ALEXANDER II Nikolaevich (1818-1881), Russian Emperor since 1855. The eldest son of Nicholas I. He abolished serfdom and then carried out a number of reforms (zemstvo, judicial, military, etc.). After Polish uprising 1863-64 switched to a reactionary domestic political course. From the end 70s Repressions against revolutionaries intensified. During the reign of Alexander II, the annexation of the territories of the Caucasus (1864), Kazakhstan (1865), and most of the Middle East to Russia was completed. Asia (1865-81). In order to strengthen influence in the Balkans and help the national liberation movement Slavic peoples Russia participated in Russian-Turkish war 1877-78. A number of attempts were made on the life of Alexander II (1866, 1867, 1879, 1880); killed by Narodnaya Volya.
ALEXANDER II(April 17, 1818, Moscow - March 1, 1881, St. Petersburg), Russian emperor (since 1855), from the Romanov dynasty. He entered Russian history as Alexander II the Liberator. He was not called the Great by his contemporaries and historians, like Peter or Catherine, but his reforms were recognized and defined as Great.
Upbringing and character
The eldest son of first the grand ducal, and from 1825 the imperial couple Nicholas I and Alexandra Fedorovna (daughter Prussian king Frederick William III), Alexander received a good education. His mentor was V. A. Zhukovsky, his teacher was K. K. Merder, among his teachers were M. M. Speransky (legislation), K. I. Arsenyev (statistics and history), E. F. Kankrin (finance), F. I. Brunov (foreign policy). The personality of the heir to the throne was formed under the influence of his father, who wanted to see in his son a “military man at heart,” and at the same time under the leadership of Zhukovsky, who sought to raise in the future monarch an enlightened man who would give his people reasonable laws, a monarch-legislator. Both of these influences left a deep mark on the character, inclinations, and worldview of the heir and were reflected in the affairs of his reign. By nature, endowed with versatile abilities, excellent memory, a sober and sound mind, a sympathetic heart, a cheerful disposition, and goodwill towards people, Alexander, however, did not have an internal need for systematic mental activity, did not have a strong will, had no inclination for the mission to reign ahead of him, which Nicholas I called a “duty” and steadily instilled in his son. Coming of age and taking the oath reconciled him with his destiny. And by the age of 19, traveling around Russia, he writes to his father “what he feels in himself new strength strive for the work for which God has ordained me." His attitude towards public policy was quite in line official direction Nicholas era.
Beginning of government activities
From 1834 senator, from 1835 member Holy Synod, since 1841 members State Council, from 1842 - Committee of Ministers. In 1837 he traveled around Russia (29 provinces of the European part, Transcaucasia, Western Siberia), in 1838-39 - around Europe. Major General (1836), from 1844 full general, commanded the Guards infantry, from 1849 chief military educational institutions, Chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848. During the Crimean War of 1853-56, with the declaration of martial law in the St. Petersburg province, he commanded all the troops of the capital.
Family
Married (from 1841) to Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt (in Orthodoxy Maria Alexandrovna, 1824-80), had seven children: Alexandra, Nikolai, Alexander, Vladimir, Maria, Sergei, Pavel (the first two died - a daughter in 1849, heir to the throne in 1865). He was married for the second time (1880) in a morganatic marriage to Princess E. M. Dolgorukaya (Princess Yuryevskaya), with whom he was connected since 1866, from this marriage he had 4 children. Alexander II's net worth on March 1, 1881 was approx. 11740 thousand rubles. ( securities, State Bank tickets, shares of railway companies); In 1880, he donated 1 million rubles from personal funds. for the construction of a hospital in memory of the Empress.
Beginning of the reign. Reforms of the 1860-70s
Neither in youth nor in mature years Alexander did not adhere to any particular concept in his views on Russian history and tasks government controlled. Having ascended the throne in 1855, he received a difficult legacy. Not a single one of the cardinal issues of his father’s 30-year reign (peasant, eastern, Polish, etc.) was resolved, in Crimean War Russia was defeated. Not being a reformer by vocation or temperament, Alexander became one in response to the needs of the time as a man of sober mind and good will.
The first of his important decisions was the conclusion of the Paris Peace in March 1856. With the accession of Alexander, a “thaw” began in the socio-political life of Russia. On the occasion of his coronation in August 1856, he declared an amnesty for the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-31, suspended recruitment for 3 years, and in 1857 liquidated military settlements. Having realized the primary importance of the decision peasant question, for 4 years (from the establishment of the Secret Committee of 1857 to the adoption of the law on February 19, 1861) he showed a steady will in an effort to abolish serfdom. Adhering in 1857-58 to the “Bestsee option” of landless emancipation of peasants, at the end of 1858 he agreed to the purchase of allotment land by peasants into ownership, i.e., to a reform program developed by the liberal bureaucracy, together with like-minded people from among public figures(N.A. Milyutin, Ya.I. Rostovtsev, Yu.F. Samarin, V.A. Cherkassky, etc.). With his support, the Zemstvo Regulations of 1864 and City situation 1870, Judicial Charters 1864, military reforms 1860-70s, reforms public education, censorship, cancellation corporal punishment.
Alexander II was unable to resist traditional imperial policies. Decisive victories in Caucasian War were won in the first years of his reign. He gave in to demands for promotion to Central Asia(in 1865-81 the Empire became part of most of Turkestan). After long resistance, he decided to go to war with Turkey in 1877-78. After the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-64 and the attempt on his life by D.V. Karakozov on April 4, 1866, Alexander II made concessions to the protective course, expressed in the appointment to the highest government posts D. A. Tolstoy, F. F. Trepov, P. A. Shuvalov. Reforms continued, but sluggishly and inconsistently; almost all reform figures, with rare exceptions (for example, Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, who believed that “only consistent reforms can stop the revolutionary movement in Russia”), received resignations. At the end of his reign, Alexander was inclined to introduce limited public representation in Russia under the State Council.
Assassinations and murder
Several attempts were made on Alexander II: by D.V. Karakozov, by the Polish emigrant A. Berezovsky on May 25, 1867 in Paris, by A.K. Solovyov on April 2, 1879 in St. Petersburg. Executive committee " People's Will"On August 26, 1879, he decided to assassinate Alexander II (an attempt to blow up an imperial train near Moscow on November 19, 1879, an explosion in Winter Palace, produced by S. N. Khalturin on February 5, 1880). For security public order and fight against revolutionary movement Supreme Council was created administrative commission. But nothing could prevent his violent death. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown by Narodnaya Volya member I. I. Grinevitsky. He died precisely on the day when he decided to make a move constitutional project M. T. Loris-Melikova, telling her sons Alexander (the future emperor) and Vladimir: “I do not hide from myself that we are following the path of the constitution.” Great reforms remained unfinished.
On March 4, 1855, Alexander II ascended the throne. He went down in history as great reformer and "liberator". His reign is interesting not only for political initiatives, but also for personal factors that played a role last role during his reign.
MOTHER'S PREDICTION
Emperor Alexander II, perhaps, was last ruler, born in Moscow. His family moved here in 1817 to support and help rebuild the city, which suffered as a result of Napoleon's invasion. The birth of Alexander on April 17 (29) became a real holiday in the Romanov family, because over the past 20 years only girls were born in the family. It was 1818 - Alexander I had not yet shown symptoms of the illness that ended his life, the terrible uprising had not yet occurred Senate Square, Alexander’s successor was not announced, to whom fate did not give him a son. But already during the birth, the mother of the future emperor Alexandra Fedorovna predicted the future of the newborn: “When mother (Maria Feodorovna), approaching us, said, “This is a son,” our happiness doubled, however, I remember that I felt something impressive and sad at the thought that this little creature would one day become an emperor.”
A year later, the will of Alexander I became known to make his brother Nikolai Pavlovich his successor. The presence of a male heir in his family played a certain role in this decision.
TALISMAN STONE
On April 17, 1834, the Grand Duke turned 16 years old, the young Tsarevich was declared an adult. On the same day, in the Urals, the Finnish geologist Nordenschild discovered a previously unknown gemstone and named it “Alexandrite” in honor of his heir. With all the abundance of omens and predictions that accompanied the reign of Alexander II, conversations about this stone were especially remembered by contemporaries. Alexandrite has unique property change its color - from green to blood red. Because of this, mystical properties began to be attributed to the stone and were more than once compared with the fate of the emperor: “...here is that prophetic Russian stone...The insidious Siberian! He was all green, like hope, and by evening he was covered in blood... in him green morning and a bloody evening... This is fate, this is the fate of the noble Tsar Alexander! ”, Nikolai Leskov wrote in one of his stories.
Alexandrite became the emperor’s talisman, who more than once warded off trouble from him, but on the ill-fated day of the last assassination attempt - March 1 (13), 1881, Alexander forgot to take the stone with him.
FATHER'S LAST WORDS
Alexander II, as often happens in imperial family, were difficult relationships with Father. Nicholas I understood perfectly well what fate awaited his son and did not slack in his upbringing. In addition, his contemporaries remember him as “a despot in everything,” including in the family. He himself said more than once: “I look at human life, only as a service, since everyone serves.” Nikolai did not forget about his role even on his deathbed. He handed over the reins to his son with great regret: “I’m handing over the command to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving you with a lot of work and worries. I had two thoughts, two desires: to free Eastern Christians from under the Turkish yoke; second: free the Russian peasants from the power of the landowners. Now the war is hard, there is no need to think about the liberation of Eastern Christians, promise me to liberate the Russian serfs.”
It should be noted that before his accession to the throne, Alexander II was a staunch conservative. After these memories, it may seem that Alexander II changed his position in order to fulfill the will of his father, but this is not so. The Crimean War and the defeat of Nicholas taught him an important lesson - you can’t live like that anymore.
FOR SALE ALASKA
What Alexander has always been blamed for is selling Alaska to the United States. The main claims are that the rich region, which brought furs to Russia, and with more careful exploration could become a gold mine, was sold to America for some 11 million royal rubles. The truth is that Russian Empire after the Crimean War there simply were no resources to develop such a distant region, and besides, the priority was Far East. In addition, even during the reign of Nicholas, the Governor-General eastern Siberia Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky presented a report to the sovereign on the need to strengthen ties with America, which sooner or later will raise the question of expanding its influence in this region, which was strategically important for the latter.
Alexander II returned to this issue only when the country needed money for reforms. The emperor had a choice - either decide pressing problems people and the state, or cherish the distant prospect of the possible development of Alaska. The choice was made in favor of topical issues. At 4 a.m. on March 30, 1867, Alaska became US property.
STEP FORWARD
Alexander II can safely be called an experimenter. This quality was manifested not only in his numerous reforms, which brought him historical name"Liberator". Alexander II tried to get as close as possible to the people and understand their needs. Already in the 20th century, Solzhenitsyn wrote in his accusatory work “The Gulag Archipelago”: “There is a known case that Alexander II, the same one surrounded by revolutionaries who sought his death seven times, once visited a pre-trial detention house on Shpalernaya and in solitary confinement 227 (solitary confinement ) ordered himself to be locked up, sat more than an hour“I wanted to delve into the state of those he kept there.”
UNPETITIVE MARRIAGE
Alexander II respected and dearly loved his wife Maria, but was not an exemplary husband. It’s impossible to list all his mistresses, but he had the most sincere feelings for Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, who became his second wife. When they met, he was already forty-one years old, and she was only thirteen. The romance began six years later, in 1865, when Catherine took her place at court among the empress’s ladies-in-waiting. In 1866, the emperor proposed his hand in marriage to her: “Today, alas, I am not free, but at the first opportunity I will marry you, from now on I consider you my wife before God, and I will never leave you.”
On June 3, 1880, Empress Maria Alexandrovna died in splendid isolation. The marriage with Catherine became possible, despite all the discontent and censure of the court, which did not stop calling her “an impudent adventurer.” Many historians, in particular Leonid Lyashchenko, subsequently linked the strengthening of the split in society with the split in the royal family.
Being the second legal wife of Alexander II, Catherine did not become empress. A morganatic marriage was concluded between them, in which the wife of lower origin does not become equal in status to her husband.
UNFINISHED BUSINESS
On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown by Narodnaya Volya member I. I. Grinevitsky. Ironically, he died on the very day when he decided to launch the constitutional project of M. T. Loris-Melikov, which would have granted the third estate the right to participate in the discussion of the political initiatives of the monarch. This move was supposed to lead to a recession revolutionary terror in the country. On March 1 (13) at noon, the emperor announced to Loris-Melikov that the project would be discussed on March 4 at a meeting of the Council of Ministers. Then he turned to his sons Alexander (in the future Alexander III) and to Vladimir: “I do not hide from myself that we are following the path of the constitution.” Four hours later the emperor was killed.
Alexander II is the majestic Tsar of the Russian Empire. He did a lot for development future Russia. His reign began in 1855. Alexander proved himself to be a courageous and purposeful, self-confident and proactive ruler. The king was interested not only political side empire, but also the fate of ordinary citizens. Next, we invite you to view more exciting and interesting facts about Alexander II.
2. During the reign of the emperor important role played it personal qualities that influenced the course of history.
3. Born in Moscow the last Emperor Alexander II.
4. The birth of Alexander II was a real holiday in the family.
6. The gemstone “Alexandrite” was named in honor of the heir.
7. The gemstone, named after the emperor, has the unique property of changing color from red to green.
8. The emperor’s talisman was the alexandrite stone, which warded off trouble from him.
10. The emperor had a rather difficult relationship with his father.
11. “I hand over the command to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving you with a lot of work and worries” - last words father of the future emperor.
12. Before ascending the throne, Alexander II was a staunch conservative.
13. The Crimean War changed the ideological thinking of the emperor.
14. Alexander II was accused of selling Alaska to the United States.
16. Alexander II can safely be called an experimenter.
17. Alexander II dearly loved his wife Maria.
18. Ekaterina Dolgorukaya became official wife Emperor.
19. In 1865, a romance began between Catherine and Alexander.
20. In 1866, the emperor proposed his hand and heart to his future wife.
22. Catherine did not become empress, being the legal wife of the emperor.
24. Received at home basic education future emperor.
25. V.A. Zhukovsky was the mentor of Alexander II.
26. B adolescence the young emperor was very amorous and vulnerable.
27. In 1839, Alexander was in love with the young Queen Victoria.
28. The young emperor was introduced into the Holy Governing Synod in 1835.
29. Alexander visited 29 provinces of the European part of Russia in 1837.
30. Alexander received the rank of major general in 1836.
31. The young emperor commanded an entire army for the first time in 1853 during the Crimean War.
32. In 1855, Alexander officially ascended the throne.
33. In 1856, the young emperor declared an amnesty for the Decembrists.
34. Alexander II successfully and confidently pursued a traditional imperial policy.
35. In the first years of the reign of the young emperor, victories were won in the Caucasian War.
36. In 1877, Alexander decided to go to war with Turkey.
37. At the end of his reign, Alexander in Russia chose to limit civil representation.
38. Several attempts were made on the life of the Russian emperor.
39. Alexander’s net worth in 1881 was about 12,000,000 rubles.
40. In 1880, the emperor built a hospital in honor of the deceased empress for 1,000,000 rubles.
41. Alexander II entered history as a liberator and reformer.
42. During the reign of the emperor, a judicial reform, serfdom was abolished and censorship was limited.
43. The monument to Alexander II was inaugurated in Moscow in June 2005.
44. In 1861, the emperor abolished serfdom.
45. The monument to Alexander II was erected in 1894 in Helsinki.
46. In honor of the liberation of Bulgaria, a monument to the emperor was built in Sofia.
47. Catherine the Great herself was the great-grandmother of Alexander II.
48. The emperor was on the throne for only 26 years.
49. Alexander had a very attractive appearance and slender posture.
50. During the years of his reign, eight children were born into the emperor’s family.
51. The young emperor had a personal collection of erotic paintings.
52. Healthy and with a sober mind, the young emperor had an excellent memory and versatile abilities by nature.
53. During the reign of the emperor in 1864, a national liberation uprising unfolded.
54. In 1876, Alexander issued the Emsky Decree prohibiting printing in the Ukrainian language in the Russian Empire.
55. Jews received the right to settle throughout the Russian Empire in 1859.
56. In 1857, the emperor introduced liberalization of the customs tariff.
57. Alexander contributed to the increase in iron production during his reign.
58. During the reign of Alexander, there was a downward trend in the level of agricultural development.
59. Railway transport- This is the only industry that developed uninterruptedly during the reign of the emperor.
60. For the first time during the reign of Alexander, they began to actively extradite external loans to cover the budget deficit.
62. During the reign of the emperor, the level of corruption increased significantly.
63. On the occasion of the coronation, the emperor declared an amnesty for participants in the Polish uprising.
64. The Supreme Censorship Committee was closed by decree of the emperor in 1855.
65. In 1866, a secret committee was created to discuss government affairs.
66. In 1864, the emperor separated judiciary from the executive.
67. City councils and councils appeared on the basis royal decree in 1870.
68. The creation of zemstvo institutions began in 1864.
69. During the reign of Alexander, three universities were opened.
70. The Emperor promoted the development of the media.
71. Reform Russian army happened in 1874 by order of the emperor.
72. Alexander opened the establishment of the State Bank.
73. The external and internal wars during the reign of the emperor.
74. In 1867, Alexander significantly increased the territory of the Russian Empire.
75. In 1877, the emperor declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
76. During the reign of Alexander, the Aleutian Islands were transferred to the United States.
77. The Emperor ensured the state independence of Bulgaria.
78. Alexander inherited his sensitive and sentimental character from his mother.
79. The young emperor was distinguished by his ingenuity, speed and liveliness in childhood.
80. The military captain was entrusted with raising Alexander at the age of six.
81. Sports and drawing were given priority great attention in the process of educating the young emperor.
82. Alexander already commanded a company at the age of eleven.
84. In 1835, Alexander was introduced to the Synod.
85. During his life, the Emperor visited all German and Italian states, Australia and Scandinavia.
86. In 1842, for the first time, Alexander was entrusted with the decision of all state affairs.
87. In 1850, the emperor sets off on a trip to the Caucasus.
88. On the second day after the death of his father, Alexander ascends to the throne.
89. His first years of reign became a harsh school of political education for the young emperor.
90. Parisian world was concluded in 1848 by decree of the emperor.
91. During the reign of Alexander, the length of service in the army was reduced to 15 years.
92. The emperor abolished conscription duties for three years.
93. Alexander was constantly under surveillance by police agents.
94. Treaty of Paris prohibited Russia from maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea.
95. The emperor's son George was born in 1872.
96. The statute on universal military service was adopted by the emperor in 1874.
97. In 1879, a third attempt was made to assassinate the emperor.
98. In 1880, the empress and wife Alexandra dies.
99. The emperor truly loved only Princess Catherine.
100. Alexander, as a person, was a deeply Orthodox man and a liberal.
Alexander II (short biography)
The future Russian Emperor Alexander II was born on April twenty-ninth, 1818. Being the son of Nicholas the First and heir to the throne, he was able to receive a diverse education. In the role of his teachers, it is worth highlighting officer Merder, as well as Zhukovsky. His father had a significant influence on the formation of the character of the future ruler. Alexander II ascends the throne after his death in 1855. TO at this moment he already has experience in governance, since he acted as ruler while his father was absent from the capital. This ruler went down in history as Alexander the Second Liberator.
His wife in 1841 was Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria (Maria Alexandrovna) - Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. She was able to give birth to seven children to the sovereign, but two of them (the eldest) died. Since 1880, Alexander has been married to Princess Dolgorukaya, the future mother of his four children.
Character domestic policy This ruler differed significantly from the policies of Nicholas the First, marked by many successful reforms. The most important of them, of course, was peasant reform from 1861, according to which serfdom was completely abolished. This reform has created an urgent need for further changes in various Russian institutions.
In 1864, according to Alexander's decree, zemstvo reform was carried out and the institution of district zemstvo was established.
In 1870, an urban reform was carried out, which had a positive impact on the development of cities and industry in general. Councils and city councils are established, which are representative bodies of government. The judicial reform of 1864 was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some features of the former judicial system were preserved (for example, a special court for officials).
Next in line was military reform, the result of which was the overall conscription, as well as army organization standards close to European ones. Later, the State Bank was created and the planning of the first Russian Constitution began.
Foreign policy given Russian ruler was also successful. During the reign of Alexander II, Russia was able to regain its former power, subjugate North Caucasus, win Turkish war. However, there were also mistakes (loss of Alaska).
Alexander II died on March 1, 1881.
The reign of Alexander II became a period that is often called the “era of reforms” that destroyed feudal remnants, a time of radical transformations of Russian society. Unlike his father, he was prepared to govern the state. The emperor received a good education, and his teachers were V. Zhukovsky, M. Speransky, E. Kankrin, who noted in the heir such qualities as goodwill, sociability, ability for science, but on the other hand, a tendency to retreat in the face of difficulties. Alexander II became emperor at the age of 36, with a well-established system of views and experience in government activities. Having ascended the throne, the emperor was forced to take the path of reform.
Prerequisites for reforms
The prerequisites for the reforms were the constant threat of peasant revolts and the political and economic crisis. The defeat in the Crimean War not only reduced Russia's international authority to the limit, but also showed the need for reforms in the financial, military, medical, and educational spheres. Another prerequisite was public dissatisfaction with the Nikolaev police regime and the constant threat of social protests. A situation favorable for reforms developed in the country - the emperor was supported by supporters of reforms (P. Valuev, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, D. Milyutin, etc.); the liberals and the revolutionary movement were disorganized and were unable to propose an alternative plan for reform; opponents of reforms after the defeat in the Crimean War did not dare to oppose the reforms. Therefore, in 1856, Alexander II made a famous speech to the Moscow nobility, in which he stated that “it is better to abolish serfdom from above, rather than wait for the time when it begins to be abolished from below.”
Abolition of serfdom
The most important event of the reign of Alexander II, for which he received the name “Liberator,” was the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom. Preparations for the abolition of serfdom began in January 1857 with the creation of another Secret Committee, completely subordinate to the emperor. By November, a rescript had been drawn up, announcing the beginning of the abolition of serfdom and ordering the creation of noble committees in each province to develop proposals. This served as the beginning of extensive discussions of the peasant issue in the press. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, which began to consider projects drawn up by provincial noble committees. During the discussions, a project was developed according to which peasants would be given freedom, but without being allocated land. This caused an intensification of the peasant movement in 1858. The government decided to revise the project for the liberation of the peasants and carry out the reform more radically. In order to rework the project, in February 1859, Editorial Commissions were established in St. Petersburg, which included mainly liberals, under the leadership of N. Milyutin. By the autumn of 1859 they had drawn up a draft “Regulations on Peasants”. On February 19, 1861, a reform was carried out that abolished serfdom. Alexander II signed the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom,” according to which peasants were freed from personal dependence. The peasant reform consisted of several parts: the ownership of landowners over peasants was abolished, who could now go to work in the city or be hired by the landowner to work. The landowner lost the right to punish peasants, they became legal entities, that is, they could buy land, real estate, enter into transactions, and open enterprises. However, the peasants remained attached to their place of residence and were bound mutual guarantee in paying taxes, bore duties in kind.
In addition, peasants received arable plots at fairly complex scheme, which also significantly limited their movement. Within two years, statutory charters had to be drawn up - agreements between landowners and peasants, stipulating the terms of the redemption. After this, for 49 years, the peasants became “temporarily obligated” and had to pay the landowner a ransom. Only after this the plots became the property of the peasants. The amount of redemption payments was determined by the size of the peasant quitrent, i.e., it was not the personal dependence of the peasants and not the land that was redeemed, but the duties. This amount, deposited in the bank at 6% per annum, was supposed to bring the landowner an annual income in the amount of labor payments. The state acted as an intermediary between the peasant and the landowner; it paid the landowner, when concluding a redemption transaction, about 75% of the redemption amount. Peasants were required to annually contribute 6% of this amount to the state for 49 years. Household people were declared free without ransom, but for two years they had to serve their masters or pay quitrent. Serf workers of landowner and state-owned factories and factories were transferred to quitrent and received the right to buy out their former plots. State peasants (except for Siberia and the Far East), who were considered personally free, according to the “Regulations”, retained the lands that were in their use. They could continue to pay the quitrent tax to the state or enter into a redemption deal with the treasury. The “Regulation” divided the provinces into three parts (black earth, non-black earth and steppe lands). Within the provinces, localities were allocated, which were divided into plots between landowners - land owners and their peasants. The distribution norms were established so that the landowner could choose the best plots for his share, including wedging his lands into the middle of the peasant fields. This led to the emergence of “stripes”. The peasants' reactions to the reform varied. For example, in the Kazan province, unrest began due to the spread of rumors that the tsar gave land to the peasants for free, and the ransom was “invented” by the landowners. More than 300 people were killed during the suppression of these unrest. In 1861, more than 1,370 performances were recorded, but later the wave of performances began to decline. In general, the liberation of the peasants was a progressive step that destroyed a feudal relic - serfdom, which led to cash injections into Agriculture, undermined the “natural” way of farming and contributed to the development of capitalism.
Reforms of the 60s XIX century
Carrying out the peasant reform required changes in other areas of life. Finance reform. In 1860, the State Bank was created to carry out redemption payments between landowners and peasants. In 1862, the Ministry of Finance became the sole manager of public funds, which independently planned the state budget and, together with the State Council, approved the estimates of individual departments. To control funds, State Control was reformed in 1864, which was now independent of the administration and verified the correctness of spending budget funds. In the provinces, control chambers were established that checked financial statements based on primary documents, and not final reports, as before. Direct taxes were partially replaced by indirect ones.
Local government reform (zemstvo reform).
On January 1, 1864, zemstvos (all-estate bodies in counties and provinces) were established, whose competence included: local economy, distribution of state taxes, establishment of schools, hospitals, shelters, maintenance of prisons and communications. Within the zemstvo there were administrative and executive sectors. Administrative bodies - “meetings of vowels” (deputies) - dealt with economic issues and met once a year. Executive bodies - “zemstvo councils” - were engaged in the execution of decisions of the administrative sector. Funding for the implementation of the regulations was mixed: 80% of the funds came from the state, the rest from local taxes (self-financing). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies were held on the basis of property qualifications, by curiae. The first curia - deputies from landowners - consisted of owners of land (from 200 to 800 dessiatines) or real estate (worth from 15 thousand rubles). The second curia - deputies from cities - united owners of industrial and commercial establishments (annual turnover of at least 6 thousand). rub.). Elections for the third curia of deputies from peasants are unlicensed, but multi-stage. Zemstvos were elected for three years. The chairman of the zemstvo assembly was to be the leader of the nobility. At the end of the 70s. zemstvos were introduced only in 35 of the 59 Russian provinces. Subsequently, throughout 1870-1880. the competence of zemstvos was gradually curtailed, and the composition became more and more aristocratic. But, despite many shortcomings, the work of zemstvos contributed to the formation of civic consciousness and the solution of some local problems of education and health care. Urban reform began to be developed in 1861. Its project, presented in 1864, was discussed and redesigned for a long time. On June 16, 1870, the “City Regulations” were approved, according to which a City Duma ( Legislature) and City Government ( executive agency) chaired by the mayor. The functions of city government were to take care of the improvement of the city, the guardianship of trade, the establishment of hospitals, schools and city taxation. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral assemblies based on property qualifications. The first electoral assembly included only large taxpayers, who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, who paid the other third, and the third - all the rest. Each assembly elected representatives to the City Duma. City councils were under the control of government officials. The mayor (elected by the City Duma for 4 years) was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs, they could also suspend the decisions of the City Duma.
Judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, judicial reform was carried out. It included the creation of new judicial statutes that introduced common judicial institutions for persons of all classes, with in general legal proceedings, openness and competitiveness of legal proceedings, equal responsibility of all classes before the law, independence of the court from the administration. The country was divided into 108 judicial districts. The new structure of the court included: a magistrate's court, where criminal and civil cases were heard, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and approved by the Senate; District Court, where serious civil suits and criminal cases were tried by jury. The Senate was the highest court and appellate authority. The preliminary investigation was conducted by bailiffs. The legal profession was introduced. This system was supplemented by volost courts for peasants, consistories for the clergy, courts for the military, high officials, etc. The most important political crimes were under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Criminal Court, which was appointed by the emperor in exceptional cases. In 1863, a law was passed abolishing corporal punishment by court sentences. Women were completely exempt from corporal punishment. However, rods were preserved for peasants (according to verdicts of volost courts), for exiles, convicts and penal soldiers. Education and press reform was carried out in 1863-1865. In 1863, a new university charter was issued, which provided universities with broad freedom and self-government. In the summer of 1864, the “Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums” was introduced. The reform of public education proclaimed the principle of general and all-class education. In 1865, according to the press reform, censorship was significantly relaxed, and society was given the right to discuss political events. Military reform began in 1857 with the liquidation of the system of military settlements and the reduction of the service life of lower ranks (from 25 to 10 years). In the 60s The management of the fleet and naval educational institutions was reorganized, and over the course of 12 years, reforms were carried out in the army. In 1862, the reform of military administration began. The country was divided into 15 military districts for the purpose of more efficient command and control of troops. The War Ministry and Main Headquarters. In 1864-1867 the size of the army decreased from 1132 thousand people. up to 742 thousand while maintaining military potential. In 1865, military-judicial reform began. In the 60s For the rapid transfer of troops, a railway was built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870, railway troops were created. New regulations have appeared in the army. During the reform of military educational institutions, military gymnasiums and cadet schools were organized for all classes with a two-year period of study. Officer training was improved. On January 1, 1874, the “Charter on Military Service” was published, according to which, instead of conscription, universal military service was introduced. Upon reaching the age of 21, all males were required to perform active service. All this made it possible to create a fairly strong, trained army. Further reform activities were interrupted on March 1, 1881 by the assassination of Alexander II as a result of a terrorist attack.