, delivering the main blow to the west, bypassing Paris, thus taking the French army in a giant pincer.
The German armies were rapidly moving forward. The English units retreated in disarray to the coast, the French command, not hoping to hold Paris, was preparing to surrender the capital, and the government fled to Bordeaux.
But the Germans simply did not have enough strength to complete the operation to bypass Paris and encircle the French army. The troops, having marched hundreds of kilometers in battle, were exhausted, communications were stretched out, there was nothing to cover the flanks and emerging gaps, there were no reserves, they had to maneuver with the same units, driving them back and forth, so the Headquarters agreed with the proposal of the commander who was making a roundabout maneuver 1- Von Kluck's th army reduced the offensive front and did not make a deep envelopment of the French army bypassing Paris, but turned east north of the French capital and hit the rear of the main forces of the French army.
But turning east north of Paris, the Germans exposed their right flank and rear to the attack of the French group concentrated to defend Paris. There was nothing to cover the right flank and rear: 2 corps and a cavalry division, originally intended to strengthen the advancing group, were sent to East Prussia to help the defeated 8th German army. Nevertheless, German command went on a fatal maneuver for itself: it turned its troops to the east before reaching Paris, hoping for the passivity of the enemy. But the French command did not fail to take advantage of the opportunity and struck the exposed flank and rear of the German army. The Battle of the Marne began, in which the Allies managed to turn the tide of hostilities in their favor and push German troops on the front from Verdun to Amiens 50-100 kilometers back. After this, the so-called “Run to the Sea” took place - both armies tried to encircle each other from the flank, which only led to the fact that the front line rested on the shore of the North Sea.
On the Eastern Front at this time, three major battles took place between the Russian and German armies: the East Prussian operation of 1914, the Lodz operation and the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, in which the opponents inflicted a number of sensitive blows on each other, and Germany had to transfer reinforcements from France to the east , which was one of the main reasons for her defeat on the Marne. But in the Battle of Galicia, the Russian army completely defeated Germany’s only ally, Austria-Hungary, advancing deep into enemy territory up to 350 km. By the end of the year, a positional front had been established in Eastern Europe, as in the West.
On the Serbian front, things were not going well for the Austrians. Despite their great numerical superiority, they managed to occupy Belgrade, which was located on the border, only on December 2, but on December 15, the Serbs recaptured Belgrade and drove the Austrians out of their territory.
Entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war
Since the beginning of the war in Turkey, there was no agreement on whether to enter the war and on whose side. In the unofficial Young Turk triumvirate, War Minister Enver Pasha and Interior Minister Talaat Pasha were supporters Triple Alliance, but Jemal Pasha was a supporter of the Entente. On August 2, 1914, the German-Turkish Treaty was signed alliance treaty, according to which Turkish army was actually placed under the leadership of the German military mission. Mobilization was announced in the country. However, at the same time, the Turkish government published a declaration of neutrality. On August 10, the Dardanelles were entered German cruisers"Goeben" and "Breslau", which escaped pursuit of the British fleet in the Mediterranean Sea. With the advent of these ships, not only the Turkish army, but also the fleet found themselves under the command of the Germans. On September 9, the Turkish government announced to all powers that it had decided to abolish the capitulation regime (the special legal status of foreign citizens). This caused protest from all powers.
However, most members of the Turkish government, including the Grand Vizier, still opposed the war. Then Enver Pasha, together with the German command, started the war without the consent of the rest of the government, presenting the country with a fait accompli. Türkiye declared “jihad” (holy war) against the Entente countries. On October 29 and 30, 1914, the Turkish fleet under the command of the German admiral Suchon shelled Sevastopol, Odessa, Feodosia and Novorossiysk. On November 2, Russia declared war on Turkey. England and France followed on November 5 and 6. Turkey's entry into the war interrupted maritime communications between Russia and its allies across the Black and Mediterranean seas. The Caucasian Front emerged between Russia and Turkey. In December 1914 - January 1915, during the Sarykamysh operation, the Russian Caucasian Army stopped the advance of Turkish troops on Kars, and then defeated them and launched a counteroffensive.
Combat at sea
With the outbreak of the war, the German fleet launched cruising operations throughout the World Ocean, which, however, did not lead to a significant disruption of the merchant shipping of its opponents. However, part of the Entente fleet was diverted to fight the German raiders. The German squadron of Admiral von Spee managed to defeat the British squadron in the battle at Cape Coronel (Chile) on November 1, 1914, but later it itself was defeated by the British in the Battle of Falklands on December 8, 1914.
In the North Sea, the fleets of the opposing sides carried out raiding operations. The first major clash occurred on August 28, 1914, off the island of Heligoland (Battle of Heligoland). Victory went to the English fleet.
May 31, 1916 happened Battle of Jutland- a clash between the main forces of England and Germany. The Germans won in terms of the number of losses, but the strategic victory was on the side of Britain, since after Jutland the German fleet no longer risked going out to the open sea.
1915 Campaign
Very soon after the start of the war, it became clear that the conflict would become protracted. The uncoordinated actions of the superior Entente countries allowed Germany, the main military force of the Triple Alliance, to fight the war on equal terms. For the first time in this war, military operations became truly massive.
A Russian 122 mm howitzer fires on the German front. 1915
In 1915, Germany decided to make the main attack on the Eastern Front in an attempt to take Russia out of the war.
Breakthrough of the Russian front, summer 1915
The German command planned to arrange a gigantic “Cannes” for the Russian army. This involved a series of powerful flank attacks from East Prussia and Galicia to break through the defenses of the Russian army and encircle its main forces in Poland.
During the August operation, also called the winter battle in Masuria, German troops managed to knock out the 10th Russian army from East Prussia and encircle the 20th corps of this army. However, the Germans were unable to break through the Russian front. The subsequent German offensive in the Prasnysh area suffered a serious setback - in the battle, German troops were defeated and driven back to East Prussia.
Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, February 1915
In the winter of 1914-1915 there was a battle between the Russians and the Austrians for the passes in the Carpathians. On March 10 (23), the Siege of Przemysl ended - an important Austrian fortress with a garrison of 115 thousand people capitulated.
At the end of April, the Germans struck another powerful blow in East Prussia and at the beginning of May 1915 they broke through the Russian front in the Memel-Libau region. In May, German-Austrian troops, concentrating superior forces in the Gorlice area, managed to break through the Russian front in Galicia. After this, in order to avoid encirclement, a general strategic retreat of the Russian army from Galicia and Poland began. On August 23, 1915, Nicholas II assumed the title of Supreme Commander-in-Chief, replacing Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, who was appointed commander of the Caucasian Front. M.V. Alekseev was appointed chief of staff of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. During the Sventsyansky breakthrough on September 8 - October 2, German troops were defeated and their offensive was stopped. The parties switched to trench warfare.
Although, during the 1915 campaign, Germany and its allies managed to advance deeper into Russian possessions, they failed to defeat the Russian army and take Russia out of the war.
On the Western Front, the battles of Neuve Chapelle and the second battle of Ypres took place, where gas attacks were used for the first time by German troops.
In order to withdraw Turkey from the war, Anglo-French troops attempted to carry out an operation to capture the Black Sea straits and Istanbul. Having landed troops on the Gallipoli Peninsula (Dardanelles Operation) on February 19, 1915, they unsuccessfully tried to break the resistance of Turkish troops throughout the year. However, having suffered heavy losses, the Entente countries at the end of 1915 were forced to evacuate their troops to Greece.
At the end of 1915, Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the support of Bulgaria, which entered the war on October 14, managed to defeat Serbia and seize all of its territory. To counteract German-Austrian troops in the Balkans, Great Britain and France landed troops in the Thessaloniki region, creating the Thessaloniki Front, and Italian troops landed in Albania.
On the Caucasian Front in July, Russian troops repelled the offensive of Turkish troops in the area of Lake Van, while ceding part of the territory (Alashkert operation). The fighting spread to Persian territory. On October 30, Russian troops landed in the port of Anzeli, by the end of December they defeated pro-Turkish armed forces and took control of the territory of Northern Persia, preventing Persia from attacking Russia and securing the left flank of the Caucasian army.
On November 23-26 (December 6-9), 1915, the second inter-allied conference was held at the headquarters of the French army in Chantilly. She recognized the need to begin preparations for a coordinated offensive by all allied armies in the three main theaters - French, Russian and Italian.
Italy's entry into the war
With the outbreak of war, Italy remained neutral. On August 3, 1914, the Italian king informed William II that the conditions for the outbreak of war did not correspond to those conditions in the Treaty of the Triple Alliance under which Italy should enter the war. On the same day, the Italian government published a declaration of neutrality. Negotiations dragged on for a long time between Italy and the Central Powers and Entente countries. Finally, on April 26, 1915, the London Pact was concluded, according to which Italy pledged to declare war on Austria-Hungary within a month, as well as to oppose all enemies of the Entente. A number of territories were promised to Italy as “payment for blood.” England provided Italy with a loan of 50 million pounds.
Then Germany obtained from Austria-Hungary a promise to transfer the territories inhabited by Italians to Italy if Italy remained neutral. The German ambassador Bülow reported this promise to the leader of the Italian neutralists, Giolitti. Giolitti was supported by 320 of the 508 members of the Italian parliament. Prime Minister Salandra resigned. However, at this moment, supporters of the war, led by the socialist Benito Mussolini and Gabriele d'Annunzio, organized demonstrations against parliament and the "neutralists". The king did not accept Salandra's resignation, and Giolitti was forced to leave Rome. On May 23, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.
1916 campaign
Russian expeditionary force in France. Summer 1916, Champagne. The head of the 1st brigade, General Lokhvitsky, with several Russians and French officers bypasses positions
Having failed to achieve decisive success on the Eastern Front in the 1915 campaign, the German command decided in 1916 to deliver the main blow in the west and take France out of the war. It planned to cut it off with powerful flank attacks at the base of the Verdun ledge, encircling the entire enemy Verdun group, and thereby create a huge gap in the Allied defense. Through which it was then planned to strike the flank and rear of the central French armies and defeat the entire Allied front.
On February 21, 1916, German troops launched an offensive operation in the area of the Verdun fortress, called the Battle of Verdun. After stubborn fighting with huge losses on both sides, the Germans managed to advance 6-8 kilometers forward and take some of the forts of the fortress, but their advance was stopped. This battle lasted until December 18, 1916. The French and British lost 750 thousand people, the Germans - 450 thousand.
During the Battle of Verdun, a new weapon was used for the first time by Germany - a flamethrower. In the skies above Verdun, for the first time in the history of wars, the principles of aircraft combat were worked out - the American Lafayette squadron fought on the side of the Entente troops. The Germans pioneered the use of a fighter aircraft in which machine guns fired through the rotating propeller without damaging it.
On June 3, 1916, a major offensive operation of the Russian army began, called Brusilovsky breakthrough named after front commander A. A. Brusilov. As a result of the offensive operation, the Southwestern Front inflicted a heavy defeat on German and Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia and Bukovina, whose total losses amounted to more than 1.5 million people. At the same time, the Naroch and Baranovichi operations of the Russian troops ended unsuccessfully.
British infantry advance at the Battle of the Somme
In June, the Battle of the Somme began, which lasted until November, during which tanks were used for the first time.
On the Caucasian front in January-February, in the Battle of Erzurum, Russian troops completely defeated the Turkish army and captured the cities of Erzurum and Trebizond.
The successes of the Russian army prompted Romania to take the side of the Entente. On August 17, 1916, an agreement was concluded between Romania and the four Entente powers. Romania undertook to declare war on Austria-Hungary. For this she was promised Transylvania, part of Bukovina and the Banat. On August 28, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary. However, by the end of the year the Romanian army was defeated and most of the country was occupied.
The military campaign of 1916 was marked by an important event. On May 31 - June 1, the largest Jutland war of the entire war took place. naval battle.
All previous described events demonstrated the superiority of the Entente. By the end of 1916, both sides had lost 6 million people killed, and about 10 million were wounded. In November-December 1916, Germany and its allies offered peace, but the Entente rejected the offer.
1917 campaign
On February 1-20, 1917, the Petrograd Conference of the Entente countries took place, at which plans for the 1917 campaign and, unofficially, the internal political situation in Russia were discussed.
On April 6, the United States came out on the side of the Entente (after the so-called “Zimmerman telegram”), which finally changed the balance of forces in favor of the Entente, but the offensive that began in April (the Nivelle Offensive) was unsuccessful. Private operations in the area of Messines, on the Ypres River, near Verdun and Cambrai, where tanks were used massively for the first time, did not change general situation on the Western Front.
In February 1917, the size of the Russian army exceeded 8 million people. At the same time, Germany mobilized 13 million people during the war years, Austria-Hungary - 9 million.
After February Revolution in Russia, the Provisional Government advocated the continuation of the war, which was opposed by the Bolsheviks led by Lenin.
In general, due to the policies of the Provisional Government, the Russian army was disintegrating and losing its combat effectiveness. The offensive launched in June by the forces of the Southwestern Front failed and the front armies retreated 50-100 km. However, despite the fact that the Russian army had lost the ability for active combat operations, the Central Powers, which suffered huge losses during the 1916 campaign, they could not use the favorable opportunity created for themselves to inflict a decisive defeat on Russia and take it out of the war by military means.
On the Eastern Front, the German army limited itself to only private operations that did not in any way affect the strategic position of Germany. As a result of Operation Albion, German troops captured the islands of Dago and Ezel and forced the Russian fleet to leave the Gulf of Riga. And the situation of the Central Powers in 1717 was catastrophic: there were no longer reserves for the army, the scale of hunger, transport devastation and the fuel crisis was growing. The Entente countries could win even without resorting to offensive operations. By holding the front, they would simply kill their enemies with hunger and cold.
Although on the Italian front in October - November, the Austro-Hungarian army inflicted a major defeat on the Italian army at Caporetto and advanced 100-150 km deep into Italian territory, reaching the approaches to Venice. Only with the help of British and French troops deployed to Italy was it possible to stop the Austrian offensive.
After the October Revolution, the Soviet government, which came to power under the slogan of ending the war, concluded an armistice with Germany and its allies on December 15. The German leadership now has hope.
Results of the war
Foreign policy
In 1919, the Germans were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which was drawn up by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference.
Peace treaties with
Germany (Treaty of Versailles (1919))
Austria (Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919))
Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly)
Hungary (Treaty of Trianon (1920))
Turkey (Treaty of Sèvres (1920)).
The results of the First World War were the February and October Revolution in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, liquidation four empires: German, Russian, Ottoman Empires and Austria-Hungary, with the latter two being divided. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, is reduced territorially and weakened economically. The Civil War begins in Russia. The USA is becoming a superpower. The payment of reparations by the Weimar Republic and revanchist sentiments in Germany actually led to World War II.
Territorial changes
As a result of the war, England annexed Tanzania and South-West Africa, Iraq and Palestine, parts of Togo and Cameroon; Belgium - Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda; Greece - Eastern Thrace; Denmark - Northern Schleswig; Italy - South Tyrol and Istria; Romania - Transylvania and Southern Dobrudzha; France - Alsace-Lorraine, Syria, parts of Togo and Cameroon; Japan - German islands in Pacific Ocean north of the equator; French occupation of the Saarland.
The independence of Hungary, Danzig, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland and Yugoslavia was declared.
The Weimar and Austrian Republics are founded.
The Rhineland and the Black Sea straits have been demilitarized.
Military results
The First World War spurred the development of new weapons and means of combat. For the first time, tanks, chemical weapons, gas masks, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns were used. Airplanes, machine guns, mortars, submarines, and torpedo boats became widespread. The firepower of the troops increased sharply. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be divided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased. “Trench tactics” of warfare also appeared with the aim of exhausting the enemy and depleting his economy, working on military orders.
Economic results
The enormous scale and protracted nature of the First World War led to an unprecedented militarization of the economy for industrial states. This had an impact on the course of economic development of all major industrial states in the period between the two world wars: the strengthening government regulation and economic planning, the formation of military-industrial complexes, the acceleration of the development of national economic infrastructures (energy systems, a network of paved roads, etc.), an increase in the share of production of defense products and dual-use products.
Opinions of contemporaries
Humanity has never been in such a situation. Without having reached a much higher level of virtue and without the benefit of much wiser guidance, people for the first time received in their hands such instruments with which they could destroy all mankind without fail. This is the achievement of all their glorious history, all the glorious labors of previous generations. And people will do well to stop and think about this new responsibility. Death stands on the alert, obedient, expectant, ready to serve, ready to sweep away all peoples "en masse", ready, if necessary, to turn into powder, without any hope of revival, all that remains of civilization. She is only waiting for the word of command. She is waiting for this word from the fragile, frightened creature, who has long served as her victim and who has now become her master for the only time.
Detailed solution to paragraph 4 on history for 9th grade students, authors Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. 2016
- GDZ working History notebook for grade 9 can be found
1. Why was it not possible to prevent the First World War? What were the goals and plans of the main participants in the war? What was the nature of the war for different countries?
It was not possible to prevent the war, because the countries participating in the military-political blocs set their goals to annex as many more territories. If at first France, England and Russia sought to peacefully resolve the July crisis, Germany, on the contrary, sought to strengthen its influence in Europe and the world.
France intended to return the territories lost in 1871 and, if possible, to seize the banks of the Rhine, which was traditionally presented by many French “patriots” as the historical border of France with Germany. The seizure of Syria and Palestine and other colonial possessions was also in Paris's plans. Great Britain hoped to crush Germany as its main rival, whose growing power and aggressive aspirations threatened its interests. Anglo-German rivalry was the core of world politics before the war. Austria-Hungary hoped to put an end to Serbia and the pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans and their main stronghold - Russia, to tear away part of it from Russia western territories. Germany had the most ambitious plans - not only to defeat France and Great Britain and redistribute their colonies, but also to seize vast expanses of the European part of the Russian Empire for colonization. In turn, Russia considered it important to ensure control over the Black Sea straits, as well as to annex territories with a Slavic population, in particular Galicia, to the western provinces, and to provide assistance to the pan-Slavic movement in the Balkans. Some claims of the participants in the two military-political blocs were formalized in secret agreements. Others spoke out openly, appealing to the national feelings and interests of the people of their countries. A just war was only on the part of Serbia and Belgium.
2. How was the First World War started?
July crisis. On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was killed on one of the streets of Sarajevo. The Austro-Hungarian authorities saw this as a basis to accuse Serbia of a terrorist act. With the consent of Germany, they presented Serbia with an ultimatum, the demands of which infringed on the country's independence. So the assassination of the Archduke was used as a reason to start an international crisis. The great powers of Europe spent almost a month discussing the possible consequences of the death of the Archduke. German Emperor Wilhelm II pushed the Austrians to “finish off the Serbs.” Russia, France and Great Britain considered it necessary to repel the claims of the Austro-German bloc. The Serbian government, on the advice of Russia, agreed to almost all the demands, but this was not taken into account.
Although peaceful means of resolving the conflict were far from exhausted, on July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On July 29, Russia announced a partial, then general mobilization, then Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and on France on August 3. After the invasion German troops Great Britain entered the war in Belgium on August 4. Italy declared neutrality. The United States also declared neutrality on August 4. In order to seize German possessions in China and the Pacific Islands, Japan declared war on Germany in August. Germany brought Turkey into the war on its side (already on August 2, 1914, a German-Turkish treaty was signed), and subsequently Bulgaria (in September 1915). Thus began the First World War.
3. What are the reasons for the failure of the lightning war plan? What were the results of the 1914 campaign?
Entente troops offered active resistance to German troops. And Russia’s entry into the war contributed to the distraction of Germany from the western front, which made it possible for France and England to prepare for new hostilities. Germany was forced to fight a war on 2 fronts.
The main result of the 1914 campaign was the breakdown of the lightning war against France, largely due to the support of England and the active actions of Russia. The soldiers sat in trenches, the front lines stretched for hundreds of kilometers. England continued to reign at sea. German generals were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts under a naval blockade. It was decided to postpone active operations on the Western Front.
4. What alliance opposed the Entente during the war? Name its participants. Why did new countries join opposing coalitions?
Triple Alliance consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In April 1915, Italy joined the Entente. Türkiye and Bulgaria became Germany's allies. This is how the Quadruple Alliance was formed.
New countries joined coalitions in exchange for the promise of territorial gains.
5. Highlight the main results of the war in 1915.
Everything was drawn into the war large quantity countries, she acquired everything large scale. New countries joined military-political blocs. The result of the 1915 campaign was the disruption of German plans. Germany failed to turn the tide on the Eastern Front and achieve success in the naval war with Great Britain.
6. Name the main battles of 1916. What was their result?
Almost the entire 1916 (from February to December) the gigantic battle at Verdun continued, covering the path of the German army to Paris. The French carried out the order of the commander-in-chief J. J. Joffre “Fight to the death!” Both sides threw more and more reserves into the battle. Over 1 million people died in the Verdun Meat Grinder.
The Battle of the Somme lasted throughout the autumn of 1916. Here the British used tanks for the first time. They were very helpful psychological impact on German soldiers and contributed to the success of the attack, but strategic situation hasn't changed.
The offensive of Russian troops in the summer of 1916 on the Eastern Front was successful. The army of General A. A. Brusilov broke through the front in Galicia. The Brusilov breakthrough, although it did not lead to the military defeat of Austria-Hungary, helped the Anglo-French troops survive at Verdun and the Somme.
The Battle of Jutland, which lasted only a few hours, between the English and German fleets in May 1916, resulted in minor losses on both sides, but confirmed the strategic superiority of the English fleet and the maintenance of the blockade of German ships.
7. Tell us about the naval war and its results.
The failures of 1916 prompted Germany to take the desperate decision to once again resort to unrestricted submarine warfare against any ships heading to or leaving Great Britain. About a quarter of the ships leaving English ports did not return home. In 1917, German submarines sank over 2,700 ships. However, unrestricted submarine warfare led to Germany gaining another enemy - in April 1917, the United States declared war on it.
8. Name common features internal situation in the warring countries.
In all the warring countries, there was an unprecedented increase in government regulation and control over production, consumption and society in general.
Military-state-corporate capital was formed. Special committees were created that were in charge of the mobilization and distribution of raw materials, materials, human resources, the development of the production of military equipment and equipment, the distribution of orders for the production of everything that could be needed for the front, for victory. Political rights and freedoms were sharply limited or abolished on the basis of wartime laws.
Extension of the working day to 12 hours or more, worsening living conditions workers and the growth of corporate profits and the income of military profiteers, corruption and demagoguery are phenomena common to the countries included in both warring blocs.
Ration cards were introduced.
9. Why did Russia leave the war?
After the revolution, the Bolsheviks came to power and sought to make peace at any cost.
10. What are the features of military operations in 1917?
Large and bloody battles alternated with periods of trench warfare. In 1917, the initiative was already in the hands of the Entente. French troops were preparing for a decisive battle with Germany. In April 1917, what was intended to be a decisive operation of French troops began in the area of Arras and Reims. The offensive was unsuccessful. Total losses killed and wounded amounted to 500 thousand people.
11. Discuss the reasons for the defeat of Germany and its allies, try to find out which of the reasons were of decisive importance.
Germany was forced to fight on 2 fronts. Resource Depletion - Colonial empires had the ability to supply resources from their colonies, while Germany had no colonies.
12. Trace the progress of military operations on the map. Highlight the main fronts of the First World War. Which of them were decisive and did their role change during the war?
The main fronts are the Eastern, Western, Italian and Eastern Fronts. Decisive - Western and Eastern fronts. Allied forces were able to stop the advance of German troops towards Paris. The war took on a positional character. Actions on the eastern front helped gather forces on the western front to repel the enemy attack. The offensive of Russian troops in the summer of 1916 on the Eastern Front was successful. The army of General A. A. Brusilov broke through the front in Galicia. The Brusilov breakthrough, although it did not lead to the military defeat of Austria-Hungary, helped the Anglo-French troops survive at Verdun and the Somme.
13. What are the results of the First World War?
As a result of the war, the bloc of the most aggressive states was defeated Central Europe. The Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires collapsed. Revolutions took place in a number of countries, as a result of which new states were formed. The war caused social upheaval in many countries of the world, and new political forces entered the political scene.
The war became a manifestation of the deepest crisis European civilization. The First World War was the bloodiest and most destructive war in the entire history of mankind. 33 states with a population of over 1.5 billion people were involved in its orbit. More than 10 million people died in the battles and twice as many were wounded. Thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, roads and bridges were destroyed, vast agricultural areas were desolate, millions of people lost their homes, property, lost citizenship, their usual way of life, professional skills, and were declassed.
The cruelty and violence of war, the disregard for value human life, humiliation human dignity have generated moral consequences that cannot be measured.
PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT. VERSAILLES-WASHINGTON SYSTEM
1. How has it changed? political map peace after the conclusion of the treaties and agreements that made up the Versailles-Washington system?
There has been temporary stabilization in the sphere of international relations. New small states formed in Eastern and Southeastern Europe. Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. The recreated Poland, Denmark, and Belgium received an increase in territory. Germany as a whole lost 1/8 of its territory and 1/10 of its population. The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the Allied powers for 15 years.
The German colonies in Africa were divided between France and Great Britain. The League of Nations, created later, legitimized the redistribution of the colonies of Germany (as well as the Ottoman Empire) by issuing its mandates to manage the colonial possessions. Japan seized German island possessions in the Pacific Ocean and strengthened its position in China.
The sovereignty and inviolability of China's borders were recognized.
The United States decided on an important task for itself - to get Great Britain to recognize their equality in naval armaments.
2. What goals did the victorious countries pursue at the Paris Peace Conference?
France - return Alsace and Lorraine. Also received half of the reparations from Germany.
Redistribution of German colonies. Limitation of the German army.
The Treaty of the Four Powers (USA, UK, France and Japan) guaranteed the inviolability of the island possessions of the powers in the Pacific Ocean.
The US continued to advocate for the abandonment of spheres of influence in China and for the policy of " open doors" The Nine Power Treaty called on the countries participating in the conference to respect the sovereignty of China and the inviolability of its borders, and obliged all countries to adhere to the policy of “open doors” and “equal opportunities” in trade. Thus, the Washington Conference reflected a change in the balance of forces in the region in favor of the United States. Finally, the United States decided for itself an important task - to obtain from Great Britain recognition of their equality in naval armaments.
The Treaty of the Five Powers (England, USA, France, Japan, Italy) prohibited the construction of warships with a displacement of over 35 thousand tons and established the relationship between navy(in the battleship class) of these countries in the proportion 5:5:3:1.75:1.75. The tonnage limitation, passed off as a limitation on armaments, also had its meaning for the United States: opened in 1914. Panama Canal could not let ships of larger displacement pass through.
The Washington Conference and the documents adopted at it became a great success for US diplomacy.
3. What were the contradictions and fragility of the Versailles-Washington system?
Harsh and humiliating peace terms, heavy reparations and “war guilt” placed on Germany were a ticking time bomb in the very center of Europe. Germany's economic potential, although it suffered during the war, remained at its core, and therefore the restoration of its power and the desire to “throw off the yoke of Versailles” was only a matter of time.
The formation in South-Eastern and Eastern Europe of a system of new small states, deprived of the ability to ensure their security, created additional conditions for instability. This region has become an arena for conflicts of interest and intrigue among the great powers.
Soviet Russia was not represented at the Paris Peace Conference and was not only excluded from the creation of a post-war peace system, but also became the object of intervention by Western powers.
The peace conference did not live up to the expectations of the peoples of the colonial countries for a fair consideration of their problems. Moreover, it demonstrated through the system of mandates the traditional division of colonial spoils for imperialist predators.
4. What is the main disadvantage of the Versailles-Washington system?
Lack of a European economic recovery program.
5. The seeds of what future conflicts in international relations hidden in the system of post-war treaties?
Start new war, military conflicts in the colonies, the development of separatist movements, hotbeds of ethnic tension were created in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.
QUESTIONS FOR THE DOCUMENT:
1. The USA entered the market for the first time world stage with your ideas and requirements. What main directions of US world policy are reflected in this document?
Peace treaties, free trade, disarmament, the creation of independent nation states, the creation of the League of Nations "for the purpose of providing mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity - to states large and small alike."
2. What met the aspirations of the peoples and what was the claim to world leadership?
The aspirations of the peoples were answered by: granting autonomy to the peoples of Austria-Hungary; liberation by Germany of the occupied territories of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro; providing Serbia with access to the sea, independent existence of the Turkish and autonomy of the national parts of the Ottoman Empire; creation of an independent Polish state.
Claim for world leadership: creation of the League of Nations; absolute freedom of navigation on the seas; freedom of trade - elimination of customs barriers; establishment of disarmament guarantees; impartial settlement of colonial issues.
3. Did Wilson's "points" coincide with the plans of other great powers?
4. What was behind the theses about “freedom of the seas”, “free trade”, “a fair solution to colonial problems”, etc.?
Unhindered movement of trade and warships, unhindered access of foreign goods to the markets of other states, interference in the affairs of the colonies.
Introduction 2
Main part 3
1. Causes of the First World War 3
2. Campaign of 1914 5
3. 1915 Campaign 9
4. 1916 Campaign 12
5. 1917 Campaign 15
6. Results of the war 18
Conclusion 19
References 20
Introduction
The First World War dramatically revealed the inadequacy of the world that emerged after industrial revolution in the West, and the continuing political institutions and views that arose before it, with their class-monarchical spirit, national-state egoism, imperial ambitions, the European cult of power, etc. The First World War, being the result of a crisis in international relations, was itself a manifestation of the crisis of European civilization.
In the context of global confrontation between military-political blocs, the “localized war” of Austria-Hungary and Serbia affected the geopolitical interests of all leading European powers.
Thus, local conflict, which broke out in the Balkans, developed into the first general, world war in history. This war was imperialist in nature - it was an open conflict between two groups of imperialist powers fighting for military-political dominance on the European continent, the redistribution of spheres of colonial influence, for sources of cheap raw materials and markets for their goods. The World War became a natural result of the development of the capitalist world at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. It was generated by the internal transformation of the capitalist system in the era of imperialism, attempts to find a way out of the growing socio-economic, political and spiritual crisis along the paths of external expansion.
Main part
1. Causes of the First World War
At the beginning of the twentieth century. In the international arena, contradictions between various states intensified, which ultimately led to the outbreak of a world war in 1914.
World War I is a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, USA, etc.; 34 states in total).
Two groups of causes of the world war can be distinguished. The first of them is interstate and interregional conflicts. The essence of the German foreign policy program was plans to reshape the world in favor of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, and Turkey. The Entente's plans were drawn up as the war progressed. The allies agreed to annex Constantinople, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles to Russia in exchange for an agreement on the division between England and France of Turkish possessions in the Arab East. The absence of a pan-European security system and the split of Europe into two hostile camps objectively contributed to the outbreak of a world war.
The second group of reasons was subjective in nature and was expressed in the victory of the “war parties” in the ruling circles of a number of Western powers (Germany, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary and France). By 1914, most politicians were inclined to believe that it was necessary to identify by force who owned hegemony in Europe.
Objectively, entry into the world war did not correspond to the national-state interests of Russia. The capture of Constantinople and the straits was not a specific goal of Russian policy; The autocracy was most interested in maintaining the existing situation in the world.
Nevertheless, the reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by the Serbian nationalist, a member of the Young Bosnia organization Gavrilo Princip. Thus, the reasons for the outbreak of the First World War were:
- Weak peace-loving forces (weak labor movement).
- Revolutionary movement in a period of decline (except in Russia).
- The desire to strangle revolutionary movement(Russia).
- The desire to divide the world.
But most historians are inclined to consider the main one to be the competing interests of the largest European powers.
2. Campaign of 1914
In 1914, the war unfolded in two main theaters of military action - in Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in the Balkans, Northern Italy (from May 1915), in the Caucasus and the Middle East (from November 1914) in the colonies of European states - in Africa, China, Oceania. In 1914, all participants in the war were going to end the war in a few months through a decisive offensive; no one expected the war to become protracted.
Battle on the river Marne(September 1914). The Battle of the Marne is a major battle between German and Anglo-French troops, which took place on September 5-12, 1914 on the Marne River during the First World War, ending in defeat German army. As a result of the battle, the strategic offensive plan of the German army, aimed at a quick victory on the Western Front and the withdrawal of France from the war, was thwarted.
The main enemy forces took part in this operation total number about 2 million people. The Anglo-French troops, trying to break away from the enemy, retreated to the Marne (east of Paris). Hanging real threat fall of Paris. September 2 French government left the city and moved to Bordeaux. The German command believed that the outcome of the war on the Western Front was already predetermined. The Germans saw their task only as pursuing the retreating French and British troops. It was at this moment that the German command lost control of its troops; the pursuit of the Anglo-French troops acquired a spontaneous character. At this time, the French managed to regroup their troops and advance two newly formed armies to Paris.
The Battle of the Marne began on September 6. The opposing armies were drawing closer together, while in various sectors of the front success accompanied first one side and then the other. The Battle of the Marne was a turning point in the 1914 campaign on the Western Front. The Anglo-French troops won a decisive victory. In this battle, the plans of the German command for the rapid defeat of France finally collapsed.
Galich operation(August-September 1914). Despite the defeat in East Prussia already at the end of August 1914, the Russian General base launched the previously planned strategic offensive on the Southwestern Front - the so-called Galician operation. The width of the offensive reached 400 km. Thanks to double superiority in forces, the massive use of cavalry and the high density of artillery fire, Russian troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Austro-Hungarian army opposing them. Until the end of the war, Austro-Hungarian units could no longer conduct independent military operations without German support. The Russians suffered heavy losses - up to 230 thousand people. The Galich operation for the first time demonstrated the military-tactical features of the First World War - the insufficient use of maneuver strategy and military equipment, the predominance of frontal combat operations, accompanied by huge losses on both sides. Military operations here acquired a protracted, positional character.
« Running to the sea"(October-November 1914). After the defeat at the Marne, the German army retreated to Belgian territory. Having exhausted their strength in heavy fighting, both sides went on the defensive on the En River. However, between the Oise River and North Sea There was a free space of two hundred kilometers left. On September 16, maneuver operations of German and French troops began to bypass the enemy’s western flank - “run to the sea.” As a result of these attempts to achieve a strategically advantageous location of the front, the opponents reached the coast by October 16. Fighting with varying success in Flanders in November 1914 ended the campaign. By the end of the year, a positional front was established over a 700-kilometer area from the Flemish coast to the Swiss border. Both sides burrow into the ground, creating powerful defensive fortifications with a network of trenches, dugouts, and rows of barbed wire. German plan The "blitzkrieg" collapsed.
Warsaw-Ivangorod operation(September-November 1914). Defeating Austrian troops in the Battle of Galicia 1914 (See Battle of Galicia 1914) , Russian armies threatened to invade Silesia and Poznan. In order to fend off this invasion, the German command planned to strike from the region of Krakow, Petrokov to Ivangorod, Warsaw with the forces of the 1st Austrian and the newly formed 9th German armies (over 290 thousand infantry, 20 thousand cavalry and 1600 guns) with the task of covering and the defeat of the northern flank of the Southwestern Front. The Austro-German troops, which began the offensive on September 15, reached the Vistula in the Sandomierz-Ivangorod sector by September 25, where they encountered the newly created front of the 4th and 9th armies. Then the German command created a group of General A. Mackensen, which was sent from the Radom, Kalisz front to Warsaw. This led to stubborn battles near Ivangorod and Warsaw, which German troops approached on September 28 (October 12). Mackensen's group's attacks on Warsaw were repulsed; in the Ivangorod area, Russian troops held a bridgehead at Kozenice. Russian troops, mainly due to the unpreparedness of the rear, pursued the enemy slowly, as a result of which the German troops, although with heavy losses, managed to avoid complete defeat. The operation ended there, as the rear of the Russian troops fell behind by more than 150 km, disrupting the supply of ammunition and food.
Battle of Sarykamys(December 1914 - January 1915). The Sarykamysh operation is the largest operation in the Caucasian theater of the First World War, carried out in December 1914 - January 1915 in the area of the city of Sarykamysh (the final railway station and forward base of the Russian army in the border zone of Transcaucasia). The Sarykamysh operation ended with the complete defeat of the 3rd Turkish Army and the transfer of hostilities by Russian troops to Turkish territory.
By December 15, 1914, the Russian Caucasian Army found itself deployed on a front of 600 kilometers. She was opposed by the 3rd Turkish Army. The main forces of the parties were grouped in the Kara and Olta directions. The Turkish command was planning a major offensive operation in the Kara direction with the goal of defeating Sarykamysh, which was supported from the North and North-West by the Oltinsky and Ardagan detachments. 11th Corps and 2nd cavalry division The Turks were supposed to pin down the Russian corps by attacking from the front. The 9th and 10th corps, as well as the detachment that invaded the Batumi region, were sent on a deep detour to the flank and rear of the Russians, after which an attack on Kars and Batum was planned. Turkish troops began the offensive on December 22, bypassing the positions of the Sarykamysh and Olta detachments from the West and North-West, and by December 25 they reached the front of Ardahan, Kosor, and Bardiz. The Olta detachment retreated to Merdenik. During the battles directly for Sarykamysh, by December 29, the Russian command transferred 21 battalions, 20 cavalry hundreds, 44 guns and 64 heavy machine guns from the front of the main forces to Sarykamysh. With the forces of these troops, as well as the army reserve (about 10 battalions) and the Sarykamysh garrison (about 7 battalions, 2 horse hundreds, 2 guns and 16 heavy machine guns), 3 Turkish divisions of the 9th corps were surrounded in the Sarykamysh area and captured, and 2 broken divisions The 10th corps were driven back from Sarykamysh. On January 3, 1915, the Oltinsky and Ardahan detachments drove the Turks out of Ardahan, taking about 900 prisoners. After the defeat of the 9th and 10th Turkish corps near the villages of Sarykamysh and Bardiz, the remnants of the defeated Turkish troops retreated to their original position.
3. 1915 Campaign
Naval battle near Dogger Bank(24 January 1915). The Battle of Dogger Bank was a naval battle that took place on 24 January 1915 during World War I between the German squadron of Admiral Franz Hipper, which was carrying out a raid to attack the British coast, and the English squadron of battlecruisers, Vice Admiral David Beatty, sent to intercept them.
A formation of German battlecruisers under the command of Hipper, called the 1st Reconnaissance Group, operating according to the doctrine of " small war", had already managed to make several raids on the shores of England, accompanied by shelling of coastal cities. However, they were unable to destroy any noticeable forces of the British fleet in the parking lots or lure them out to the open sea. Thanks to radio interception, the British battlecruisers were able to reach Hipper's reconnaissance group with superior forces. As a result of the battle, the British flagship was damaged and disabled for several months, and the Germans had the armored cruiser Blucher sunk, which allows us to talk about the victory of the British fleet in this battle. One of the consequences of the battle was the loss of interest by the German command in raiding operations.
"Underwater War"(4 February – 1 September 1915). in 1915, the German command attempted to turn the naval war in its favor. The failures of the submarine fleet prompted him to the idea of submarine warfare. On February 4, Germany announced that, in response to the British blockade, it was declaring all waters surrounding Great Britain a war zone and that all ships in this zone would be targets of submarine attacks. On May 7, the large English passenger liner Lusitania was sunk with 1,196 passengers, of which 128 were Americans. The United States expressed a strong protest, and the German command, fearing that the United States would join the Entente, was forced to temporarily curtail the scale of the submarine war.
Dardanelles landing operation (February 19 – January 9, 1916). The operation was carried out with the aim of capturing the Dardanelles, Bosphorus and Constantinople, withdrawing Turkey from the war and restoring communications with Russia across the Black Sea. Since February 19, the Anglo-French squadron bombarded the Turkish forts, but its attempt to break through the straits on March 18 ended in failure with the loss of 3 ships. Then it was decided to capture Gallipoli by landing. Attempts to expand the bridgehead remained unsuccessful due to stubborn resistance by Turkish troops. The offensive actions of the Anglo-French troops in April - June also ended in failure. At the beginning of August, the Allies increased their forces to 12 divisions and launched a new offensive on August 6-10 and landed troops in Suvla Bay on August 7, but these attacks were repelled Turkish troops. From December 10, 1915 to January 9, 1916, Anglo-French troops were evacuated to Thessaloniki to strengthen the Thessaloniki Front. Allied losses were great. Due to poor preparation and inept leadership of the actions, the lack of a unified command and a common plan, as well as contradictions among the allies, the operation did not achieve its goal. Its failure contributed to Bulgaria's entry into the war on the side.
Siege of Przemysl Fortress(22 March 1915). In the shortest direction from Hungary to the fortified city of Przemysl, with the goal of liberating it, Austro-German troops stubbornly advanced.
The siege of Przemysl was carried out by Russian troops for six months. The first attempts to take the heavily fortified Przemysl by storm were unsuccessful. Then it was decided to starve the city out. The siege army under the command of General Selivanov, not having a numerical superiority over the garrison defending Przemysl, and actually having no siege artillery, did not make any senseless assault attempts in such conditions. Russian troops surrounded the fortress with a wide ring, awaiting the arrival of additional troops and artillery, and in February 1915 such forces arrived to the besiegers.
The capture of Przemysl was a bold decision. At that time Przemysl was the largest fortress in Europe, fortified in accordance with the latest achievements engineering and technical thought and had: power supply, radio communications, floodlights, ventilation, elevators, pumps and more. In addition, the fortress housed over 60 artillery forts and batteries equipped with modern large-caliber artillery guns. The garrison of the fortress was 130 thousand Austro-Hungarian soldiers, the city had about 18 thousand inhabitants.
Gas attack near Ypres(22 April 1915). On the western front of the First World War, near the Belgian city of Ypres, German troops staged the first gas attack. It lasted only five minutes. But the Anglo-French troops were not ready to defend against it and lost about 15 thousand people, of which five thousand immediately remained lying on the battlefield. After the Battle of Ypres, poison gas was used by Germany several more times: on April 24 against the 1st Canadian Division, on May 2 near the Mousetrap Farm, on May 5 against the British and on August 6 against the defenders of the Russian fortress of Osowiec.
Battle on the river Isonzo(summer 1915). On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Concentrating along the river. Isonzo 25 divisions under the command of General. Cadorny, on June 23 she attacked the 14th Austrian. division general Hetzendorf, counting on significant territorial gains, primarily Trieste. This was the first of 12 battles on the Isonzo. In 1915, four of them cost Italy 66,000 killed, 185,000 wounded and 22,000 prisoners. Five equally inconclusive battles took place in 1916, two more in 1917, until October. 1917 Germany did not intervene and inflict a crushing defeat on the Italians at Caporetto.
4. 1916 Campaign
"Verdun Meat Grinder"(February 21—December 21, 1916). The Verdun operation began on February 21. After a massive 8-hour artillery preparation, German troops went on the offensive on the right bank of the Meuse River, but met stubborn resistance. The German infantry led the attack in dense combat formations. During the first day of the offensive, German troops advanced 2 km and occupied the first French position. In the following days, the offensive was carried out according to the same pattern: during the day the artillery destroyed the next position, and by the evening the infantry occupied it. By February 25, the French had lost almost all of their forts. The Germans managed to take the important fort of Douamont almost without resistance. However, the French command took measures to eliminate the threat of encirclement of the Verdun fortified area. Along the only highway connecting Verdun with the rear, troops from other sectors of the front were transferred in 6,000 vehicles. The advance of the German troops was stopped by almost one and a half superiority in manpower. In March, on the Eastern Front, Russian troops carried out the Naroch operation, which eased the position of the French troops. The French organized the so-called “sacred road” Bar-le-Duc - Verdun, through which troops were supplied. The battle became increasingly protracted, and from March the Germans transferred the main blow to the left bank of the river. After intense fighting, German troops managed to advance only 6-7 km by May. After the change of commander of the French 2nd Army from Henri Philippe Pétain to Robert Nivelle on May 1, French troops attempted to take Fort Douamont on May 22, but were repulsed. Was started in June new attack, On June 7, the Germans captured Fort Vaux, advancing 1 km; On June 23, the offensive was stopped.
Easter Rising in Ireland(April 1916). The purpose of the uprising was to proclaim the independence of Ireland from Britain. The main events (the capture and defense of a number of key buildings) took place in Dublin, and smaller scale skirmishes also took place in other counties. The uprising quickly failed, as the organizers relied too much on secret help from Germany. Directed by the Germans sea transport with weapons for the rebels was intercepted by the British fleet, and Sir Casement, hurrying to Dublin to report the interception of transport and postpone the uprising, was captured by the British intelligence service. Having not received the promised weapons, the most active part of the conspirators, despite everything, bravely began an armed uprising. The teacher and poet, leader of the Irish Volunteers, Patrick Pearse, who proclaimed himself the head of the Irish state in Dublin, was captured and shot on May 3 by the verdict of the tribunal, like him brother William and 14 other leaders of the rebellion. Sir Roger Casement was stripped of his knighthood and hanged for treason in London.
Jutland naval battle(May 31 - June 1, 1916). in 1916, Germany attempted to defeat the British fleet and lift the naval blockade. Its entire surface fleet moved into the North Sea. After an unsuccessful maneuver to divide the British fleet and defeat it piece by piece, the German squadron came into contact with the British one west of the coast of Denmark. On May 31, 1916, the Jutland naval battle took place - the largest naval battle in history. The British navy tried to cut off the German squadron from its bases; she, seeing that she was dealing with superior enemy forces, immediately tried to leave. Each side lost 6 battleships and cruisers, and 25 destroyers were sunk. The German fleet managed to escape, but the battlefield remained with the British. The German command made no further attempts to fight the British fleet.
"Brusilovsky breakthrough"(June-August 1916). On June 5, 1916, troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Brusilov broke through the Austro-Hungarian front and occupied an area of 25 thousand square meters. This blow made a stunning impression on the countries of the Fourth Alliance. Having captured more than 400 thousand people alone, Russian troops found themselves in close proximity to the Hungarian plain, reaching which would mean the defeat of Austria-Hungary. Only the transfer of German troops from near Verdun and Austrian troops from Italy helped stop the offensive.
Battle on the river Somme(July-November 1916). The Battle of the Somme was the first major offensive of the Anglo-French forces. It developed in the same way as the offensive of German troops near Verdun. First, powerful artillery preparation, then a gradual breakthrough of the defense by infantry. The successes were the same: by the end of the battle the attackers had advanced 3-8 km. At the Somme, the British used tanks for the first time to break through. Tanks had a strong psychological impact on German soldiers; the attack was successful. These were the largest land battles of the First World War and the bloodiest. Germany proved unable to defeat the Anglo-French forces and went on the defensive.
5. 1917 Campaign
February Revolution in Russia(February-March 1917). On February 23, groups of people began to gather in different areas of Petrograd and demand bread. On the same day, spontaneous unrest began. Tram depots stopped working, plants and factories stopped in Vyborg side. On the night of February 26, the police arrested about 100 members of revolutionary parties. The State Duma was dissolved. The Duma Committee and the first Council are created. He turns to the workers of Petrograd with a proposal to send deputies by evening - one per thousand people. While two authorities arose in Petrograd - the Duma Committee and the Executive Committee of the Council, Russian Emperor Nicholas II was traveling from his headquarters in Mogilev to the capital. Detained at the Dno station by rebel soldiers, the emperor signed his abdication on March 2. Thus, with the general consent of revolutionaries, liberals, and monarchists, the monarchy fell in Russia. Russia became a democratic republic.
On the evening of March 1, the leadership of the Petrograd Soviet proposed to the Provisional Committee State Duma an agreement according to which he was given the right to form a Provisional Government. The weakness of the Provisional Government, which manifested itself from the very first days of its existence, the lack of a clear program, and self-doubt allowed the Council to become the second government in the country.
Submarine warfare. The decisive blow was supposed to be delivered against England, unleashing an unlimited submarine war. This made the US entry into the war inevitable. If, moreover, we keep in mind that Germany had only 40 submarines ready for military action, then the entire plan for the defeat of England did not seem sufficiently justified. Nevertheless, on February 1, 1917, unlimited submarine warfare began, all ships approaching England were mercilessly sunk. More ships were sunk in three months than in the entire year of 1916.
US declaration of war on Germany(April 6, 1917). The United States entered the war, breaking off diplomatic relations with Germany the day after the start of the submarine war. The Americans' interception of a letter from the German government to the President of Mexico with a proposal to attack the United States if it declared war on Germany gave them a pretext: on April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. Contrary to the forecasts of the German command, the first units arrived in France on June 26, and a year later 2 million American soldiers fought on the Western Front. US entry into the war, with them in mind economic potential and untouched human resources turned out to be one of the decisive factors in the victory of the Entente. And this was all the more important because her successes in 1917 did not become particularly significant.
French offensive in the area of Reims and Arras (“Massacre of Nevel”)(April 1917). the operation was carried out with the aim of breaking through the German front by the commander-in-chief French armies General R. J. Nivelle. With powerful support from artillery and tanks, the Anglo-French troops managed to break through 2 lines of enemy defense, but their advance was stopped by the Germans before the third line. The offensive continued in the form of a slow “gnawing through” the defense and was accompanied by huge losses (over 200 thousand people). Nivelle’s “massacre” caused outrage in France, uprisings and unrest in 16 corps, which were brutally suppressed by the government. On May 15, Nivelle was removed from his post as commander-in-chief.
Italian defeat at the Battle of Caporetto(October 24-November 9, 1917). The offensive that began on October 24 immediately led to a breakthrough of the front Italian troops and forced them into a disorderly retreat. Only with the help of the transferred 11 Anglo-French divisions was it possible to stabilize the front along the Piave River by November 9. As a result of the breakthrough, the Italian army lost over 130 thousand killed and wounded. About 300 thousand soldiers, who had lost their combat capability, fled from the front to the interior of the country. The Austro-German offensive on the Italian front, despite its successes, did not change the overall strategic position of the Entente. The defeat of the Italian troops near K. sharply aggravated internal position in Italy and contributed to the maturation of a revolutionary crisis in the country.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Germany, the main force of the Quadruple Alliance, has reached the limit of its capabilities. The entire population was mobilized. The collapse of the Eastern Front and then the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk allowed the German command to entertain illusions about possible success in 1918. At the negotiations that began in Brest, the Soviet government proposed signing a peace treaty based on the principle of self-determination of peoples. The countries of the Quadruple Alliance, who decided to improve their position through acquisitions in the East, declared their claims to all the territories they had already captured. These proposals caused a split among the Bolsheviks and a crisis in the government. Since by that time the Russian army had completely disintegrated, the German command took advantage of the hitch in the negotiations for a broad offensive along the entire Eastern Front.
On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed under the terms of the powers of the Quadruple Alliance, according to which Russia had to withdraw from Ukraine, renounce claims to the Baltic states and Finland, give Turkey the areas with Kars, Ardagal and Batumi and pay reparations. However, even after the signing of peace, the German command continued the offensive: in April Crimea was captured, and in May German troops entered Georgia.
6. Results of the war
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was only a step towards the end of the First World War, which formally ended on November 11, 1918 with the Compiegne Armistice. According to its terms, Germany had to leave all the territories it had captured in the West and withdraw its troops beyond the Rhine River. From of Eastern Europe she had to leave as the Entente troops arrived there. All prisoners of war and military property were to be transferred to the allies.
The Paris Conference of 1919, with the participation of 27 countries, summed up the results of the First World War. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, which became the main document of the post-war settlement. Germany, according to the treaty, lost part of its territory, as well as all its colonies. The size of its army was limited to 100 thousand people, and the introduction of universal conscription was prohibited in the country.
For the victorious powers, Russia was first of all a traitor, having concluded a separate peace with the enemy. The ongoing civil war in Russia gave a formal reason not to invite its representatives either to Paris or to the subsequent conference in Washington (1921-1922). Russia did not sign any peace treaty.
The First World War lasted over 4 years, 30 states with a population of 1.5 billion people were involved in it. 67 million people were put under arms. In terms of the number of people killed daily as a result of hostilities, this war was 39 times greater than Napoleonic wars; The human losses of all countries participating in the battles amounted to 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded. Russia lost 1.8 million people killed and died from wounds in the First World War.
Conclusion
The First World War was one of the most widespread armed conflicts in the history of mankind. As a result of the First World War, the map of Europe became much more colorful. New states emerged: Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland.
The total losses of all sides in the First World War amounted to about 10 million killed and up to 20 million wounded. The losses of the Russian army are difficult to determine, since due to the revolution and the Civil War, the final official figures were never established, and the current accounting was very incomplete.
In total, more than 2 million Russians died in World War I, more than Germany lost. This is explained better readiness Germany to war and the higher combat effectiveness of the German army. The numerical superiority of the Entente also played a role, prompting its military leaders to spend soldiers’ lives more wastefully.
The Russian monarchy also failed to withstand the trials of the World War. It was swept away within a few days by the storm of the February Revolution. The reasons for the fall of the monarchy are chaos in the country, a crisis in the economy, politics, and contradictions between the monarchy and broad sections of society. The catalyst for all these negative processes was Russia’s ruinous participation in the First World War. Largely due to the inability of the Provisional Government to solve the problem of achieving peace for Russia, the October Revolution took place.
The world imperialist war of 1914-1918 was the bloodiest and most brutal of all the wars that the world knew before 1914.
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At least 38 countries of the world took part in the First World War, some of them were active participants, while others, for example, Argentina, the United States of America, Brazil and even England, preferred to supply the warring armies with weapons, food and money. The war, which lasted just over 4 years, consumed millions of lives, hundreds and thousands of soldiers died in the most brutal and bloody battles, the most famous of which deserve special attention.
Galicia - no time component Austro-Hungarian Empire represented an important strategic outpost on the fields of the First World War. 7 armies took part in the Battle of Galicia, with a total number of more than 2 million people. Four Russian armies under the overall command of General Nikolai Iudovich Ivanov were opposed by three Austro-Hungarian armies under the command of Archduke Frederick.
This operation was preceded by two equally significant battles, the outcome of which was very unsuccessful for the Russians: the 2nd Russian Army under the command of General Samsonov was defeated, and the Russians were threatened with encirclement on Polish territory. But General Hindenburg made a mistake and postponed the previously planned attack on Hearts and threw all his strength into fighting the 1st Russian Army in East Prussia. The Russians, defending Kholm and Lublin with their last strength, at this time received reinforcements in the form of the 9th Army of General P.A. Lechitsky. and launched a decisive offensive, but after 4 days it fizzled out at Rava-Russkaya. The Austro-Hungarian armies broke through the Russian front, but the Russians, thanks to the 8th Army of General Brusilov, were still able to patch up the gaps that had arisen and somehow hold out until the arrival of fresh forces.
A short break in the war, thanks to timely help, contributed to the fact that Russian troops were able to break through the front from Tomashov and themselves began to pose a threat to the Austrians.
On August 29, the Austrians announced a retreat, quite reasonably assuming that the front could be broken through, the Russian armies began pursuit and marched more than 200 kilometers deep into enemy territory, occupying Galicia and besieging the Przemysl fortress. The Battle of Galicia was lost for the Austrians, in which they lost more than 300 thousand soldiers killed and wounded, as well as the chance to win a victory on the Russian-Hungarian front in the near future.
Battle of the Carpathians 1915
On January 7, 1915, Austro-Hungarian troops made another attempt to drive the Russians out of Galicia, encircling them in Poland, for which they had to cross the Carpathians and encircle the enemy. The Russian command was fully prepared for this operation, since the Russians had developed a similar plan a long time ago; General Ivanov hoped to transfer Russian troops over the mountains and, entering Hungarian territory, defeat the imperial army. Disappointment awaited both sides; until March there were fierce battles on the mountain passes, but luck nevertheless went to the side of the Russians; with the first days of spring, the entire Southwestern Front of the Russian armies began to move, but nothing could be done due to difficult weather conditions. the offensive was not successful. As a result of the failed Carpathian operation More than 1.8 million people died, with Russian losses amounting to about 1 million, which is why the Battle of the Carpathians should be considered the largest and at the same time the most unsuccessful operation in the history of the First World War.
Brusilov breakthrough 1916
At the end of May 1916, the Southwestern Front, consisting of more than half a million people under the command of General Brusilov, made the most ambitious and successful breakthrough in the history of the First World War. Russian troops broke through the Austrian defenses from the Pripyat marshes and to the border with Romania at a distance of about 80 and up to 150 kilometers. As a result of the breakthrough, the Russians lost almost the entire strength of the front, more than 500 thousand soldiers died, while Austrian losses exceeded 1.5 million. Unfortunately, Russia is successful own army did not have time to take advantage, since Brusilov was so drained of blood that he could not continue the pursuit of the enemy, and the higher command gave the order to curtail the operation, which was a huge strategic and tactical mistake, but gave the allies in France and Italy a noticeable respite, which they conveniently forgot about in the near future.
Battle of Moonsund 1917
The year 1917 for the Russian troops, and even for the Allied troops, was completely unsuccessful; its beginning was marked by many losses, the occupation of Riga by German and Austrian troops, as well as the recapture of Moonsund from the Russians, which had belonged to the latter since 1914. The enemy's significant advantage in the fleet, the unacceptable negligence of the Russian command, as well as the revolution that began in Russia, allowed enemy ships to enter the Moonsund Strait and anchor there without hindrance. The remnants of the Russian fleet left Moonsund forever, setting out to meet significant political changes in the fate of their own country.
So, the First World War, in terms of the number of battles in which a simply colossal number of soldiers and officers took part, became one of the bloodiest wars in the history of the world; only the Second World War managed to surpass it.
It should be noted that the main feature of all these battles was precisely the large number of soldiers fighting on the side of both opponents; the army, which simultaneously included more than a million people, appeared in the First World War business as usual, since at the beginning of the last century they were still fighting for the most part the old fashioned way, that is, not with weapons and machines, but with people, trying to strangle the enemy with numerical superiority, and not with modern technologies.
By and large, the entire history of mankind is a series of battles and truces, sometimes short-term, sometimes long-term. Some battles have been lost in the memory of centuries, others remain well-known, however, over time everything is erased and forgotten. The war, which claimed the lives of at least 20 million people and maimed incomparably more, the battles in the name of which were fierce not only in Europe, but also in Africa and the Middle East, is slowly becoming a thing of the past. And the new generation not only does not know the main battles, but is not even able to remember chronological framework this page in history, drenched in blood and covered in gunpowder from burnt houses.
Participants
The warring parties were united into two blocs - the Entente and the Quadruple (Triple Alliance). The first included the Russian and British empires, France (as well as several dozen allied countries, including the USA and Japan). concluded by Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, in further Italy went over to the side of the Entente, and Bulgaria, controlled by it, became allies. This association received the name of the Fourth Union. The causes of the conflict that led to the major battles of the First World War are said to be various, but the most likely is still a complex of several factors, including economic and territorial ones. in the world was achieved when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the hope of the entire vast Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo. Thus, on July 28, the wartime countdown began.
Battle of the Marne
This was perhaps the main battle of the First World War at its very beginning, in September 1914. The battle arena, which unfolded in the north of France, occupied about 180 km, and 5 armies of Germany and 6 armies of England and France took part. As a result, the Entente managed to prevent plans for the rapid defeat of France, thereby radically changing further move war.
Battle of Galicia
This operation of the troops of the Russian Empire was noted as the main battle of the First World War, which engulfed the Eastern Front at the beginning of the military conflict. The confrontation lasted almost a month, from August to September 1914, and approximately 2 million people took part. Austria-Hungary ultimately lost more than 325 thousand soldiers (including prisoners), and Russia - 230 thousand.
Battle of Jutland
This is the main battle of the First World War, the scene of which was the North Sea (near the Confrontation broke out between the fleets of Germany and the British Empire on May 31 and June 1, 1916, the ratio of forces was 99 to 148 ships (superiority on the British side). The losses of both sides were very tangible (respectively, 11 ships and more than 3 thousand people on the German side and 14 ships and almost 7 thousand fighting on the British side.) But the rivals shared victory - although Germany failed to achieve the goal and break the blockade, the enemy’s losses were also much greater more significant.
Battle of Verdun
This is one of the bloodiest pages, including major battles of the First World War, which lasted throughout almost the entire 1916 (from February to December) in the north-east of France. As a result of the fighting, about a million people died. In addition, the “Verdun Meat Grinder” became a harbinger of the defeat of the Triple Alliance and the strengthening of the Entente.
Brusilovsky breakthrough
This battle of the First World War with the participation of Russia on the Southwestern Front became one of the most large-scale military actions organized directly by the Russian command. The offensive of the troops entrusted to General Brusilov started in June 1916 in the Austrian sector. Bloody battles continued with varying success throughout the summer and early autumn, but it was still not possible to bring Austria-Hungary out of the war, but the huge losses of the Russian Empire became one of the catalysts that led to
Operation Nivelle
Complex offensive actions designed to turn the tide of battle on the Western Front were organized jointly by England and France and lasted from April to May 1917, and the forces they fielded significantly exceeded the capabilities of Germany. However, it was not possible to carry out a brilliant breakthrough, but the number of casualties is impressive - the Entente lost about 340 thousand people, while the defending Germans lost 163 thousand.
Major tank battles of the First World War
At the time of World War I, the time for widespread use of tanks had not yet come, but they managed to make their mark. On September 15, 1916, the British Mk.I entered the battlefield for the first time, and although out of 49 vehicles, only 18 managed to take part (17 turned out to be faulty even before the start of the battle, and 14 got irreparably stuck on the road or failed due to breakdowns) , yet their very appearance brought confusion into the ranks of the enemy and broke through the German lines to a depth of 5 km.
The first battles directly between vehicles took place towards the end of the war, when three Mk.IV (England) and three A7V (Germany) unexpectedly collided near Villers-Breton in April 1918, resulting in one tank on each side receiving serious damage. however, the overall outcome is difficult to interpret in favor of one of the parties. On the same day, the British Mk.A were “unlucky”, they suffered from the A7V that survived the first meeting. Although the ratio was 1:7, the advantage remained on the side of the cannon “German”, additionally supported by artillery.
An interesting clash occurred on October 8, 1918, when 4 British Mk.IVs and the same number of the same (captured) collided; both sides suffered losses. However, the main battle of the First World War was left without the support of dangerous new armored vehicles.
The First World War caused the collapse of four huge empires- British, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Russian, and both the winners in the form of the Entente and the losers in the person of Germany, Austria-Hungary suffered, and the Germans also for a long time were formally deprived of the opportunity to build a militarized state.
More than 12 million civilians and 10 million soldiers became victims of military operations; difficult time survival and recovery. On the other hand, it was during 1914-1919 that there was a noticeable development of weapons, light machine guns and grenade launchers began to be used for the first time, tanks appeared on the roads of war, and airplanes appeared in the sky, which began to provide air support to the troops. However, the great battles of the First World War were only harbingers of the hostilities that unfolded two decades later.