For the most part, these records were made in the Western Russian written language. Essentially, East Slavic speech was written using the rules of Polish orthography (see, for example, the chronicle of Bychowiec, whose Cyrillic original was rewritten in the 17th century using the Polish Latin alphabet). IN XVII century In the Moscow state, a fashion appears to make short notes in Russian using letters of the Latin alphabet. This practice became especially widespread in the 1680s - 1690s. .
Recordings of Russian speech by foreign travelers are known: a French phrasebook of the 16th century in the Latin alphabet and a dictionary-diary of Richard James, mainly in Latin script (influenced by the spelling of various Western European languages), but interspersed with letters of the Greek and Russian alphabet.
Selected projects of the 19th century
see also
Notes
- Alekseev M. P. Dictionaries foreign languages in the Russian alphabet book of the 17th century: Research, texts and comments. L.: Nauka, 1968. P. 69-71; Shamin S. M. Russian records in Latin letters on books, icons and other objects (XVII - beginning of XVIII c.) // Ancient Rus'. Questions of medieval studies. 2007. No. 3 (29). pp. 122-123.
- New improved letters for the Russian alphabet, or the most convenient means of learning to read and write Russian, even for foreigners, adapted together with the study of all European alphabets, with the application of some Historical notes on the use of letters among Ancient and Modern peoples ъ . - M.: type. Augusta Seeds, 1833.
- Kodinsky K. M. Simplification of Russian grammar. Uproscenie ruscoi grammatichi. - St. Petersburg. , 1842.
It is a widely held opinion, shared even by some scholars, that the Latin alphabet is derived from the Greek in the form used by Greek colonists in Italy, probably from the Chalcidian version of the Greek alphabet used in Cumae Campania. This theory attempts to prove that the Latin alphabet, with the exception of the letters g and p, is exactly the same as the Chalcidian alphabet. IN Lately However, it has been proven that this theory is generally incorrect and that the Etruscan alphabet was link between the Greek and Latin alphabets.
We have already mentioned that on the Praenestine fibula the sound f is conveyed, as in early Etruscan inscriptions, by the combination wh. Later, for example in the Duenos Inscription, the h was omitted - also under Etruscan influence. Thus, the Greek ϝ (digamma), that is, w, came to denote the Latin sound f, although Latin also had the sound w, and if the Romans had taken the alphabet directly from the Greeks, they would have had to use the Greek digamma to convey this sound, in at the same time, both for the sound w and for and in Latin the Greek letter υ (upsilon) was used,
The third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma, received Etruscan alphabet form ϶ (or WITH) and sound value k ; it retained this sound meaning in the Latin alphabet, where it served to express the sounds k and g (as stated above, the Etruscans did not distinguish between the sounds k and g); WITH and subsequently retained the meaning of the sound g in constant abbreviations of proper names WITH(instead of Gaius) and CN(instead of Gnaeus). At the same time, Greek had two other signs for the sound k - TO And Q, therefore we find in the South Etruscan alphabet the sign C(with k value) just before e and i, K before a and Q only before u (the Etruscan language, as we have seen, did not know the sound o). Latin alphabet perceived all these three letters with the same phonetic meanings, but over time lost the letter K, which, however, continued to be used as the initial letter in frequently used words or formal terms, such as Kalendae or Kaeso, and began to use the letter C for both the sound g and k. However, the letter Q retained the meaning of the sound k before u. Later, in the 3rd century. BC., ringing sound g was given special notation by adding a stroke to the bottom end of the letter WITH, which thus turned into G.
Absence from the early Latin alphabet special sign for the combination x (ks), which existed in the Greek alphabet, including in its Chalcidian version, but which was not in the Etruscan, serves as further evidence that the Latin alphabet originates from the Etruscan.
Substantial part Latin names letters inherited by English and most modern alphabets, also borrowed from the Etruscans, and only a few names were invented by the Romans. , borrowed by the Greeks, were completely different. About Etruscan origin the names of the letters are best evidenced by the names ce, ka and qu (explained by the above-mentioned use of these three letters). Another fact speaks to this: in Etruscan there were sonants, or syllabic-forming smooth (ḷ, ṛ), and nasal (ṃ, ṇ), therefore modern names the letters l, m, n, r are vocalized as closed syllables(el, em, en, er), and the names of the rest agree to represent open syllables(be, de, etc.).
The creation of the Latin alphabet can be dated back to the 7th century. BC.
Evolution of the Latin alphabet
The original Etruscan alphabet consisted of 26 letters; the Romans borrowed only twenty-one of them. They abandoned the three Greek aspirates: theta, phi and hee, since in Latin there were no sounds corresponding to these letters, but they retained these signs to denote numbers. ☉, Ͼ, C came to mean 100, and later this sign was identified with initial letter words centum "one hundred"; ⏀, ⊂|⊃, Ϻ came to stand for 1000, and this sign was identified with the initial letter of the word mille "thousand", D, half of the sign ⊂|⊃, became the symbol for 500; φ - ↓ - ┴ - └ began to mean 50.
Of the three Etruscan letters that conveyed the sound s, the Romans retained the Greek sigma. The presence in the Latin alphabet of the letters d and o, which were not used in Etruscan language, is explained by the already mentioned circumstance that the Latin alphabet was created even before the Etruscans abandoned these letters. Use of letters S, K, Q And F already explained. The sign, which, as in the Etruscan alphabet, denoted aspiration, later received the form N. The sign I served for both the vowel and the consonant i. Sign X was added later to convey the combination of ks sounds and was placed at the end of the Latin alphabet.
Thus, the Latin alphabet had next view: A, B, C(With sound meaning k), D, E, F, Z(Greek zeta), H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, P(this was the original form R), S, T, V, X. Roughly speaking, it was a Semitic-Greek-Etruscan alphabet; the shape of some letters has been changed minor change; Semitic Greek Δ became D; Greek Σ became S; R is a variant of the sign P, modified by adding a dash under the semicircle; the remaining letters remained unchanged. Later the seventh letter, that is, the Greek zeta (Ζ) , was omitted because the Latin language did not need it, and new letter G took her place.
After the conquest of Greece in the era of Cicero (1st century BC), the Latin language began to widely borrow Greek words; signs were adopted from the Greek alphabet of that time Y And Z respectively for the sounds y and z (but only for transliteration of Greek words); these signs were placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus, the Latin alphabet began to have twenty-three characters; the signs themselves became more regular, slender, proportionate and graceful.
Although even in Roman times, attempts were made to add new letters - for example, a variant of the letter M, introduced by Verrius Flaccus in the era of Augustus, and in particular the signs introduced by the emperor Claudius (10 BC - 54 AD), digamma inversum for the sound w/υ, to distinguish it in writing from u; antisigma, which is an inverted WITH(Ͽ), for the combination ps; half sign N(┠) for a sound intermediate between u and i - in general it can be said that the alphabet of 23 letters described above was used without changes with the same order of letters not only in the monumental writing of the Roman period, but also in medieval writing (as capital letters), and then in book printing up to the present day.
The only stable additions of the Middle Ages were signs U, W And J; more precisely, these were not additions, but variants of existing letters; sign U(for the vowel and, to distinguish it from the consonant υ) and consonant W were minor modifications V, a J(consonant i) - result small change sign I. In the era early Middle Ages two of these letters U And J(but not W, which appeared only in the 11th century) were used undifferentiated for both consonant and vowel sounds.
The most significant facts of the subsequent history of the Latin alphabet are as follows: 1) adaptation of the Latin alphabet to different languages, and 2) external change individual letters in a “cursive” or “fluent” style.
Enter the text in Russian letters:
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How to say in Latin letters:
Why translate Russian letters into Latin?
Since our Russia is not very good yet rich country and most companies cannot afford to organize the distribution of free samples to advertise their products, then at the moment most offers for freebies come from abroad.
Since the most common language is English, the order forms for free samples are often on English language.
The address information and full name of the recipient in such forms must be filled out in Latin. Since both our postmen and those companies that distribute freebies will understand the Latin alphabet.
If you write in Russian, then there is a risk that the organizers of the action simply will not want to spend time translating and understanding what is written there.
If you write in English, then our postmen will not understand who and where to deliver.
The most the best option is to write the freebie delivery address and the full name of the freebie recipient in Latin.
Now the Internet is full different translators, but most of them are either not convenient or take a long time to find.
We suggest constantly using our free translator of Russian text into Latin.
When you order freebies through forms written in English, write the delivery address and full name in Latin.
Our free, simple and convenient service will allow you to translate Russian text into Latin. When we order samples from foreign sites, we always do this and get a freebie, not always of course :-), but it comes. So the method is correct.
Rules for pronunciation of Latin words
Alphabet
| Printed letters | Letter names | Reading |
| Aa | A | A |
| Bb | bae | b |
| Cc | tse | ts, k * |
| Dd | de | d |
| Ee | uh | uh* |
| Ff | ef | f |
| Gg | ge | G |
| Hh | Ha | X * |
| II | And | i, th* |
| Jj | yot | th* |
| Kk | ka | To * |
| Ll | ale | l" 1 * |
| mm | Em | m |
| Nn | en | n |
| Oo | O | O |
| Pp | pe | P |
| ku | sq * | |
| Rr | er | R |
| Ss | es | s, s |
| Tt | te | t, ts * |
| Uu | at | y, v * |
| Vv | ve | in, at * |
| Xx | X | ks |
| Yy | upsilon | and, and German 2 * |
| Zz | zeta | h |
| 1. A comma at the top right after the sound symbol means that the sound is soft. 2. Similar sound in the words buvar [b "ivar", bureau [b "iro"]. * This sign marks sounds whose pronunciation requires special attention. |
||
Latin - dead language, i.e. Currently, there are no people for whom this language is their native language. Live pronunciation classical period the development of the Latin language 1 has not reached us. Restore exact latin pronunciation is hardly possible, in connection with this, every people who uses the Latin language (in particular, using it in jurisprudence), when pronouncing Latin words, is guided by the pronunciation of their own native language(the English read Latin word With English pronunciation, Russians - with Russian, etc.). Therefore, the letters indicated in the table should be read “as in Russian” (unless their reading is specifically stated) [Period 1st century. BC. Cicero, Caesar and other prominent writers worked in this era; their language is considered a model of Latin. When studying the Latin language, this pattern is not used as a guide.]
Features of reading Latin vowels
Letter Ee reads as [e] 2 (not [ye] !): ego [e "go] I.
Letter II read [and] except when it comes before a vowel at the beginning of a syllable or word. Then it reads like [th]: ira [i"ra] anger, but ius [yus] right, adiuvo [adyu"vo] I help.
In a number of publications, the letter i, which was included in the Latin alphabet in the 16th century, is used to denote the sound [th]. It is also used in our manual. So ius = jus etc.
The letter Yy appears in words Greek origin. It reads like [and] or, more precisely, like the German b: lyra [l "ira], [l "ira].
There are 2 diphthongs in Latin: au and eu. They consist of two elements that are pronounced together, “in one sound,” with the emphasis on the first element (cf. diphthongs in English).
aurum [arum] [Sign square brackets indicates that they contain precisely a sound, and not a letter (i.e., that this is a transcription). All transcription signs in our manual are Russian (unless they are specifically noted).] gold
Europa[eropa] Europe
Letter combination ae reads like [e]: aes[es] copper; letter combination oe- like the German ts [A similar sound will be made if you pronounce the sound [e] and lower the corners of your mouth to the bottom.]: poena[ptsna] punishment.
If in these two combinations the vowels are pronounced separately, then an e is placed above the letter - or .. (i.e. _, ё): a_r / aёr[a"er] air, po_ta / poeta poet[poe"ta].
Vowel Uu, as a rule, denotes the sound [y]. However, in words Suavis[sva"vis] sweet, nice; suadeo[sva"deo] I advice ; suesco[sve"sko] I am getting used to and their derivatives - combination su reads like [sv].
Group ngu reads [ngv]: lingua[l "ingva] language .
Features of reading Latin consonants
Letter Cs before e, ae, oe(i.e. before the sounds [e] and [o]) and i, y(i.e. before the sounds [u] and [b]) is read as [ts]: Cicero[pica] Cicero. In other cases With reads like [k]: credo[kre "do] I believe .
Letter Hh gives a sound similar to "Ukrainian" G"; it is obtained if you pronounce [x] with a voice, and is denoted by the Greek letter i (this sound is present in the words yeah! And God![io"spod"i]).
In words usually borrowed from Greek language, the following combinations of consonants with the letter occur h :
ph[f] philosophus[philo"sophus] philosopher
ch[X] charta[ha"rta] paper
th[T] theater[tea "trum] theater
rh[R] arrha[a"rra] deposit
Letter Kk used very rarely: in the word Kalendae and its abbreviation K. (it is also possible to write using With), as well as in the name Kaeso[ke "so] Quezon .
Latin Ll pronounced softly: lex[l "ex] law .
Letter Qq used only in combination with the letter u ( qu). This combination reads [kv]: quaestio[kve "stio] question .
Letter Ss reads like [s]: saepe[s "epe] often. In the position between vowels it is read as [z]: case[ka"zus] case, case(in grammar), except for Greek words: philosophus[philo"sophus] philosopher .
Letter Tt read [t]. Collocation ti read as [qi] if followed by a vowel: etiam[etsiam] even .
Combination ti reads like [ti]:
a) if it’s a vowel i in this combination it is long (for the length of vowels, see below): totius[totius] - R. p., units. hours from totus whole, whole ;
b) if before ti costs s, t or x(i.e. in combinations sti, tti, xti): bestia[bestia] beast ;Attis[a"ttius] Attius(Name); mixtio[mixtio] mixing .
c) in Greek words: Miltiades[mil"ti"ades] Miltiades .
Long and short vowels
Vowel sounds in the Latin language differ in the duration of their pronunciation. There were long and short vowels: a long vowel was pronounced twice as long as a short one.
The longitude of a sound is indicated by the sign - above the corresponding letter, shortened by the sign Ш:
+ ("and long") - - ("and short")
_ ("e long") - _ (“e short”), etc.
When reading Latin texts, we pronounce long and short vowels with the same duration, without distinguishing between them. However, the rules determining the length/shortness of vowels need to be known, because :
There are pairs of words that have different meaning, but completely coincide in spelling and pronunciation (homonyms) and differ only in the length and shortness of the vowel: m_lum evil - m_lum apple ;
· the length or shortness of a vowel significantly affects the placement of stress in a word.
Placing stress in a word
On last syllable words are not stressed in Latin.
In two-syllable words, the stress falls on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word: sci"-o I know, cu"l-pa wine .
In polysyllabic words, stress is determined by the length (shortness) of the 2nd syllable from the end of the word. It falls:
on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word, if it is long;
to the 3rd syllable from the end of the word, if the 2nd syllable is short.
Long and short syllables
Long syllables are syllables that contain a long vowel, short syllables are those that contain a short vowel.
In Latin, as in Russian, syllables are formed using vowels, around which consonants are “grouped.”
NB - a diphthong represents one sound and therefore forms only one syllable: ca"u-sa reason, guilt. (NB - Nota bene! Remember well! - Latin designation for notes.)
Long vowels include:
Diphthongs and combinations ae And oe: cen-tau-rus centaur ;
vowel before a group of consonants (except for vowels before the group muta cum liquida (see below): in-stru-m_n-tum tool .
This is the so-called longitude by position.
o a vowel can be long in nature, i.e. its longitude is not determined by any reasons, but is linguistic fact. Longitude by position is recorded in dictionaries: for-tk"-na fortune.
Short vowels include:
o vowels that come before another vowel (so in all words ending in io, ia, ium, uo etc., stress falls on the 3rd syllable from the end): sci-e"n-tia knowledge ;
o before h: tra-ho I'm dragging.
This is the so-called brevity by position:
o vowels coming before a combination of one of the consonants: b, p, d, t, c[k], g(the so-called “mute” - muta) - with one of the consonants: r, l(so-called “liquid” - liquida), i.e. before combinations br, pr, dl and so on. ("mute with smooth" - muta cum liquida): te"-n_-brae darkness, darkness ;
o the vowel may be short in nature, i.e. its brevity is not defined external reasons, but is a fact of language. The brevity of the position is recorded in dictionaries: fe"-m--na woman .
References
Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Textbook of the Latin language. 2nd ed. M., 1985.
Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.
Kozarzhevsky A.I. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1948.
Sobolevsky S.I. Latin grammar. M., 1981.
Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1956.
Many people ask the question: “What are Latin letters?” In fact, everything is extremely simple. In fact, the Latin alphabet is the alphabetic characters of modern English. The only difference is the pronunciation.
Where are Latin letters and numbers currently used?
Today, more than 40% of the total population writes in Latin. globe. And in fact letters are generally accepted international letter characters. You don’t have to look far for an example; just take out your foreign passport and look at it. Under the surname written in Russian, you will definitely see its Latin version.
Numbers are also widely used in all countries. In Russia they are used in contracts, laws, and for numbering clauses. In order to understand how to write in Latin letters, it is enough to select consonant letters and take into account complex combinations, the table with which is given below. Typically, transliteration tables can be found at the information desk of any foreign consulate.
The history of the emergence of Latin writing
It is believed that the roots of the Latin letter go back to the Etruscan and Greek alphabets. There is also an opinion that the Phoenician letter also had its influence. Some are inclined to think that there were also Egyptian alphabetic signs.
The first reliable studies relate to 7th century BC. The archaic Latin alphabet consisted of 21 letters.
In 312 BC, Appius Claudius Russ abolished the letter Z, after which only 20 letters remained. In the 1st century, Z returned again, and with it appeared new symbol Y, and the alphabet took on its now familiar form. Over the following years, some letters disappeared and reappeared, some of them eventually united and gave birth to new symbols. Most often, controversy surrounds the letter symbol W.
Influence of the Greek language
Speaking about the Latin alphabet, it is difficult not to mention the influence of the Greek language, since it made a huge contribution to the formation of the modern Latin spelling. If you are confused about the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then you can search or remember the Greek alphabet.
By the way, the letters x, y and z were borrowed from the Greeks. Interesting fact: they wrote in Greece not only from left to right, but also vice versa, which is why they had so many inscriptions that read the same way, regardless of which end to start with. In fact, this phenomenon is often given a certain mystical character. There is even a magical "SATOR Square". All words written in it are read not only from right to left and vice versa, but, what is most interesting, the characters can also be read diagonally. There is a belief that by writing all these symbols, you can make a wish that will definitely come true.
How to write your first or last name in Latin
Very often, when submitting documents such as visas, you are required to indicate your personal data using exclusively the Latin alphabet, the letters of which must correspond as closely as possible to Russian. Let's look at the most common names and their spellings.
Pronunciation of Latin letters
If you are asking the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then, most likely, you will also be interested in learning how to pronounce them correctly. There are no difficulties here either, since, most likely, you heard this alphabet back in school.
Despite the identity English letters, do not confuse them. Latin has no complex or unpronounceable sounds, so everything is extremely simple. For comparison: in the English language there is a whole list of sounds that are very difficult for a Russian speaker to pronounce.
Finally
We reviewed the topic: “What are Latin letters?”, and now you can easily fill out an application for a visa or for any other documents that you are going to send abroad. Convenience also lies in the fact that sometimes, when you need to dictate an email address or a link on the Internet over the phone, you can use the Latin alphabet - and the interlocutor will definitely understand you. Therefore, you don’t have to explain anything according to the principle “es is like a dollar,” etc.
Centuries have passed, but we still use this amazing language, developed by non-scientists based on opinion polls and other research, but by people who did not know what electricity was, where the ozone holes were located, and much more. Still a legacy ancient civilizations still makes itself felt, captivating and astonishing with its amazing solutions not only in art, but also in other areas.