The Etruscans are rightfully considered one of the most amazing mysteries in history. Scientists don't know exactly where they came from or what language they spoke. The question of possible connection between the Etruscans and Russians.
Under the Veil of Secrets
In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. on the territory of Italy between the Tiber and Arno rivers extended legendary state– Etruria, which became the cradle of Roman civilization. The Romans eagerly learned from the Etruscans, borrowing from them systems of government and gods, engineering and mosaics, gladiator fights and chariot races, funeral rites and clothing.
Despite their fame, the Etruscans are one complete mystery for us. Much evidence has been preserved about the Etruscans, but they do not give us a convincing and reliable picture of the life of this people. Scientists do not know for certain how the Etruscans appeared and where they disappeared. The exact boundaries of Etruria have not yet been established and the Etruscan language has not been deciphered.
The Roman Emperor Claudius I, who ruled in the 1st century AD, left to his descendants the 20-volume History of the Etruscans, as well as a dictionary Etruscan language. But fate would have it that these manuscripts were completely destroyed in a fire. Library of Alexandria, depriving us of the opportunity to lift the veil of secrets of the Etruscan civilization.
People from the East
Today there are three versions of the origin of the Etruscans. Titus Livius reports that the Etruscans penetrated the Apennine Peninsula from the north along with the Alpine Rhets, with whom they were related. According to the hypothesis of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Etruscans were natives of Italy who adopted the achievements of the previous Villanova culture.
However, the “Alpine version” does not find any material evidence, and modern scientists increasingly associate the Villanova culture not with the Etruscans, but with the Italics.
Historians have long noticed how the Etruscans stood out from their less developed neighbors. This served as a prerequisite for the third version, according to which the Etruscans settled the Apennines from Asia Minor. This view was held by Herodotus, who argued that the ancestors of the Etruscans came from Lydia in the 8th century BC.
There is a lot of evidence of the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. For example, the way of creating sculptures. The Etruscans, unlike the Greeks, preferred not to carve an image from stone, but to sculpt it from clay, which was typical for the art of the peoples of Asia Minor.
There is also more important evidence of the eastern origin of the Etruscans. At the end XIX century On the island of Lemnos, located near the coast of Asia Minor, archaeologists discovered a tombstone.
The inscription on it was made Greek letters, but in a completely unusual combination. Imagine the surprise of the scientists when, after comparing this inscription with Etruscan texts, they discovered striking similarities!
Bulgarian historian Vladimir Georgiev offers an interesting development of the “eastern version”. In his opinion, the Etruscans are none other than legendary Trojans. The scientist bases his assumptions on the legend according to which the Trojans, led by Aeneas, fled from war-torn Troy to the Apennine Peninsula.
Georgiev also supports his theory with linguistic considerations, finding a relationship between the words “Etruria” and “Troy”. One might be skeptical about this version if in 1972 Italian archaeologists had not excavated an Etruscan tomb-monument dedicated to Aeneas.
Genetic map
Not long ago, scientists from the University of Turin, using genetic analysis, decided to test Herodotus’ hypothesis about the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. During the study, Y chromosomes (transmitted by male line) the population of Tuscany and residents of other regions of Italy, as well as the island of Lemnos, the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey.
It turned out that the genetic samples of residents of the Tuscan cities of Volterra and Murlo are more similar to those of residents of the Eastern Mediterranean than to neighboring Italian regions.
Moreover, some genetic characteristics of the inhabitants of Murlo absolutely coincide with the genetic data of the inhabitants of Turkey.
Researchers from Stanford University to reconstruct the demographic processes that affected the population of Tuscany over the last 2500 years, they decided to use the method computer modeling. This method initially involved data from anthropological and genetic examination.
The results were unexpected. Scientists managed to exclude genetic connection between the Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of central Italy, and the modern inhabitants of Tuscany. The data obtained suggest that the Etruscans were wiped off the face of the earth by some kind of catastrophe, or that they represented a social elite that had little in common with the ancestors of modern Italians.
The leader of the Stanford project, anthropologist Joanna Mountain, notes that “the Etruscans were different from the Italians in every way and even spoke a language that was not an Indo-European group.” "Cultural and language features made the Etruscans a real mystery for numerous researchers,” Mountain sums up.
“Etruscan is Russian”
The phonetic proximity of the two ethnonyms – “Etruscans” and “Russians” – gives rise to hypotheses among researchers about the direct connection of the two peoples. Philosopher Alexander Dugin understands this connection literally: “Etruscan is Russian.” The plausibility of this version is also given by the self-name of the Etruscans - Rasenna or Raśna.
However, if the word “Etruscan” is compared with the Roman name of this people – “tusci”, and the self-name “Rasena” is associated with the Greek name of the Etruscans – “Tyrseni”, then the closeness of the Etruscans and Russians no longer looks so obvious.
There is enough evidence that the Etruscans could leave the territory of Italy.[
One of the reasons for the exodus may have been climate change, accompanied by drought. It coincided with the disappearance of this people in the 1st century BC.
Presumably, the Etruscan migration routes should have extended to the north, which was more favorable for farming. Evidence of this, for example, are urns discovered in Upper Germany for storing the ashes of the deceased, which are similar to Etruscan artifacts.
It is likely that some of the Etruscans reached the territory of the present Baltic states, where they could assimilate with the Slavic peoples. However, the version that the Etruscans laid the foundations of the Russian ethnic group is not supported by anything.
The main problem is the absence of the sounds “b”, “d” and “g” in the Etruscan language - the structure of the larynx did not allow the Etruscans to pronounce them. This feature voice apparatus rather resembles not Russians, but Finns or Estonians.
One of the recognized apologists of Etruscology, the French scientist Zachary Mayani, turns the vector of Etruscan settlement immediately to the east. In his opinion, the descendants of the Etruscans are modern Albanians. Among the justifications for his hypothesis, the scientist cites the fact that the capital of Albania, Tirana, bears one of the names of the Etruscans - “Tyrrenians”.
The overwhelming majority of scientists believe that the Etruscans simply disappeared into the ethnic group of the peoples who inhabited the Roman Empire. The speed of assimilation of the Etruscans may well be a consequence of their small numbers. According to archaeologists, the population of Etruria, even at the time of its heyday, did not exceed 25 thousand people.
Lost in translation
The study of Etruscan writing has been carried out since the 16th century. What languages were used as a basis to decipher Etruscan inscriptions: Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Celtic, Finnish, even the languages of the American Indians. But all attempts were unsuccessful. “Etruscan is unreadable,” said skeptical linguists.
However, scientists still achieved certain results.
They established that Etruscan alphabet originates from Greek and consists of 26 letters.
Moreover, the alphabet borrowed from the Greeks did not correspond well to the peculiarities of the phonetics of the Etruscan language - some sounds, depending on the context, had to be designated in different letters. Moreover, late Etruscan texts were guilty of omitting vowel sounds, which created an almost impossible task of deciphering them.
And yet, some linguists, in their words, managed to read part of Etruscan inscriptions. Three 19th-century scientists at once - the Pole Tadeusz Wolanski, the Italian Sebastiano Ciampi and the Russian Alexander Chertkov - declared that the key to deciphering Etruscan texts lies in the Slavic languages.
Russian linguist Valery Chudinov followed in Volansky’s footsteps, proposing that the Etruscan language be considered the successor to the “Slavic runic writing.” Official science is also skeptical about Chudinov’s attempts to “make ancient” Slavic writing, and to his ability to read inscriptions where an inexperienced person sees a “play of nature.”
Modern researcher Vladimir Shcherbakov tries to simplify the problem of translating Etruscan inscriptions, explaining that the Etruscans wrote as they heard. With this method of decoding, many Etruscan words in Shcherbakov sound completely “Russian”: “ita” - “this”, “ama” - “pit”, “tes” - “forest”.
Linguist Peter Zolin notes in this regard that any attempt to read texts of such antiquity using modern words is absurd.
RAS Academician Andrei Zaliznik adds: “An amateur linguist willingly immerses himself in discussion written monuments past, completely forgetting (or simply not knowing anything) that in the past the language he knew looked completely different from what it does now.”
Today, most historians are convinced that the Etruscan inscriptions will never be deciphered.
One of these riddles differs from the others in that it was able to stubbornly resist all attempts to solve it and retained its secret, despite the fact that it has been resting in the very heart for more than two and a half millennia. ancient civilization. This is the “riddle of all Italic riddles,” the language of the Etruscans. It is language, and not writing, that we know writing, and even a long time ago.
True, the writing signs of this ancient cultural people, from which his closest neighbors the Romans learned an infinite amount (and, probably, even more than we know), were first torn from the tenacious clutches of oblivion during the Renaissance. From that time on, gradually, step by step, science conquered more and more new signs, until finally Richard Lepsius added one of the most important and last letters. Thus, the decryption process lasted for centuries!
The first impetus for the scientific formulation of the question of ancient Italian writing was a discovery made in 1444. This year, in Gubbio, ancient Iguvia, once located in equally ancient Umbria, seven bronze tablets were discovered quite by accident in an underground crypt, partially inscribed on both sides; later the tablets were taken for storage to the city hall.
Five of them contained inscriptions in the Umbrian language, written in the Umbrian script. The signs of this letter, common to all other ancient Italian alphabets, which owe their existence to the writing of the Greeks and the cultural mediation of the Etruscans, clearly betrayed their origin.
The language of the inscriptions was related to Latin. And yet, despite these starting points of research and auxiliary means, the decipherment of the Umbrian letter, and even more so the explanation of the language, which at one time gave the twenty-two-year-old Lepsius not only a doctor’s cap, but also the well-deserved fame of a decipherer, continues to remain an unsolved task of paramount importance.
In the 15th century, and much later, when studying the Iguvian tables, scientists proceeded from the assumption that they were not looking at the Umbrian alphabet, but the writing of the ancient Etruscans, and this, of course, greatly hampered decipherment. Only in 1539 Teseo Ambrogio from Pavia, an orientalist and famous writer, made significant contributions to the study of the Etruscan language.
In his impressive work, written in Latin, “An Introduction to Chaldean, Syriac, Armenian and Ten Other Languages,” published a year before the author’s death, hidden among other things was a valuable idea that could serve to progress in solving the problem of Etruscan writing and language: identification sign with the letter "f".
Subsequently, this assumption was rejected and consigned to oblivion, and then experienced a second discovery. About 200 years later, the work “Museum Etruscum” by a certain Anton Francesco Gori was published in Florence; it contained the Etruscan alphabet, in which 15 letters were correctly identified and designated.
In 1789, Abbot Luigi Lanzi, in his three-volume work, correctly identified the sign with “s”, and more than 50 years later Richard Lepsius was able to show that the letter known from the Italian form of the name Odysseus that has come down to us did not mean “x”, but “z” "
Previously, this name was mistakenly read, guided by its Latin form, Uluxe, Lepsius proved that in this writing, to which the Greek original is much closer, the name sounded Utuze. Subsequently, when, based on newly acquired knowledge about the more ancient forms of various Greek alphabets, it was possible to identify with Greek (ch) and finally discover in the inscriptions the long-sought sign for “q” (1880), the decipherment of Etruscan writing, at least in in the proper sense of the word, was finished.
And from now on, the 20th, and even more so the 20th century, inherited only the task of explaining language. But on this front of science, one can only note numerous individual attacks and reconnaissance in force, while the enemy’s main positions are still well camouflaged and invulnerable.
The Etruscan alphabet exhibits whole line characteristic features. The most striking of them is probably the sign - “f”, which is known in the same meaning and from the Asia Minor Lydian alphabet this is one of many arguments in favor of the old tradition, dating back to Herodotus, which tells that the Etruscans migrated from Asia Minor and not were the original population of Italy.
In their writing, the Etruscans abandoned the use of ancient signs (o, ks, v), but h was always written in its ancient form. There are no signs for voiced plosives b, d and g. Writing also uses the letters (th, ph and kh) to represent the sounds t, p and k.
And finally, the direction of writing (usually from right to left) indicates that the Etruscan alphabet deviated from the Greek ancestral basis quite early, probably in the 5th century BC, that is, when the direction of writing among the Greeks was still predominantly right to left. What is the reason that researchers, having learned to read every word written in Etruscan, still barely understand, or rather, almost completely do not understand this language?
It is widely believed that this is due to the small number of language monuments available for study. We possess 9000 Etruscan inscriptions; however, four-fifths of them are very short funeral texts, giving us only proper names and some kinship terms.
Among the major monuments, mention should be made of a clay tablet from Santa Maria di Capua from the 5th century BC, containing about 300 words, followed by a (later) inscription on stone (Cppus Perusnus), kept in the museum of the city of Perugia and consisting of approximately 120 words; two tablets containing curses, two dice with the numerals from “one” to “six”, one very interesting lead tablet from Magliano (5th century BC), the text of which consists of at least 70 words arranged in a spiral shape and, finally, the famous bronze liver, obviously served " teaching aid"for novice predictors, it is often compared with similar objects among the Babylonians and Hittites. All these inscriptions are inscribed on stone, clay and metal.
Literary works created in ancient Italy and that have come down to us, are divided into two groups: 1) monuments written in Latin, and 2) monuments written in Greek in the Greek colonies in the south of the Apennine Peninsula (in " Magna Graecia") and in Sicily. Monuments of the second group are studied in the history of Greek literature; monuments of the first group are studied in the history of Latin, or Roman, literature.
The population of ancient Italy belonged to various ethnic groups. These were mainly Italics, who made up the majority of the population of the Apennine Peninsula in the middle of the first millennium BC; Etruscans, who inhabited the northwestern part of Italy; Greeks, whose colonies were located mainly along the shores of the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula and along the southeastern coast of Sicily.
The question of the origin of the Etruscans and their language remains unresolved. Etruscan inscriptions, written in an alphabet borrowed from the Greeks, have not been deciphered. However literary monuments these inscriptions apparently did not conclude.
Of the Italic tribes, the most significant were the Sabelian tribes, the Umbrians, the Osci and the Latins. The Umbrian language is best known from the so-called “Iguvian tablets” - bronze tablets found in 1444 near present-day Gubbio. The dates of the inscriptions on the oldest tablets are not precisely determined; inscriptions on later boards, carved Latin alphabet, probably date back to the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. The Oscan language is also known from inscriptions, like the Sabella language, but the inscriptions on this last language extremely scarce. All these monuments have no written language. literary significance: They are of a legal or cultic nature.
The special role that the Latin branch of the Italic tribes played in the history of Italy also belongs to the Latin language. By 200 BC. e. the entire Apennine Peninsula is subject to the authority of Rome, the foundation of which as a city in the proper sense of the word dates back to the 8th century by archaeologists. BC e. The language of the Latins, originally distributed over an area of approximately 2000 km², bounded from the southwest by the Tyrrhenian Sea, from the northeast and north by the Apennines (where the Umbrians, Sabines, Aequi and Mars lived), from the northwest by Etruria (beyond the Tiber River) and from the east into the possessions of the Samnites and Osci, it becomes the dominant language of all Italy and the only literary speech among other Italic languages.
The victorious penetration of the Latin language into all regions of Italy (and subsequently into non-Italian countries) was accompanied by the introduction of some foreign elements into this language. Very little can be said about Etruscan elements in the Latin language, since the Etruscan language has not yet been deciphered, but nevertheless, some words that have taken root in the Latin language should be recognized as Etruscan on the basis of documentary data. Such words include histrio and persona (see the testimony of Titus Livy, VII, 2 and the signature under the image of two masked people - ȹersu). The penetration of these words (histrion - actor and persona - mask) is quite natural in connection with the performance of Etruscan actors in Rome. In all likelihood, some names of Roman deities, for example Minerva, are also Etruscan. The very name of Rome - Roma - is also recognized as Etruscan. Etruscan influence on Latin language is completely understandable, since in the 6th century. BC e. The Etruscan dynasty, the Tarquins, established itself in Rome. Titus Livy (VII, 36), referring to the instructions of the “writers” (auctores), says that even at the end of the 4th century. BC e. “The children of the Romans usually learned Etruscan literacy, as now [i.e., in the time of Augustus] Greek.” There must be some truth in this testimony. It is very likely that if we knew the Etruscan language, we could trace its significant influence on Latin speech.
Impact Greek language in Latin is well attested and began very early. Cultural and trade relations with the Greek (mainly Dorian) colonies began already in the distant past historical era, which is confirmed among other historical data and in language data - in phonetic features transmission of Greek words in accordance with the ancient Latin expiratory stress on the initial syllable and with weakening or syncopation due to this stress of the following unstressed syllables of the word. Not to mention the borrowing and latinization of proper Greek names (Tarentum with Greek Τάρας, Τάραντος, Agrigentum with Ἀκράγας, Ἀκράγαντος, Massilia with Μασσαλία, Aleria with Ἀ λαλία - a colony on the island of Corsica, Hercules, or in oldest form Hercles, with Ἡρακλῆς, Pollux, or in the most ancient form Pollouces, with Πολυδεύκης, Ulixes with Ὀλυσευς (Homeric Ὀδυσσεύς), we find in Latin the following greek words, which completely got used to it and were no longer recognized as foreign borrowings: machina with Dorian μαχανά, gubernare with κυβερνᾶν, purpura with πορφύρά, etc. Particularly interesting are those borrowings from the Greek language that indicate ancient cultural connections between Greek colonies and Latium. The very early penetration of olive culture into Italy is indicated by the word oliva from the Greek ἐλαίƒα; on trade relations between the Greeks and Latins - such words as hemina in Greek ἡμίνα (measure of volume), talentum in τάλαντον (measure of weight and currency unit). It should be noted, however, that the Greeks, in turn, borrowed from the Latins the word libra, which turned into λίτρα (in historical time- name of a Sicilian coin).
Being in close communication with other Italics, the Romans adopted into their language many words from Os, Umbrian, Sabine and other Italic languages. Such dialectisms in the Latin language reflect the cultural and historical connection that existed between the Italians. The influence of the Latin language on the languages of other Italics was, of course, extremely great and led to the disappearance of some of the Italic languages and their replacement by the Latin language, not only in writing, but also in living speech; As for the literary language, then, as already indicated, the Latin language became the only literary language in ancient Italy (except, of course, the Greek language in the Italian colonies). The Latin language took into its own composition mainly those words and forms of speech that it lacked and which denoted those objects and expressed those concepts with which the Romans were not familiar; However, in the Latin language we also find such dialectisms, the penetration of which at the present time is at least difficult to explain by any cultural and historical reasons. Words of this kind include, for example, words like fur (thief), a word that came from the Oscan language and goes back to the Greek φώρ, as indicated by the phonetics of this word; words such as turpis, vafer, catus (= acutute in Ennius), cascus (= velus). On the Sabine origin of two last words Varro directly points out in his essay “On the Latin Language” (VIII, 46 and VII, 28). In a number of cases, the penetration of non-Latin words into literary speech is quite well explained by the origin of this or that writer. So, for example, we find the word catus in Ennius, who was from Rudium, where they spoke the Os language; crepusculum is the favorite word of Ovid, a native of the Peligni region, which subsequently came into wide use; basium was apparently introduced by Catullus. who was a native of Transpadanian Gaul; We find the word vafer with a non-Latin f for the first time in the authors of the Campanian comedy - Atellans, etc. Another thing is words such as, for example, the Os name for special clothing trabea; sacred words: cupencus (Latin sacerdos), attested by Virgil, dirus (dira = mala), februm (= purgamentum - see Varro, “On the Latin language,” VI, 13), from where februarius came, etc. Borrowed Latin language and the names of some animals, for example, ursus, the Lucanian origin of which is indicated by Varro (V, 100), Osco-Sabel bufo (toad), Osco lupus (in Latin one would expect lucus). Due to the development among the Latins Agriculture There are, in all likelihood, borrowings of such words as the Umbro-Sabine name for a young bull - iuvencus, turdus (thrush), which penetrated from the Greek language through the osk word cupa (handle of an instrument for squeezing olive oil), the Campanian designation for a crooked garden knife is secula (= faix), attested by Varro (V, 137) and continues to live in Italian segolo. Along with words in the original Latin phonetic form, we find in the Latin word forms characteristic of other Italic languages, and often these non-Latin forms become predominant in literary speech. This includes such “Sabinisms” as Capitolium (from Kapitodium), lacrima (from Old Latin dacruma), lingua (from dingua). Penetrate into the literary language and such folk forms, in which the diphthong au moved to O: clostrum, codex, colis, etc.
If we turn to the language of later monuments of Roman literature, we will see the continuous enrichment of the Latin language by borrowings from other languages, which the Romans became acquainted with when expanding the borders of their state.
In the mid-19th century, the Russian archaeologist and historian Alexander Dmitrievich Chertkov put forward his own theory of the origin of the Etruscans, which was different from the already existing ones. Studying ancient history, he came to the conclusion that the Etruscans were Slavs.
According to official history in the 1st millennium BC On the territory of modern Italy, between the Arno and Tiber rivers, there was the Etruscan civilization, which had a huge influence on the development of the Romans.
The Etruscans left behind many works of art: magnificent temples, frescoes decorating tombs, vases made of black clay. They processed metal and made stunning, delicate items from silver and gold.
Historians do not know where the mysterious people who inhabited Italy long before the founding of Rome came from and where they disappeared to. The Etruscan language has no relatives, and the inscriptions of the Etruscans, of which more than 12 thousand remain, have not been read according to official science. Etruscan inscriptions were already incomprehensible to the Romans, who had a proverb “etruscum non legitur” (“Etruscan cannot be read”).
Official versions of the origin of the Etruscans.
The main version today is the northern theory of origin, which was put forward by Nicolas Frere. According to Frere's theory, the Etruscans entered Italy through the Alpine Pass. This version does not have any material evidence, and yet, since the 19th century, this version has been very popular, especially among the Germans.
Eastern theory origin was put forward on the basis of fragmentary data left by Herodotus and other ancient authors. According to Herodotus, the Etruscans migrated from the eastern Mediterranean. Herodotus called the Etruscans Tyleni or Tyrseni. This was long before Rome began to challenge primacy in Italy.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus put forward a third theory, arguing that the Etruscans were a native people of Italy, thus challenging Herodotus' theory.
Alternative theory.
In the mid-19th century, the Russian archaeologist and historian Alexander Dmitrievich Chertkov put forward his own theory, different from the already existing ones. Studying ancient history, he came to the conclusion that the Etruscans were Slavs.
Chertkov Alexander Dmitrievich
Is it necessary to talk about how the scientific world perceived this? Recognition of the fact that the Slavs inhabited Italy even before the rise of Rome and founded a center there ancient culture, threatens with far-reaching consequences. Regardless of Chertkov, Slavic version The origin of the Etruscans was proposed by the Polish archaeologist and collector Tadeusz (Thaddeus) Wolanski.
Tadeusz Wolanski
Based on Slavic languages, he successfully read not only Etruscan texts, but also many other ancient inscriptions found in different places in Western Europe. The works of Chertkov and Volansky were not refuted, no errors were found in them, they were simply ignored.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Italian scientist, priest, philologist, Etruscologist, Slavist Sebastiano Ciampi proposed using Slavic alphabet to decipher Etruscan inscriptions. Ciampi had to learn Polish due to his work as a teacher at the University of Warsaw. Sebastiano suddenly discovered that he could now read and understand ancient Etruscan texts. Arriving in Italy, the professor shared his discovery with his colleagues, but they reminded him that the Germans have long proven that Slavic peoples appeared on the historical stage no earlier than the 6th century AD (?!). It’s not difficult to guess what the reaction was to Champi’s assumptions.
It is significant that in 1853 the Catholic Church banned Wolanski's books, and the Polish Jesuits burned his books at the stake. But even this seemed not enough to them, so they demanded that the scientist be executed for his statements.
Here is an excerpt from Wolanski's letter to an archaeologist Karol Rogawski:
“Are there not Slavic monuments in Italy, India and Persia - even in Egypt?... Are ancient books Zoroasters, are the ruins of Babylon, monuments Daria, the remains of Parsa-city (Persepolis) covered with cuneiform writing, do not contain inscriptions understandable to the Slavs? The British, French and Germans look at this, “jak kozioł na wodę”. We, the Slavs, will be able to bring this research to completion only if our children and grandchildren want to follow in our footsteps!
Wolanski remained alive only thanks to the intervention of Nicholas I.
Decoding Etruscan texts
Let's take a look at interesting results deciphering the Etruscan writing received by Wolanski. For convenience, he compiled a table of correspondences, in which the Cyrillic alphabet is given in the first column, and in the second Polish alphabet, in the third the Bohemian alphabet, in the fourth column the Etruscan alphabet.
Wolanski table
Next, replacing the letters with Cyrillic and determining the direction of the text: from right to left or left to right (the Etruscans wrote both ways), you can read the text. Of course, the texts are not always fully read, but the Old Russian texts are not completely deciphered.
Here is an example of a double-sided Etruscan cameo: 
On the front side there is the inscription:
Ster Koupida ra Menfi.
In Russian:
Cupid's arrow wounds Menifee.
On the reverse side there is an inscription of seven lines:
Yao Hosts of Adonijah. Kai ea laitsa go to tartaru sko tin.
In Russian:
I, hosts Adonei. To her! If they scold her, they go to Tartarus, brutes.
Subsequently, many other scholars undertook to translate Etruscan texts using Slavic languages: Grinevich, Chudinov, Kharsekin.
Several examples of their translations with interpretations of words (1):
ACLA– a variant spelling of the word ACHILA, that is, POCHILA
ACHUDCHLI- participle of the verb AWARE, SMELL, that is, FELT. Them. p.un. h.
DIANA– proper name, noun, female form. them. p.un. h.
Zhdan– proper name, noun, m.p., im. p.un. h.
SAME– adverb ALREADY
BACK– adverb AFTER
ZEM- truncated version of the word EARTH, noun and. r., im. p.un. h.
CLAN – passive participle from the verb PLACE, female them. p.un. h.
L– a truncated version of the word LADA, MISTRESS, them. noun name, female them. p.un. h.
LAD- man, sir
LADUS– Latinized version of the word LADO, MR., noun nationality, m.r. them. p.un. h.
MI – oblique case possessive pronoun MY
NOT– denial NOT
HIM– truncated form of the word NEMCHIN, GERMAN. M. r., tv. p.un. h.
PAP– truncated form of the word DAD, noun, common name, m.r. them. p.un. h.
TO THE SONS– noun nationality, m.r. date p.m. h. words SON.
UCHULSE– second communion reflexive verb LEARN, STUDY.
CHAL– variant spelling of the word CHEL, HUMAN, noun nar., m.r. them. p.un. h.
CHIS– adjective in multiples. form, truncated version of the word CLEAN, them. p.un. h.
DICK- suffer. participle of the verb CHANT, KILL. M. r. them. p.un. h.
MIRACLE- truncated version of the word MIRACLE, noun, common, cf. r., im. p.un. h.
Translation of an Etruscan tombstone from Clusia:
Tombstone from Clusia (inscription from right to left)
IMU LADU ME, A DIANA ME, ANA Z ZEM CLAN.
Translation: I HAVE (there is) a MISTRE TO ME, THERE IS DIANA TO ME, SHE IS WITH THE EARTHPOSITIONED .
Here is the inscription from a tombstone in Florence:
Inscription from Florence
The words here are familiar. First word THAT in the meaning HERE. This is what modern Serbs say too. Word LAD - Mister. I won’t re-describe the pretext either. Z. But let me note that instead of Russian instrumental case WITH THE MIRACLE of the Etruscan language, with its gradual loss of case endings, we see the form of the dative case FOR A MIRACLE. Word MIRACLE met for the first time in this text. Personal pronoun AND I mean HE. Etruscan word AL in the meaning of WAS one can imagine such an evolution: WAS-YL-AL; for some reason, the sounds P, and less often B, at the beginning of a word were reduced in the Etruscan language. Noun DAD has already been encountered (VER, No. 140), but in the form of PAP it was encountered here for the first time. Probably at this moment there was a unification of nouns male, which were supposed to have only a solid ending, and in no way ending female-A. Form TO THE SONS(dative plural) is still the same as the Russian language.
And here is the inscription on the vessel from Canino:
Vessel from Canino
MI LADUS. Translation: MY LORD .
The word LADO, as already noted, was widely found in the Etruscan language; here it is given not with the Slavic ending –О, but with the Latin ending –US. The word MI in the Etruscan language is known and occurs as the indirect cases of the word I, however, it is possible that in some cases I did not distinguish the indirect case of the personal pronoun from the possessive pronoun MY, MY, etc.
Here is another Etruscan tombstone:
Etruscan tombstone
TE THREE YI TE THREE TU LAD. It means: THOSE THREE AND THOSE THREE PEOPLE HERE. In other words, before us is a tombstone over the graves of six people.
Here's something interestinggravestone from Siena: 
LADO YE S CHEL NEM, AND AS, WARRIOR, ANI UCHULSE. Translation: THE LORD IS WITH A MUTE MAN, AND I, A WARRIOR, LEARNED FROM THEM. At the same time, it is possible that the word MUT did not mean a deaf-mute, but a NEMCHIN, that is, a person of a different language.
The author of this article wants to once again draw attention to the extremely interesting and important works of Volansky, Chertkov, Ciampi and other Etruscologists, who, it is possible, really managed to find the key to reading Etruscan inscriptions. And the topic is very sensitive for the entire Western world: after all, from the historiography course we know that Rome, which is considered the basis of all Western ideology and mentality, was built by the Etruscans. It is clear that this mysterious nation must have been either Italics or Germans, and Etruscologists intensively searched for this similarity in language and writing. But they didn’t find it. More precisely, the most perspicacious of them guessed that the Etruscans were Slavs, but they immediately hid their guesses. After all, as Orwell said: “Who controls the past, controls the future!” Who controls the present controls the past."
Malakhov Vladimir
Rice. 1. Inscription in Etruscan on the sarcophagus (Klassen E. Ancient history Slavs and Slavic-Russians. - M.: White Alva. 2005. - P. 285. Fig. 31).
Transliteration: E muchyovyavimi. Translation: They are martyrs.
As we see, only a fragment of the inscription has survived.
The Etruscan alphabet is very similar to the alphabet of the ancient Vlachs:
A - A
M - B, V
K - B, V as in Old Russian
> - B, D - Вь
J - B
III (F) - J?
W - J
V - DTS
R - DSCH
HER
Y - HER
N - F
I - And - before acc.
H - Kh?
L - L, Lee
N - M, I - M
H (in the form of st.) - N, + - НН
O, S - O
^, P - P
@, Q (circle with a dot in the middle) - P
F - TS
T - TS
t - T?
V - U, V
S - C
F - Ць
G - H
U - H
Sh - Sh
Shch - Shch
: - Kommersant
I - b
Y - Yu, I
* - I
O (as in "omega") - I
In Etruscan:
TI - H
OE is read as E under beat.
OA - like A with emphasis
IO - Yo
^A - Me?
OO - U
YO - And
AE - E
EO - CO
About after ch. points to unstressed syllable, : and dot before ch. - on the stressed ch. sound, : after acc. - to a hard consonant sound, I after consonant. - to soft acc. sound.
Santiy, part 6.
Many people mistakenly believe that written sources appeared on Slavic land thanks to the enlighteners of the Slavs - Saints Cyril and Methodius. They, indeed, accomplished a feat by translating many books of the New Testament from the Roman language into Russian, contributing to the triumph of Orthodoxy, but before their arrival the Slavs already had a written language. The evidence will now be presented to you, since it was possible to decipher several inscriptions on the SANTIYA "DACS".
The discovery of Santi is associated with the King of Romania, Charles the First. Charles the First was an ethnic German from the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family. He headed two principalities - Moldavian and Muntean (Eastern Wallachia), which formed the Romanian kingdom. The favorite vacation spot of Charles the First and his family was the Sinaia monastery.
Gold plates with ancient inscriptions were discovered in the outbuildings of the monastery. total number about four hundred, which were immediately handed over to the king. To replenish the royal treasury, Charles ordered the melting down most gold plates. With the proceeds from the sale of gold, a palace was built in Sinai for royal family. No one understood that the king had committed a crime against the Slavic world. However, the king ordered an exact copy of the plates to be made on lead.
The photo shows one such copy.
Transliteration.
1. Tshenedschev tsyaei yatshe... I-
2. khey, tshalimtsya, atsuzhtshdshche tse-
3. me? Atsyai levaev is destined... Looking for-
4. why the hell! Al, maybe tshdschab ayo kho-
5. ni yamatsetshana ee? And it's poisonous
6. dshetshi tseyzhyaeva her - tse egg
7. It’s the same thing. Atseyo dshe tsits-
8. And let's go ahead. Tsho
9. what? Shdshchay, beat. Yovyein-
10. her zhayodtsyotshi - liquid...
Translation.
1. Her sons were taken (to the army)...
2. Who, taking pity. will judge the mother?
3. Such is the fate of the lion... Of course.
4. Or maybe she is there for her horses
5. were not taken for our needs? And if
6. to honor the works of the righteous her is an egg
7. truths. Her breasts
8. very heavy and large. What else?
9. Apparently, he beats his righteous man.
10. Her complaints are lies...
At the beginning of our era, the Slavs already lived in the Carpathians. They were inhabited by the carriers of the “Carpathian mound culture” - carp. Carps are also called "dacians". The ancient "Dacians" are the ancestors of the Moldavians.
“The historical path of the culture of the Carpathian mounds,” states the “Old History of Ukraine” published in 1995 in Kyiv, “is a scientific illustration of the asimilation of the ancient words of the Geto-Dacians. binny reasons for the originality of words of the Yan ethnic groups, Why do ninis live in the Carpathians? But the fact is that there was no assimilation of the Getae by the Slavs, since the Getae themselves were Slavs. The most important indicator ethnic background- this is a language. The language spoken by the "Geto-Dacians", judging by the results of the deciphered ancient Wallachian writing, is Slavic, therefore, both the so-called "Dacians" and the Moldovlachs are Slavs. The Wallachians forgot their native Slavic language only in the 20th century.
However, national identity in the culture of, for example, the Hutsuls is clearly present. It is explained by the fact that the Salt Route passed through the Carpathians and Lemberg, along which salt was transported from Crimea to Western Europe. The trade in salt from the Solotvyno salt mines is just a cover for those who transported Sivash salt from town to town, from one city with a suburb closed from prying eyes to another city with the same ghetto. The salt along this route was carried by the descendants of the Khazars, who outwardly were no different from the Lemkos.
Several years ago, geneticists found that a significant part of Lemkos and Romanians have DNA haplogroup R1b (are Erbins). This only indicates that the Erbins of Western Europe have forgotten their native language and began to talk in Romanesque and Germanic languages, and the Lemkos did not reject the language of their ancestors, remaining Slavs. The Lemkos themselves consider themselves Russians or, in other words, Rusyns.
The Erbins (Celts), like the representatives of R1a, were Slavs at the beginning of our era, as the Santi letters tell us.
A - A
Y - AY
M - B, V
K - B, V as in Old Russian
P - V
III (W) - J
V - DTS
R - DSCH
HER
G - F bl. to Shch
N - F
Z - ZH
S - W
I - And - before acc.
^ - J; Yu if it's a right triangle
Y - Y
X - Kx
L - L, Lee
N - M
H (in ed. st.) - N
O - O
^ - P
@, Q - P
F - TS
T - TS
t - T
V - U, V
E - C, Tse
Y - H
Sh - Sh
Shch - Shch
O - b
I - b
Y - Yu, I
* - I
O (as in "omega") -I
OE is read as E.
OA - like A with emphasis.
IO - Yo
DA - I
OO - U
YO - And
AE - E
YAE - E
EO - CO
EO - HEY
About after ch. indicates an unstressed syllable, before - a stressed ch. sound, O after acc. - to a hard consonant sound, I after consonant. - to soft acc. sound.
The first written evidence, according to modern scientists, about the Romanian language, which was allegedly spoken in the Middle Ages in the Balkans, belongs to the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor, who, according to Latin theologians (and what theologians!), lived in the 6th century AD. e. according to the official chronology. This evidence is connected, imagine, with military expedition Romans against the Obras (Avars), during which a certain mule driver, who for some reason is identified as a representative of the people close to the Wallachians, accompanying rear service the Byzantine army, noticed a load falling from one of the animals, and shouted to his companion: “Torna, torna, fratre” (“Turn, turn, brother”). The fact that a significant number of immigrants from Italy lived in Romea, that Rome is on the Bosporus for a long time was called the Latin Empire, the fact that the Latin language itself was just being formed in those days was not taken into account by modern scientists.
It is believed that the oldest written text in Romanian - this is a letter to Neaksu, dated for some reason in 1521. However, it is written on writing paper, which began to be produced in the 17th century. Thus, the dating is incorrect. Most likely, the manuscript was created in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1818, Gheorghe Lazar founded the first Romanian-language school in Bucharest. A legitimate question arises: did there exist Romanian language in the 18th century or was it created artificially in the 19th century?
Rice. 1. Title page of the book by Yu. Venelin “Vlacho-Bulgarian or Daco-Slayan charters”.
Material collected by Yu. Venelin, a Russian scientist of the first half of the 19th century century - indicates that the Wallachians spoke Russian as early as the 18th century (see Fig. 1-2).
Rice. 2. Certificate written in Russian at the end of the 17th century.
The book proves that the Wallachians knew nothing about the Romanian language until the 19th century.
G. Hanselia "Synopsis" (see Fig. 3):
Rice. 3. On the page among Slavic languages, instead of Wallachian, it is mentioned Moldavian language(G. Henselio. Synopsis universae philologiae. - N.: Сomiss. komanniana, 1741. - P. 423). That is, the Wallachians in the 18th century. belonged to Moldovans and spoke Russian. The Romanian language did not exist in Moldova at that time and will not exist for another century and a half! If today's Romanians honored the memory of their ancestors, they would bow to the Moldovans of Transnistria and ask them to send teachers to teach them the language of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers. Moreover, the Hungarians (Ugrians, Hungars) in the 18th century. spoke one of the Slavic dialects, since Hungarian was artificially created only in the 19th century. The very fact of the artificial creation of the Hungarian language does not at all imply that Orthodox Ugric Rusyns should have immediately spoken it. Under the influence of what people forget their native language, one can guess.
The Cyrillic alphabet remained in use in Wallachia until 1862. This year the Romanian alphabet was officially established. The population of the country, despite this, continued to speak their native Wallachian dialect of the Russian language. Of course, the intelligentsia was the first to speak Romanian, but the people did not want to give up their native language.
Part of the population of Romania began to speak Romanian only before WWII under the influence of the fascist government. In secondary schools of the SRR, teaching was conducted in Romanian, so it was only in the second half of the 20th century. Romanian became the native language for the population of Romania.
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