The Etruscan language is similar to Russian. Etruscan writing

ETRUSCAN

Writing

I would like to start with the same tablet from Cortona, not only because it was discovered relatively recently, but also because this source and its history perfectly illustrate the current level of our knowledge of the Etruscan language. Thus, the question of language is inextricably linked with another pressing issue of Etruscology - the origin of this “mysterious” people. And let's try not to use this adjective again! The first positive point is that we can easily read Etruscan texts, since they are written in letters of the Greek alphabet, somewhat adapted to reflect the Etruscan language. Reading the Etruscan language became indeed a very simple task once it was established that the vast majority of inscriptions were written in the reverse direction, from right to left. However, some of them are still written from left to right, but this should not confuse us: we see the same thing in Greek inscriptions of the archaic period. Obviously, the direction of the writing is not the main problem, since both Greek and Etruscan languages had so-called “boustrophedons” - texts whose lines are alternately directed from right to left and left to right, like the furrows left by a plow. Meanwhile, it cannot be said that the choice in favor of writing the text from right to left is unconscious, and it is very likely that it could have its roots in iconography: consider, for example, the mythological scenes presented on vessels of the black-figure style - most often they are read from right to left in Etruscan ceramics and from left to right in Attic.

Deciphered writing of an unknown language

From the very beginning, we should separate concepts such as writing and language: the Etruscan language itself remains unknown to us for many reasons, but it is written in Greek letters, which we know very well. We see a similar picture with Gallic inscriptions, often written in letters of the Greek and Latin alphabets. The exact opposite situation developed with Linear B before its decipherment. The language was known to us - it was obviously Greek, but it was hidden under the guise of writing, for a long time remained unsolved until Ventris and Chadwick understood her technique. Before considering the circumstances that led the Etruscans to the Greek alphabet, and giving a primary characteristic of their language, their first inscriptions, dating back to 700 BC. e., it is necessary to add one clarification to the question of reading the tablet from Cortona: although we can accurately read all the letters, it is still not always possible to accurately establish the division between words, which for the most part mean nothing to us! We are very lucky with this beautiful and very neat text as it contains punctuation, which is rare. These are round dots or triangles, as well as division marks between chapters. Thus, the first publisher saw in “tarsminas” a single word, suggesting that it could mean Lake Trasimene, and the second researcher read two words in the same letters, the meaning of which turned out to be hidden.

Euboeans and their alphabet

So, at the very beginning of the 7th century. BC e. The Etruscans discovered the Greek alphabet and began to use it: it was during this era that their contacts with the first Greek settlers, who came to Italy and settled in 770 BC, became regular. e. on the Pitius Islands, on modern Ischia, in the north of the Bay of Naples. This happened during the era of the first Olympic Games, before the Kuma colony was founded on the continent. Before moving closely to writing, we briefly note that the first Greek colonies tried to advance as close as possible to the north of Italy, and subsequently in the future territory of Magna Graecia, on the Apennine Peninsula in Sicily, various colonies would be founded to the south (Syracuse, Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton). But this is just the first wave Greek colonization; 150 years later, expeditions of the second wave, the Phocian one, would advance even further - in 600 BC. e. Massilia (modern Marseille) was founded. The only reason for this strange geographical pattern of the first wave of colonization was that the Greeks who wanted to settle in the Western Mediterranean were, of course, driven by the lack of land in their homeland. Indeed, they found incredibly fertile soil in Campania, as can still be seen today if you follow the coast to, say, Sorrento or other cities. Ancient authors also emphasize this point.

However, this reason was secondary to another motivation that pushed people to explore new lands - the search for metals: for those Greeks who were looking for their Eldorado, Central Italy was a symbol of abundance in ore wealth, especially the island of Elba, a real iron mine in the middle seas. And this is not just a hypothesis: it is significant that during a very important excavations, carried out in recent decades on the island of Ischia, iron ore, hematite, brought directly from the island of Elba, was discovered. But why didn’t the Greeks advance even further, right to the Elbe itself? The only explanation why this advance was impossible was that the Etruscans dominated these territories and their power did not allow them to be dislodged. This has serious implications for the question of the origins of the Etruscans: during this period they lived in Central Italy, and if someone adheres to the theory of migration from the east, then it should have happened much earlier, at the end of the second millennium or at least at the beginning of the first . In addition, as Jacques Ergon noted, if the future Etruscans, during their large-scale expedition, would have passed through the Strait of Sicily around 700 BC. e., then the Greek settlers would certainly have noted this and this incident would have left a mark in classical sources!

First Greek inscriptions

Who were these first Greek settlers? These were immigrants from Euboea, an island separated from Boeotia by the Evripos Strait, in which the currents are constantly changing. Subsequently, this name in Latin will mean any strait (euripus). It was from them that the Etruscans borrowed a special alphabet - the so-called red, or Western Greek: as is known, in classical Greece there were various dialects and various alphabets. For example, the sign “trident” in the textbook language of Attica, in the Ionian dialect, which we study in textbooks, means the sound “psi”, but among the Etruscans it serves to designate the sound “khi”. The Euboeans were very good metallurgists: it is not surprising that they were the first to follow this “sea” route in search of metal, which we will immediately start talking about. During the excavations at Ischia, which we have already mentioned (researchers G. Buchner and D. Ridgway), an extraordinary epigraphic source was discovered in 1954. On a beautiful Rhodes cup from the third quarter of the 8th century. BC BC, found in the burial of a child or youth, an inscription was engraved, which was a metrical verse (two epic hexameters) about fun followed by drinking wine from the “cup of Nestor”, which is mentioned in Iliad. Thus, from this time on, Homeric poems became known and were successfully quoted by the Euboean colons, who clearly lived in an atmosphere of feasting. Even more surprising is another archaeological find from the necropolis Osteria dell'Osa on the territory of the ancient polis of Gabii, not far from Rome. There, in one of the burial grounds, a vessel dating back to 770 BC was discovered. e., on which five were engraved greek letters(should probably read "eulin"). This may have been one of the oldest known Greek inscriptions in the entire world. Assuming that the Euboeans frequently visited the Phoenicians on the island of Ischia, one might wonder whether the Greeks may have borrowed the Phoenician alphabet from here rather than from the Eastern Mediterranean.

Aristocracy of writing, position of scribe

If the Etruscans borrowed the Euboean alphabet, it was undoubtedly in order to facilitate trade with the Euboeans, who came in search of Tuscan metals, and in return offered a variety of luxury goods. Ceramics here, as a rule, are the main archaeological source: indeed, in the 8th century. BC e. Euboean vessels appear in the necropolises of Southern Etruria. Mastery of writing has long been a sign of aristocracy: it is no coincidence that in luxurious and rich burials of the 7th century. BC e. found alphabets and various tools related to writing. Thus, in the Etruscan Museum of the Vatican there is a bucchero vessel (see Chapter 4) with a flat bottom, on the body of which there are inscriptions in syllabic writing and individual letters of the alphabet. In the 19th century it was suggested that this vessel was an inkwell, and this interpretation carried over into the archaeological literature, although it was most likely a vessel for perfume oil. We can say with absolute certainty that this “inkwell,” dating from the last quarter of the 7th century. BC e., was found in Cerveteri, in the necropolis of Sorbo, in an aristocratic tumulus, located next to the magnificent burial of Regolini-Galassi. The most beautiful find of this kind remains a tablet for a letter from Marsegliana d'Albegna, which is not far from the city of Cosa (kept in the Grosseto Museum).

A burial from the second quarter of the 7th century was discovered in the Banditella necropolis. BC e. The burial was surrounded by slabs, for which it was nicknamed the “Circle of Bones”, since, among other valuable things, two bone objects were found in it: a comb decorated with images of fantastic animals, and a small writing tablet with three styluses and two scrapers for erasing . On the central part, covered with wax, the text was written using a stylus (later this method became known in Rome), and on the upper edge of the tablet was engraved an alphabet of twenty-six letters written from right to left, some of which were not used by the Etruscans: this alphabet was probably intended for future students.

Speaking about social status, we note that writing has remained a prestigious occupation for several centuries. The high rank of the Etruscan scribe is undeniable; just consider the funerary relief from Clusium, which is currently kept in Palermo - a relief dating from 490–480. BC e. Here is a scene of awarding winners in sports competitions: three figures are seated on the platform - two magistrates and a scribe writing the names of the winners in a diptych. Let us note that this scribe was dressed exactly the same as the magistrates, and in the era of Antiquity this was a serious sign. Depicted alongside them, the scribe was obviously of high rank: J. Colonna very rightly compared this relief with the story told by Titus Livius at the beginning of book II of his History. While the king of the Etruscan city Clusius Porsena was besieging Rome in order to restore the power of the Tarquins there, Mucius Scaevola decided to infiltrate their camp and kill the king. The hero arrives at the very moment when Porsena, together with the scribe, began issuing the salary: both characters were dressed exactly the same, and Mucius Scaevola, not knowing how to discover the Etruscan king, whose face he did not know, mistakenly killed the scribe. This incident, which took place in 509 BC. e., that is, almost at the same time when the above-mentioned relief from Clusium was created, shows the special status of the Etruscan scribe.

Adoption and adaptation of the alphabet

The Euboean alphabet adopted by the Etruscans spread very quickly, and it was soon adapted to their own phonetic system. For example, the Etruscan language does not have some plosive consonants, such as G, B or D. The Etruscans had enough of the corresponding voiceless and aspirated sounds K, P and T, as well as -kh-, -ph- and -th-. Thus, the third letter of the Greek alphabet “gamma” was preserved with the meaning of the voiceless K: in the Latin language this meaning will be preserved, that’s why latin letter C occupies the third position - this has roots in the Etruscan language. However, Latin needed voiced plosive consonants, therefore, thanks to the small diacritic, the letter G appears next to C. The Etruscans, in turn, will invent a special sign to indicate the sound F, which in Greek was depicted very complexly - using a diagram or a double letter (digamma + aspiration, or vice versa): it was a new graphic sign in the form of the number 8, it appeared after the 5th century. BC e. and was the only characteristic letter of the Etruscan alphabet proper (see tablet from Cortona, lines 14, 21 and 29). This letter was marked on the inscription made on a stone tombstone from Perusia - this text was fourth in length after the tablet from Cortona. This inscription from Perusia, dedicated to the division of the lands, introduces us to two families, one of which - Athuna - will repeatedly meet us with this characteristic symbol in the form of 8 (the second large family mentioned in the text is Veltina).

Before leaving with the alphabet and moving on to issues related directly to the language, it is necessary to add that the Etruscan writing evolved over time and it has many variations. In general, a distinction is made between northern and southern scripts, but there are also many regional features: for example, in Cortona - the famous tablet is an example of this - there are constantly unfolded E, read in the opposite direction, it is impossible to give them an exact phonetic meaning: perhaps this is just an artistic a variation that has nevertheless become very interesting? It is believed that the differences lie in length or emphasis in relation to the usual E. However, linguists studying the text from Cortona have not yet received convincing answers. In the same geographical area There is a symbol that looks like a Greek capital lambda or an inverted V, which is actually a simplified letter M.

Differences between the northern and southern versions of the letter are manifested, in particular, in the writing of the sign denoting the sound K (in the south of Etruria only the sign C was used) and in the manner of denoting whistling sounds, including at the end of a word. These differences in writing shed light on more than just the above. They show us that the history of Etruria is, first of all, the history of Etruscan cities with all their specificity, due to which they often became opponents, which as a result led to the death of the Tuscan civilization under the influence of the crushing blow of Rome alone. These inscriptions, each time very recognizable, are ultimately not only a good source for chronology, but also interesting criterion to identify cities that could play a key role in dominating a particular territory at a certain point in its development. This is crucial to understanding how Campania and the Padanian plain were settled by the Etruscans. Of course, with this approach, sources such as ceramics should not be abandoned, which is why in epigraphy they attach special importance to the medium on which the inscription is made.

Reincarnations of the Etruscan alphabet

Hints of geographical variation should remind us that the history of the Etruscan alphabet does not end here. We have already mentioned the Latin alphabet, which was borrowed from the Etruscans and not directly from the Greeks, as evidenced by the presence of C in the third position. However, the Etruscan alphabet was transmitted to other peoples Northern Italy, such as the Rhets (Western and Central Alps) and the Veneti (northern coast of the Adriatic Sea), who, like the Etruscans, who borrowed Euboean writing, adapted it to their languages. It is noteworthy that several examples of Etruscan alphabets were discovered among the Veneti - from Clusium and from Southern Etruria - which could be successfully used. And in Este, a real “temple of writing” is known, dedicated to the goddess Reitia: numerous bronze tablets with alphabets engraved on them, as well as writing instruments, including styluses, were found. These objects, and even in a sacred environment, testify to the great importance of writing, which gave us Etruscan inscriptions, similar to the tablet from Ivory from Marsegliana d'Albegna.

Let us pay attention to the fact that most of the most ancient inscriptions were found in female burials, and the letters of the alphabet (mainly the letter A) from the end of the 8th century. BC e. were present at subjects related to spinning and weaving - clearly female occupations. Thus, it has been suggested that Etruscan women may have played a special role in the spread of writing. Subsequently, as we have already mentioned, writing will become the lot of Etruscan aristocrats.

A trip to Northern Italy and the Alpine region finally leads us to the very intriguing question of the origin of runes. It is obvious that runic inscriptions discovered in Central and Northern Europe, starting from the era of the Late Roman Empire and up to the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e., had similarities with the inscriptions of the Rhets, Veneti, or Lepontians, who ultimately belonged to the Etruscan language.

Epigraphic sources

Today we have about 12,000 Etruscan inscriptions, mostly on pottery, stone or bronze. The inscription on the linen ribbons of the Zagreb mummy remains an exception. New texts are published every year, which the magazine "Studi Etruschi" regularly publishes in its "Rivista di Epigrafia Etrusca". However, most of these inscriptions are short and monotonous. Ultimately, we have only a dozen more or less long texts. Otherwise, these are epitaphs on which the name of the deceased is indicated and brief information about his life and profession, or they are votive objects on which it is indicated that a gift was presented by such and such a person to such and such a deity. Such sources contain mainly proper names and scant vocabulary. The same can be said about the longer text, the Cortona Tablet, since of the 206 words that make up this inscription, 107 are proper names, combined into four lists following each other. Ultimately, we have only 60 words that have a lexical meaning, but they remain our “sore spot”, since hapaxes - words that appear only once - in most cases cannot be accurately translated.

Lack of bilinguals

Inevitably recalling the example of the Rosetta Stone, we will touch upon the topic of possible bilingual inscriptions. We are talking about several late, very short Etruscan-Latin funerary inscriptions, which are associated with more problems than positive points. In 1961, during excavations of the Etruscan port of Pyrgi, three gold plates from the early 5th century were found. BC e. with a text about the dedication by the ruler of the city of Cere of gifts to the goddess Uni (Astarte). The inscriptions were made in Etruscan and Punic languages. At first there was an assumption that the long-awaited bilingual text had been found, but it turned out that the inscriptions were not identical.

Lemnos stela

The first conclusion reached by linguists was that the Etruscan language remains an isolate, like the modern Basque language: it is impossible to compare the Etruscan language with any other known language or language group, at least not with any Indo-European language. Indeed, the only similarity that can be noted in the case of the Etruscan language is its closeness to the text of a funerary stele from Kaminya, on Lemnos, an island in the north Aegean conquered by the Athenians in the 6th century. BC e. Along with some differences that rightly allow it to be called “Etruscan-like” but not an Etruscan language, this Lemnos pre-Greek language has many lexical, phonetic and morphological similarities with Etruscan, which could not be an accident. For example, it is noted that in this Lemnosian language, like in Etruscan, there were no plosive consonants, and only one velar vowel: -O(in Etruscan -And). An expression such as “avis sialchvis” cannot be ignored from the point of view of the Etruscan language - it probably means a certain number of years (cf. Etruscan “avii” - “year”). We can only assume that the Lemnos inscription was left by representatives of the Etruscan “colony”, founded during the period of hypothetical migration from the east around 1200 BC. e. The writing of the Eastern Etruscans developed autonomously, hence the differences.

Etruscan language is not Indo-European

And yet, for more than 150 years, philologists tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to compare the Etruscan language with all the Indo-European and related languages - Italic (Umbrian), Oscian, Latin, as well as Celtic, Greek or Hittite, not to mention some Semitic languages . It is worth noting some linguistic similarities, since the Etruscans, communicating with Indo-Europeans for thousands of years, undoubtedly had some linguistic borrowings. So, wine is written in Etruscan language vinu, and a nephew or grandson - oils, How nepos in Latin. At first, experts tried to establish connections between languages, but these attempts were doomed to failure.

The Etruscan language is not an Indo-European language, as evidenced by some morphological and lexical features. It is an agglutinative language: when declension of nouns, suffixes denoting the plural and the indirect case (for example, dative) are added to each other, that is, “glued together” and not combined, as in Latin, which belongs to the Indo-European language group, to t n. inflectional languages. So, Etruscan noun clan son, in the dative plural it is written denarosi: clen(root) - ah(plural suffix) - asi(dative case suffix); the difference between clan and clen is very relative. For comparison, here is an example of the genitive plural: Latin word consul- This consulum where is the ending -it denotes both the plural and the genitive case. Thus, Etruscan is an agglutinative language, like Hungarian, Finnish or Turkish. We can take an example from the latter, which is not Indo-European: the word giti, rose, in the genitive case it sounds like gulin in plural giillir, and in the genitive plural - gilillirin. Question vocabulary very clear. In such conservative areas as the names of family members or numbers - which are well known to us in the Etruscan language - the words are radical (with the exception of the only borrowing - the words oil) differ from those we know in various Indo-European languages, and this cannot be an accident. Clan, son, sech, daughter, puia, su spring, ati, mother; ci, three, mach, five - all these examples are very significant and are proof that the Etruscan language cannot be tied to any branch of the Indo-European language group.

Phonetics and morphology

Let us repeat that this situation did not prevent philologists from achieving significant success over the course of a century. The point is not only that today we have a dictionary of the Etruscan language, of course, very incomplete - we perfectly know the words denoting the degree of kinship, as well as the word avii- year, since these words were obviously used more often in epitaphs than, say, technical terms or abstract expressions. However, serious progress has also been made in phonetics and morphology. The loss of vowels in internal syllables was discovered a long time ago: the name Av(i)le - in connection with avii! - turns into avi and eventually becomes the Latin name Aulus. In this regard, an interesting remark can be made regarding the exact name of the Latin poet Persius (Persius Flaccus Aulus), who wrote in the 1st century. BC e. and belonged to a large Etruscan family of the city of Volterra: his name is correctly written in Latin Aules, and not Aulus, as we are used to seeing, and this nuance is directly related to the Etruscan language spoken by his immediate ancestors.

The signatures carved on the reverse sides of the bronze mirrors contain the names of numerous greek heroes and gods in the Etruscan language and give us rich information about linguistics: menerva, Minerva-Athena, became menrva,- here we see a borrowing from the Italic languages, the name of Apollo in Etruscan was first written Apulu, and then Aplu; Achilles, hero Iliads, became Achle, and Odysseus-Ulysses becomes not someone, but Uthste: let us remember that in the Etruscan language there is neither o nor d, but only one vowel And and one tooth sound -t.

For a long time it was believed, based on the example of equivalent Latin verbs dedit, dedicavit and others that the past tense in the Etruscan language was indicated by the ending -se(as is the past tense in Greek and other languages). On votive objects the verb “muluvanece” is often found, denoting that this or that person presented this item temple. However, in the Etruscan language, voiceless and aspirated consonants were often used (as it seems to us, without any distinction) (we saw above that Odysseus was called Uthste, although Utste was also considered acceptable), therefore, we can assume that the past tense with the ending -che has the same meaning. We are now convinced that past tense verbs ending -che- This passive voice, and verbs ending -se refer to the active voice.

Literature

So far we have spoken only of inscriptions made on stone, ceramics or bronze, such as those engraved on the backs of mirrors, which give us rich information about borrowings from the Greek language. We are very limited in these cases, since such texts are the only ones we have, and thus they are the only sources from which we can throw light on the Etruscan language. However, in reality, the Etruscans were not limited to only short texts: there was real Etruscan literature, as hinted at by numerous ancient sources.

Religious literature

Ancient authors repeatedly mention Etruscan books: libri haruspicini, dedicated to sacrifices and fortune telling, libri fulgurales, dedicated to lightning, libri rituales, regulating many ritual actions, in particular those performed during the founding of new cities, including Rome. These books have not reached us in their original Etruscan versions, but we can familiarize ourselves with them in the Latin interpretation: excerpts and translations from these books were left to us by Aulus Caecina of Volterra, good friend Cicero, or Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome (note that both of them came from noble Etruscan families). Unfortunately, their complete translations have not survived, and we have only a few scattered quotations, for example, in the works of Seneca and Pliny. It is safe to assume that many Etruscan texts were books written on linen, known in Rome at least as early as the early Republic. This is how the religious calendar was written down, cut into pieces and later becoming the swaddling tapes of the Zagreb mummy. Scholars believe that these linen books, rolled into scrolls, are depicted on various Etruscan plaster, stone or clay reliefs (for example, in the famous tombs at Caere).

...and worldly

In one of the passages about the Roman tribes, Varro, a great Latin polymath, tells us about a certain Volnius, who wrote tragedies for the theater in the Etruscan language. In addition, bas-reliefs from the Etruscan cities of Volterra and Perusia are known, reminiscent of the scenery for a theatrical performance. Among others, in a sanctuary near Arezzo, a real theater made of stone with benches-steps for spectators was discovered (cavea); This structure dates back to the second half of the 2nd century. BC e. Another important literary genre in Etruria, which is constantly mentioned in Latin texts, is historical prose. The most striking example for us is the Emperor Claudius, who, in his speech to the Senate in 48 AD. e. mentioned auctores Tusci, Etruscan historians, whom he contrasted with the Roman ones: it was the Etruscan historians who allowed him to prove that King Servius Tullius, whose real Etruscan name was Mastarna, came from the Tuscan city of Vulci, and not from Latin city near Rome. Undoubtedly, Claudius, who was married in his first marriage to Urgulanilla, a girl from a noble Etruscan family, could have used family archives. These same sources even allowed him, according to Suetonius, to write “The History of the Etruscans” and “The History of Carthage.”

From family archives we move on to another series of sources called Elogia Tarquiniensia: we are talking about Latin inscriptions of the 1st century. n. e. from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia, which tell about the deeds of the local aristocratic family of Spurinna. Many people from this large family played leading roles at the end of the Republic period, for example, one of them was the personal haruspex (priest) of Julius Caesar. It can be assumed that these inscriptions, recorded only in the 1st century. n. e., had as their primary source earlier Etruscan texts describing the life of the Spurinna clan starting from the 6th century. BC e. Religious books, as well as dramatic and historical works, are the reason why young rich Romans of the 4th century. BC e., for example, Fabii, went to study in Caere. “I know texts that prove that at that time it was generally accepted to teach Etruscan literature to young Romans (litteris estuscis), just as Greek literature is taught today” (Titus Livius). From the book of the Etruscans: riddle number one author Kondratov Alexander Mikhailovich

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Etruscan is an extinct Etruscan language whose genetic origin is unknown. Apart from the possible relationship of Etruscan with two other dead languages - Rhaetic and Lemnosian, the Etruscan language is considered an isolated language and has no scientifically recognized relatives. One of the hypotheses about the possible relationship of Etruscan is the version of S. A. Starostin and I. M. Dyakonov about the relationship of the Etruscan language with the extinct Hurrian and Urartian. Other researchers [ Who?] continue to insist on the relationship of Etruscan with the Anatolian (Hittite-Luwian) branch of the Indo-European languages. Given the few known Etruscan words and only limited knowledge of Etruscan grammar, all these assumptions are very to a large extent speculative.

Over the past 100 years, progress has been made in the study of the Etruscan language: many grammatical forms have been identified, and the meanings of about 50 words have been established with varying degrees of reliability. However, it is too early to talk about a final decipherment.

Researchers speak with varying degrees of confidence about the existence of relatives of the Etruscan language during the same historical period:

language of the Lemnos stela of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. (presumably the language of the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, who lived on the island during the specified period);
Rhaetian language (numerous short monuments from Northern Italy of the 5th-2nd centuries BC) and the related Kamun language;
Eteocypriot language (the language of the pre-Greek population of the island of Cyprus) - the inscriptions are made in the so-called Cypriot script (there are texts with parallel Greek translations).

The largest contribution to the study of the Etruscan language was made by researchers from Italy, Austria and Germany, primarily A. Trombetti, M. Pallottino, A. Pfiffig, H. Rix and others. In the former USSR (Russia), the most famous were A. I. Nemirovsky, A. I. Kharsekin and A. M. Kondratov.

The estimated distribution area of the Etruscan language in Italy during the 6th century BC. e.

Grammar

Alphabet

Initially, the archaic Western Greek alphabet was used, in addition to two characters that evolved in sound: S from [s] to [z], and TS from [t] to , later the sign 8 was added in the meaning of [p]. Some Etruscan and Rhaetian inscriptions used their own original characters. In the only text (Tabula Cortonensis), along with the sign M [m], there is a syllabic sign with the meaning .

Phonetics

The Latin transliteration of Etruscan words conveys many nuances that were not reflected in any way in the Etruscan inscriptions. Thus, in writing, the Etruscans did not distinguish between voiced and voiceless consonants and omitted short vowels (lat. Subura - Etruscan spur, lat. Caere - Etruscan cisre, lat. Minerva - Etruscan menrva, etc.).

The letter distinguished 4 vowels: a, e, i, u (this feature is also characteristic of other Tyrrhenian languages).

The Etruscan language had a rich system of sibilants.

Vocabulary

Latin and Greek borrowings are noted. For lexical matches with the Huttian language, see the article Huttian language.

Morphology

Word formation and inflection are exclusively suffixal (prefixes are not marked). Agglutinating language with a strong tendency towards inflection.

Name

Noun and adjective are declined according to the general paradigm:

nominative-accusative(absolute): no indicator.
genitive I: -s ; genitive II: -(a)l.
locative: -i.
ablative I: -is ; ablative II: -(a)ls (called “double genitive” in some publications).
possessive I: -si ; possessive II: -(a)le.
plural: -r (animated) ; -χva (inanimate).
genitive plural numbers: -ra-s (animated) ; -χva-l (inanimate).
possessive plural numbers: ra-si (animated); -χva-le (inanimate).
joint case= “and ...” (analogue of Latin ...que): -c (added after all other morphological indicators)

Adjectives derived from nouns have the -na indicator.

Verb

Verb suffixes:

present time:-u.
past, asset:-ce.
past, passive: -χe.
duty: -(e)ri.
injunctive:-e.
conjunctiva:-a.
imperative: no indicator (according to A.I. Nemirovsky - indicator -θ).
assets. prib. present vr.: -as(a); -u; -θ.
assets. prib. past vr.: -θas(a); -nas(a).
passive prib. (as well as parables from intransitive verb) past. vr.: -u; -icu; -iχu.

Particles

The negative particle has not been reliably identified.

Prepositions, postpositions, conjunctions, etc. are not identified; it is assumed that their role was played by case indicators, as well as descriptive phraseological units. Due to this feature of the Etruscan language, its syntax is rather poor.

Numerals

Thanks to the discovery of game cubes and numerous gravestone inscriptions, the numeral system has been generally restored, although debate continues about the meaning of some numerals:

1 θu(n)
2 zal, esal
3 ci
4 huθ
5 maχ
6 śa
7 semφ
8 cezp
9 nurφ
10 śar(doubtful)
20 zaθrum
"-twenty" = -alχ
"without ...-x" = -em

An interesting feature: numerals ending in “seven”, “eight”, “nine” did not exist (with the exception of 7, 8, 9). So, 27 was expressed as ciem cialx, lit. "3 minutes to 30", 19 like θunem zaθrum, lit. “without the 1st 20,” etc. Hence the feature of Roman numerals, borrowed from the Etruscans, when the smaller numeral before the larger one is subtracted from it (for example, XIX - 19).

		18 eslem zathrum 19 thunem zathrum 29 thunem cealch 30 cialch (cealch)	50 muvalch (machalch) 90 nurphalch(?)

18 eslem zathrum

19 thunem zathrum

29 thunem cealch

30 cialch (cealch)

50 muvalch (*machalch)

90 *nurphalch(?)

Syntax

Calendar

The names of the eight months of the sacred calendar are known.

uelcitanus(lat.) = March.
aberas(lat.) = April; apirase= in the month of April.
ampiles(lat.) = May; anpilie= in the month of May.
aclus(lat.) = June; acal(v)e= in the month of June.
traneus(lat.) = July.
ermius(lat.) = August.
celius(lat.) = September; celi= in the month September.
xof(f)er(?)(lat.) = October.

Connections with other languages

Researchers

The following are the researchers of the Etruscan language:

Bauke van der Meer, Lammert - leading expert on Etruscan religion
Beekes, Robert - supporter of the Asia Minor hypothesis, also explores the hypothesis of a pre-Greek substrate
Bonfante, Giuliano and Bonfante, Larissa - father and daughter, authors of the widely known reference guide on grammar and vocabulary of the Etruscan language
Velikoselsky, Oleg Anatolyevich - linguist
Wolanski, Tadeusz - amateur philologist who claimed to be able to decipher most of the inscriptions in Etruscan
Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov - tried unsuccessfully to interpret the Etruscan language as related to Lydian
Zavaroni, Adolfo - systematized and published on the Internet a complete corpus of inscriptions in Etruscan and supposed related languages
Pfiffig, Ambros Joseph
Ricks, Helmut - author of the hypothesis about the Tyrrhenian family of languages
Savenkova, Elena Dmitrievna
Kharsekin, Alexey Ivanovich
Yatsemirsky, Sergey Alexandrovich
Ciampi, Sebastian

Inscriptions

Currently, more than 12 thousand Etruscan inscriptions are known, but very few of them contain more than twenty words. In 1893, inscriptions in Etruscan began to be collected in the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum. Inscriptions according to their intended purpose can be divided into 5 categories:

dedication inscriptions, which are mainly contained on vases where the name of the owner or donor is indicated, for example mi Larθa - I [am] the property of Lart (T.L.E. 154), mi mamerces: artesi - I [am] the property of Mamercus Arte (T.L.E. 338);
votive inscriptions addressed to a hero or an altar, for example mini muluvanece Avile Vipiiennas - Aulus Vibenna gave me (T.L.E. 35);
funerary inscriptions on sarcophagi and tombs, for example mi larices telaθuras suθi - I [I am] the tomb of Larisa Telatura (T.L.E. 247);
inscriptions on steles dedicated to a specific person;
long inscriptions containing more than 20 words are the least numerous. For example, only 8 inscriptions containing more than 40 words are known:

Liber Linteus ("Linen Book") - a book written on linen, containing about 1,200 words, including 500 different ones;
tiles from Capua (V-IV centuries BC) contain a boustrophedon inscription consisting of 62 lines and approximately 300 words that can be read;
border pillar from Perugia (2nd century BC) contains information about the division of two land plots, contains 46 lines and 130 words;
a lead tape found in the sanctuary of Minerva (5th century BC) contains 11 lines and 80 words (40 of them can be read);
a lead disk from Magliano (5th century BC) contains more than 80 lines;
Aribal (VII century BC) contains 70 words;
tablets from Pyrgi (5th century BC) - three gold plates, two of which contain 52 words in the Etruscan language;
a bronze tablet from Cortona (III-II centuries BC) contains inscriptions about the sale of land property, engraved on both sides (32 lines on one, 8 on the other).

Notes

Literature

Burian Y., Moukhova B. Mysterious Etruscans. lane from Czech. ed. "Science", M., 1970.
Nemirovsky A. I. Etruscans: from myth to history. M., 1983.
Penny J. Languages of Italy // . T. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC e. Ed. J. Boardman et al. Trans. from English A. V. Zaikova. M., 2011. pp. 852-874. - ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9
Ridgway D. Etruscans // Cambridge History of the Ancient World. T. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC e. M., 2011. pp. 754-803.
Savenkova E. D. Etruscan morphemics: Experience in formal modeling. St. Petersburg, 1996.
Savenkova E. D., Velikoselsky O. A. On the issue of prefixation in the Etruscan language // Problems of modern theoretical and synchronic-descriptive linguistics. Linguistics. History of linguistics. Sociolinguistics. Issue 5., St. Petersburg, 2003. ISBN 5-288-03321-8.
Secrets of ancient letters. Decryption problems. Collection. M. 1975.
Yatsemirsky S. A.. Experience comparative description Minoan, Etruscan and related languages. M.: “Languages of Slavic Culture”, 2011. ISBN 978-5-9551-0479-9
L'enigma svelato della lingua etrusca, Giulio M. Facchetti, Newton & Compton editori, Roma, 2000. Seconda edizione 2001.
Il "mistero" della lingua etrusca, Romolo A. Staccioli (alla fine dell'opera è presente un glossario di vocaboli etruschi attualmente decifrati con certezza.) Newton & Compton editori, Roma, 1977. 2° edition, 1987.
Gli Etruschi: una nuova imagination, Mauro Cristofani, Giunti, Firenze, 1984.
L'etrusco una lungua ritrovata, Piero Bernardini Marzolla, Mondadori, Milano, 1984
Lingua e cultura degli Etruschi, Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante, Editori Riuniti, 1985
Rivista di epigrafia etrusca, Mauro Cristofani (nella rivista Studio Etruschi, pubblicata dall" Istituto di Studi Etruschi e Italici, Firenze)
Fowler M., Wolfe R.G. Materials for the Study of the Etruscan Language: in 2 vols. Wisconsin, 1965.
Rix, Helmut: Etruskische Texte, 1991, ISBN 3-8233-4240-1 (2 Bde.)
Rix, Helmut: Rätisch und Etruskisch, Innsbruck , Inst. für Sprachwiss. , 1998, ISBN 3-85124-670-5
Pfiffig, Ambros Josef: Die etruskische Sprache, Verl.-Anst. , 1969
Perrotin, Damien Erwan: Paroles étrusques, liens entre l"étrusque et l’indo-européen ancien, Paris, L "Harmattan, 1999, ISBN 2-7384-7746-1
Pallottino, Massimo: La langue étrusque Problèemes et perspectives , 1978
Guignard, Maurice: Comment j'ai déchiffré la langue etrusque, Burg Puttlingen, Impr. Avisseau, 1962
O. Hoffmann - A. Debrunner - A Scherer: Storia della lingua greca, Napoli, 1969, vol. I, pp. 25-26.
Il popolo che sconfisse la morte. Gli etruschi e la loro lingua, Giovanni Semerano, Bruno Mondadori, 2003.

A very interesting work by the authors A.V. Malovichko, V.G. Kozyrsky, V.V. Uchaneishvili entitled “Experience in studying the vocabulary of the Etruscan language.” In our time, one cannot say about any optimistic prospects in solving the problem of the Etruscan language, and therefore problems of the origin of this ethnic group. The science of etruscology has existed for over three hundred years. Archaeological excavations continue in Tuscany and other territories where the Etruscans lived in the first millennium BC Etruscan monuments. Over 15 thousand burials with gravestone inscriptions have been found. But, unfortunately, the main problem of Etruscology has not yet been solved - the problem of the origin of the Etruscan language. As a result, more or less long inscriptions in the Etruscan language are not readable (often it is not even clear what they are talking about we're talking about in the inscription - this language is so incomprehensible). As a result of failures in solving the above problems, the Etruscan language (hereinafter referred to as the Etruscan language) was declared isolated by some Etruscologists. And other Etruscologists have no doubt that this language was one of the Indo-European (hereinafter referred to as I-e) languages. We see the main reason for the failures in solving the problem of the origin of the Etruscan language in the reluctance of Etruscologists to pay attention to the languages whose speakers live (or lived) in the east. (We do not mean the ancient Balkan languages, which most linguists have already declared Indo-European, but numerous Caucasian languages, modern or dead, such as Hurrito-Urartian). V. Thomsen drew attention to the Caucasian languages 100 years ago. Later, R. Gordesiani compared Etruscan vocabulary with Kartvelian. In 1980, the leader of Middle Eastern linguistics (in the Union), I.M. Dyakonov, expressed the idea of similarities between the grammar of Etruscan and Hurrian languages. In the 80s, V.V. Ivanov, developing the ideas of V. Thomsen, published a work in which he proposed using North Caucasian languages to decipher Etruscan texts. However, in a 1988 article, he rejects "Hattian and other North Caucasian languages", and believes that "Etruscan was the result of the development of one of the Hurrian dialects". Thus, the Hurrian language, apparently, is able to clarify the situation with the origin of the Etruscan language, and help to read at least some small inscriptions, the meaning of which cannot be determined using the main method of determining Etruscan vocabulary - combinatorial. (We do not know whether anyone took advantage of the hypotheses of the above-mentioned scientists. We also do not know whether V.V. Ivanov himself took up the interpretation of the Etruscan inscriptions). After reading the inscription found on the island of Lemnos, it became obvious that the Etruscan language had something to do with Asia Minor. On this peninsula, according to most historians and linguists, the Indo-European - Hittite language “dominated”. But the Hittite language, probably not earlier than the end of the 3rd millennium, “overlaid” on the local Hittite language, the nature of which is completely different from Hittite. If you do not invent myths that a reverse overlap of languages occurred in Asia Minor, i.e. Hattic overlapped with Hittite, and the speakers of the latter founded the settlements of Çatalhöyük and Hacilar in the 8th millennium, then it would be worth starting a search for the basic vocabulary of the Etruscan language, and not only in the Hattic language, but also in the vocabulary of the East Caucasian (and these are Nakh-Dagestan and Hurrito-Urartian languages) and South Caucasian (i.e. Kartvelian) languages. But how can we compare the Etruscan vocabulary with the vocabulary of other languages, if the number of reliably defined Etruscan words barely exceeds 150 units? It is necessary to say a few words about what are the current criteria for the relationship of two languages, and, based on these criteria, answer the question: which languages can be considered genetically related (this scientific discipline called linguistic comparative studies). Since the 19th century, attempts have been made to solve the problem of the origin of the Etruscan language by comparing its vocabulary with the vocabulary of dozens of languages of the world. However, the results of such searches turned out to be insignificant. As a result, European scientists, following the Italian Etruscologists, ceased to be interested in languages whose speakers live outside Italy (or are currently considered dead), apparently believing that the Etruscan language is a “completely isolated language” that appeared solely as a result ("rapid") Italian linguistic development (opinion of M. Pallottino). However, if we consider main task Etruscan linguistics (but not Etruscan archeology!), decoding, or rather, interpretation of Etruscan texts, as well as awareness of the role of Etruscan civilization in the formation European civilization, and not just the production of archaeological excavations, the above point of view on the Etruscan language, as an “undoubtedly” Indo-European language that “rapidly arose” on the Apennine Peninsula, may further delay the solution of this problem. (“The rapid emergence of language over several centuries” is a method that some archaeologists propose to solve their linguistic problems. See how this is done, for example, in the article). Probably, the current state of the problem of the origin of the Etruscan language can also be explained by the fact that everyone who dealt with this problem, with rare exceptions, were Indo-European linguists who did not allow a non-Indo-European point of view on this problem. And, therefore, the works of researchers who believe that the Etruscans came from somewhere in the East are most often ignored in our time. As we said above, no one took advantage of V.V. Ivanov’s idea, neither he himself nor anyone else. We made such an attempt in our works. A search began for Etruscan inscriptions that would contain words whose form would resemble Hurrian ones. Of course, one should not forget about the Etruscan dictionary, the number of words in which with reliable meanings reached 150 units. The relevant passage was found on tiles from Capua. (this is TLE - 2, 19, 20) [14]. But before interpreting the passage of the Etruscan text that we found for interpretation, we offer the results of a comparison of the basic vocabulary of the Etruscan language with the corresponding vocabulary of the East Caucasian languages. (VK languages include Nakh-Dagestan and dead, Hurrito-Urartian languages). What Etruscan basic vocabulary can we use for lexicostatistical studies if we know only 150 reliably defined Etruscan words? The vocabulary used is part of M. Swadesh's 100-word list. But it’s better to use the 35-word list of “most stable words” at the beginning, which was proposed by S.E. Yakhontov (this list is part of the 100-word list by M. Swadesh). Without presenting this list here, I present well-known Etruscan words that are included in this list. These are the words (they are taken from the dictionary of the book by Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante, "Etruscan Language, Introduction", in English): al - “to give”, “to offer”, “to sacrifice”; tul - "stone"; mi, me, mini - “I”, “me”; lein - "to die"; thu - one.

To etymologize these words, let's consider East Caucasian parallels.

1) Etr. al - “to give”, nah. al- a - “to give”, Hurrito-Urartian (HU) ar - “to give”.

2) Etr. tul - “stone” (this translation is given only in). Apparently, this is where etr. the word tular is “border”, after the name of the boundary stones. This word has parallels in VK languages: Chechen (Chechen) “stone” - t "o, t" ulg. The Nostratic (Nostr) prototype for the word “stone” is * kiwi, close to Kartvelian (Kart.)-* kwa, Semitic-Hamitic (S - X)-* kw and Uralic (Ur) - * kiwe. However, the general Altai (A lt) reconstruction (S.A. Starostina) for the word “stone”, - * tiola, is close to Kart. the word t "ali - "flint".

(Perhaps, as fantastic as it may sound, the English word tool - “working tool” and “to cut (stone)” reflects the archaic time when stone was a working tool. In Georgian “to cut” is tla).

3) Etr. the pronouns mi, me, mini - “I”, “me”, are often considered Indo-European in origin. However, a similar pronoun exists in all Nostratic languages (Alt., Kart. and Ur.). At the same time, in VK languages a similar pronoun has the form: in nakh. - so, suo, in X. - iste, and in U. - jese.

4) Etr. lein - "to die". V.V. Ivanov also writes about Chech. parallels: v - ella - “he died”, d - ella - “dead”, v - ellarg - “dead man”. But he didn’t notice the Chech. the word len is “deadly”, “mortal”. The Scandinavian parallels of this word are interesting - the “feast hall of slain heroes” was called Valhalla - Valhalla, where halla, halla, apparently, is close to nah. to the word γа l а, meaning Nakh “dwelling house-fortress”.

5) Etr. thu. According to some etruscologists, this word means “one” (see).

This numeral has no obvious parallels in Caucasian languages. However, in the Nakh languages there are several words that begin with the element du (dux), which, in our opinion, is close to the meaning of “one”, “unit”, “first” - if we are guided by the meanings of the words they contain: Chech. duxxarnig - “firstborn”, duxxarlera - “primary”, “primitive”, ing. duxa - la - “unambiguous”, etc. In the same way as Chech. duxarg (dujharg) - “one-year-old heifer”, the terms “two-year-old heifer” are formed - š in - ara, from Nakh š i - “two” and “three-year-old heifer” - qaarg (khaarg), from qo (kho) - " three". Obviously, in these terms, the first syllable must denote the corresponding numeral. The antiquity of these terms is illustrated by the Hurrian terms: "two-year-old" - š in-ar-bu, "three-year-old" - kig-ar-bu. Unfortunately, we do not know the term for "annual".

There is one more Etruscan demonstrative pronoun (from the 35-word list), which is close to Kartvelian: eca, ica, ca - “this”, in Georgian - eg, ega, es. (but in Chechen iz, iza - this)

Thus, at least five words from the Etruscan and East Caucasian languages from the 35-word list have common roots. And this is 14.3%, which exceeds the threshold of random coincidences. True, this figure does not mean anything. Because the percentage of matches must exceed 10%, but within the 100-word list of M. Swadesh. Those. there must be 10 words that match in form in order to confidently assert that the Etruscan language belongs to the Caucasian language family of the Sino-Caucasian language macrofamily. Next we offer an excerpt of the Etruscan text from TLE -2 (18,19,20), which we interpreted below: i ś vei tule ilukve apirase laruns ilucu hux ś anti huri alxu esxaθ sanulis mulu rizile zizriin puiian acasri tinian tule leθamsul ilucu perpri ś anti arvus ta aius nunθeri.

But, first, we present our interpretations of Etruscan vocabulary from this passage:

Puiian. Apparently, this is some kind of grammatical form of what was long ago determined by the combinatorial method, etr. words, puia - "wife". V.V. Ivanov proposes to compare it with the Batsbi word pst " uin - “wife”. We will not discuss this matter. Moreover, we do not know the vocabulary of kinship relations in the H.-U. languages. Therefore, let’s pay attention to double і, which is a suffix of a possessive adjective in Nakh languages. The same double і is also in the previous word zizriin, the base of which zizzi, in Hurrian, means “female breast”, “nipple". r is a plural suffix, and not only in Etruscan, but also in some languages of the Caucasus. Therefore, I translate these two words with the same suffixes as follows: “(belonging to, relating to, dedicated to) the nipples of the wife.”

Rizile is translated as “first (or repeated) outflow”, considering the basis of this word - zi -, close to U. s" i - "to flow", or to the H. word şi- u - le "will flow". -apparently, it is about the beginning of lactation, since nearby there are words describing objects that are similar in meaning: “wife”, “pacifier” and “to flow, pour”.

etr. mulu - “to dedicate”, “to sacrifice”. The most common form of this word in texts is mulvanice, muluvanice. This word also has H.-U. analogies: urban - "", where urb - "". It is surprising that, in our opinion, this word appears in the Nostratic dictionary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, but with a slightly different meaning: I-St. No. 126? arba "to cast a spell". It is widespread throughout the Turkic (and not only the Turkic) world, in the name of the most revered holiday - q "urban bairam. (We believe that the sounds r and b in the west softened and turned into l and v, respectively).

Tul - "stone". (We wrote about this word above). Apparently tule meant something made of stone, "altar" or "stele". This is confirmed by the phrase tinian tule, which we translate as “an altar dedicated to Tin” (- an adjective suffix).

Acasri. O again the words acas, different sources translated almost identically - “to do”, “to offer”. Therefore, I translate this word, together with the following: “done (or taking place) at the altar of Tin” (In Georgian, aketeb “you do”).

Nunθeri. If we compare this word with the basis of the Urartian word nun - “to come”, then we can assume that the basis of this word already in the Etruscan language acquired a slightly different meaning: “to sacrifice” or “to perform (a certain ritual of offering).” It is very likely that nunθeri meant ritually coming to the altar with (traditional) offerings. In H. language, un - “to come.”

We translate Ilucu as “washed”, based on the similarity with the Nakh word “to wash” - d - ila, i - ila. Perhaps ilucve is a verbal name in the genitive case (for the X. language the genitive case suffix is ve).

Perpri - the meaning of this Etruscan word, in our opinion, fully corresponds to a word similar to it in Latin: puerpera - “woman in labor”. About the word puer, V.V. Ivanov writes: “...Latin puer - “boy”, “child” (an old borrowing from Etruscan or a related language).” For some reason, he does not compare this word either with the word perpri found in Etruscan texts, or with the word in the Nakh languages ber - “child, child”. In our opinion, this word is in the inscription on a stele from Perugia, where the passage: “XII velθinaθura ś ara ś pera ś c”, we translate as “youths and children of the Veltin family.” In Nakh, "children" is bera š, where - a š, the Nakh plural suffix. I translate the word araś as “young men”, in the plural, using data from the work, in Urartian, ar š e - “young men, children”. Generally speaking, both ber and ar- are words of the Nostratic level, with the same meanings.

- ś anti. To determine the meaning of this word, we used the idea of A.I. Nemirovsky, who proposed a translation of this word ś anti - “water”. In our opinion, “water” is ś an, a - ti, this is “in”. Those. ś anti means "in the water". Perhaps ś an is the name of some special water, “sacred,” “ritual,” or water from a sacred source. And perhaps that is why this stem san ended up in Latin, with the meaning “holy”, “sacred”. The word behind ś anti is arvus - apparently, it should determine in what source the woman in labor was washed: in the font or in the pool of the source. The words in question are in the second part of the passage (starting with the word mulu), the translation of which is published in. In the very first part of the passage there are words that could be noticed by experts of H.-W. languages. Unfortunately, experts on H.W. languages are not interested in the Etruscan language, and most importantly, in Etruscan inscriptions. Connoisseurs of the Etruscan language speak Hurrito-Urartian languages.

Huri. We believe that this word can be compared with X. xurrə - “morning”, “east”. In Chechen “morning” - I uyre (Russian transcr.). In the text under consideration, huri may have meant “in the morning” (i.e., it answered the question: when?). Then ś anti huri, can be translated as: “in the water in the morning”, or “in the morning water”.

Esxaθ. In H.-U. the dictionary has a similar word: X. a ş x - “raise”, “sacrifice”. We explain the different meanings of this X. word by the fact that altars may have been erected on elevated places (as, for example, in the Caucasus, where on the hills and on the tops of small mountains you can still find low structures made of stones, on the flat top part which animals are sacrificed), or the altars themselves were tall stone structures.

Sanulis. We believe that this word consists of two words: the first word is san (we have already looked at the meaning of this word). The stem of the second word - ul - can be compared with the U. word u / ol - “to go”. Let's compare this word with the word in the X. phrase: “a š e eš ia ş iule” - “when waters pour from the sky” (here ş i, apparently, water). In the Etruscan text, san-ulis may have meant the noun “flowing, flowing, pouring water,” but in the genitive case it meant “flowing water.” In connection with the described ritual of washing with water, it is interesting to compare it with the Hittite ritual of getting rid of the sins of the previous year by washing with ritually pure water (šehelliyaš watar), which was performed in the “house of ablution”. This ritual was performed by the king and queen during the spring holiday of the beginning of the new year. One of the sacred rites consisted of performing a sacrifice in front of the stone stele of the Thunder God, which began at dawn on the second day of the new year. The basis of the described ritual was washing with ritually clean water. This ritual apparently had H. roots, since the Hittite term "ritually pure water" - šehelliyaš water, contains X. root seγ - / a / l ə "pure (ritually)", s ê γ ə, siγ ə "pure / about water/"; U. s ê xa "same". One can assume that in the subsequent parts of this large inscription, there are words whose roots contain a H.-U. root: ś ixaciiul and śixaiei.

Alxu. Perhaps it is the verb "to give", in the past tense. Here, instead of the usual Etruscan suffix of the verb in the past tense - cu, - xu is used, as in some other verbs: cerixu, zixu, etc. In Nakhsk. language "to give" - ala, in H.U. - ar - . For the remaining three words, i ś vei, apirase and hux, no Ibero-Caucasian parallels have been found. Therefore, in the translation of the passage in question below, we offer our interpretations of these words. (We must remember that the word ilucve, a verbal noun, which we translate as “washing,” is in the genitive case). We offer our translation of this passage, which was published in the article: “The promised ritual of washing the altar (i.e., a ritual that was promised to the gods, apparently by the husband of the woman in labor, is described): Laruns (apparently the first magician) washed the body ( the supreme god of the Etruscans Tina, in the form of a stone figure or stele) in the morning water, made a sacrifice to flowing (flowing) water (perhaps this water of a sacred spring flowing from the earth was ritually pure water, to which the rest of the ritual in which the water was dedicated played the main role), dedicated to the first discharge (from) the wife's nipples (i.e., the beginning of lactation), taking place in front of the altar of Tina. Letamsul (the second magician) washed the woman in labor in the water of the pool (of this source) and made this offering to the god." If the Hurrian (i.e., East Caucasian) nature of the Etruscan language is confirmed, then, apparently, a number of questions will arise, one of which lies in the phenomenon of high knowledge in various fields of human activity that the Etruscans possessed. Where was this knowledge acquired, and who was its ancestor, both linguistically and ethnically? Only one thing can be said about this: in our opinion, the ancestors of the Etruscans came from the territory of the South Caucasus, where in the middle of the 4th millennium BC, an outstanding archaeological culture of the Early Bronze Age arose, which is called Kura-Araxes. One of characteristic features This culture had black-polished ceramics. According to the opinion expressed in the work, this culture arose as a result of the residence of native speakers of two language families, East Caucasian and Kartvelian, in the same territory. And we must remember that on the same territory, two thousand years earlier, the archaeological early agricultural culture of Shulaveri-Shomutepe existed. It is necessary to cite the etymologies proposed by other researchers: etr. avil - "year". V.V. Ivanov compares it with X. saval-i - “year” and U. sal-i “year”; etr. usil - “sun”, it compares with the common North Caucasian * misaV - “sun”. He (or maybe before him) compares what was determined from the translation of the quasi-bilingual from Pyrg, etr. the numeral ci is “3”, with X. kig is “3”. And a few more etymologies from the work. Etruscan multiple numerals c were left from ordinal numbers by adding the suffix - z (i): θunz - “once”, eslz - “twice”, ciz - “three times”, etc. .. And in the Nakh languages, multiple numerals are obtained using similar suffixes: in Chech. and ing. languages - zza (- azza), in Batsbi - c (a): “twice” - sozza, “three times” - kxuzza, “four times” - do ь azza, etc. (Interestingly, a similar phenomenon is observed in Chinese: “twice” - liang ci, “three times” - sanci, “four times” - chengsi, etc.). etr. the word zilac, zilax, zilath meant the highest position in each Etruscan city. In Nakh languages, the word siylah (sijlax) means “outstanding,” “honorable,” “great,” “sacred,” etc. We must remember that Zilak was also the main religious person in the city.

In conclusion, we would like to quote from the book of Claudius Ptolemy “Geographical Guide”: “Sarmatia is occupied by numerous tribes... Between the Kerava Mountains and the Ra-Orinia River there are Vals and Serbs, and between the Caucasus Mountain and the Kerava Mountains there are Tusks and Didurs, along the Caspian the seas - the Uds, Olonds, Isandi, Herrs, and along the Pontus - the Achaeans, Kerkets, Iniokhs, Svano-Colchians." We assume that under the name Tuski there was a tribe from which, back in the 3rd millennium, a part of the tribe separated, which more than a thousand years later found itself in the Apennines. At the same time, it can be assumed that various Caucasian tribes who spoke similar dialects moved to the Apennines. It is possible that the inscriptions found in Etruria were written in different but similar languages. The Caucasian Tusk tribe, apparently, was one of the Nakh-Dagestan tribes, which in our time, under the name Tsova-Tushin, lives in eastern Georgia, in Kakheti. Their language is called Batsbi. Having lived in Georgia for a long time, the Tsova-Tushins are bilingual. The Kartvelian tribes also moved to the west, whose vocabulary is attested to by us in the articles.

In conclusion, we would like to cite the opinion of the leader of Italian Etruscology, Massimo Pallotino, as expressed in a quotation from the book: “Several chronologically different substrate layers can be traced in the Apennines. The most ancient layer is probably of Iberian-Caucasian origin (traces of it are found in the west of the peninsula and especially on the island of Sardinia). To a later time, M. Pallotino attributes the Aegean-Asian substrate, which is also found throughout the Aegean."

L I T E R A T U R A

1.L. Bonfante. Etruscan. London, British Museum Publication. 1990. (p. 13).

2. G. B. Dzhaukyan. ?

3. A.I.Kharsekin. Issues of interpretation of monuments Etruscan writing. - Stavropol. 1963.

4. Yu.L.Mosenkis.

5. V .T h o msen . Remarques sur la parente de la langue etrusque // Bull. d e l "Academie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark. No. 4, 1899. Kopenhagen.

6. R.V. Gordesiani. Etruscan and Kartvelian. - Tb., 1980. (in Georgian).

7. I.M.Dyakonov. Hurrian language and other substratum languages of Asia Minor. // Ancient languages of Asia Minor. - M., 1980.

8. V.V.Ivanov. Towards the interpretation of Etruscan texts on the basis of comparative linguistics. // Text: semantics and structure. M., 1983.

9. V.V.Ivanov. Ancient Eastern connections of the Etruscan language. // The Ancient East: ethnocultural connections. - M., 1988.

10. S.A. Burlak, S.A. Starostin. Introduction to linguistic comparative studies. M., 2001.

11. K. Renfrew. ?

12. A.V. Malovichko. Experience in interpreting monuments of Etruscan writing. Current Ukrainian Caucasian Studies. Kiev, IUKS, 1999.

13. A.V. Malovichko. Is Coward language one of the East Caucasian languages? // Movita Kulturii Zahod y Caucasus. Kiev, 2000.

14. Testimonia Linguae Etruscae. Firenze. 1954.

15. I.M.Dyakonov, S.A.Starostin. Hurrito-Urartian and East Caucasian languages. // The Ancient East; ethnocultural connections. - M., 1988.

16. S.A.Starostin. The Altai problem and the origin of the Japanese language. - M., 1991.

17.G. Bonfante and L. Bonfante. The Etruscan language; an Introduction. New York, London, 1983.

18. V.M. Illich-Svita, part. Experience in comparison of Nostratic languages (OSNL). T. I. - M., 1971.

19. O. Malovichko. Caucasian etymology of Etrusian vocabulary. // Language and History. VIP. 26. Kiev, 1997.

20. I.M.Dyakonov. Hurrian and Urartian languages // Languages of Asia and Africa. T. III. M., 1979.

21. Yu.D.Desheriev. Nakh languages // Languages of Asia and Africa. T. III. M., 1979.

22. M.L.Khachikyan. Dialects of the Hurrian language. M., 1978.

23. N.A.Nozadze. Hurrian verb questions. Tb., 19

24. G.A.Melikishvili. Urartian language. M., 1965.

25. A.I. Nemirovsky. Etruscans: from myth to history. M., 1983

26. Russian-Chechen dictionary. ?

27. A.B. Arakelyan. “House for ablution” according to Hittite sources // Ancient East. Vol. V. Yerevan, 1988.

28. A. Malovichko. Where was the ancestral home of the Etruscans? Literary Georgia. No. 1-6. Tb., 2001.

29. History of Europe. T. 1, Ancient Europe. M., Nauka, 1988. (p. 80).

Writing:Etruscan alphabet Language codes () ISO 639-1:- ISO 639-2:und ISO/DIS 639-3:ett

Etruscan- an extinct Etruscan language, the genetic origin of which is considered to be unknown. It is also generally accepted that, apart from the supposed relationship of Etruscan with two other dead languages - Rhaetian and Lemnosian, the Etruscan language is considered an isolated language and has no officially recognized relatives. One of the hypotheses about the possible relationship of Etruscan is the version of I.M. Dyakonov about the relationship of the Etruscan language with the extinct Hurrian and Urartian. Other researchers continue to insist on the relationship of Etruscan with the Anatolian (Hatto-Luwian) branch of the Indo-European languages. Given the few "generally" known Etruscan words and only limited knowledge of Etruscan grammar, all these assumptions are largely tentative. Regularly expressed assumptions about the relationship of Etruscan with Slavic languages have traditionally caused a hysterical reaction from “professional Etruscologists”.

Over the past 100 years, progress has been made in the study of the Etruscan language: many grammatical forms have been identified, and the meanings of about 50 words have been established with varying degrees of reliability. However, according to official science, it is too early to talk about a final decipherment.

Researchers speak with varying degrees of confidence about the existence of relatives of the Etruscan language during the same historical period:

language of the Lemnos stela of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. (presumably the language of the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, who lived on the island during the specified period);
Rhaetian language (numerous short monuments from Northern Italy of the 5th-2nd centuries BC) and the related Kamun language;
Eteocypriot language (the language of the pre-Greek population of the island of Cyprus) - the inscriptions are made in the so-called Cypriot script (there are texts with parallel Greek translations).

Grammar

Alphabet

It is assumed that initially the Etruscans used the usual Western Greek alphabet, later about a third of the characters were removed from it and the sign 8 was added (borrowed from one of the Asia Minor alphabets, most likely Lydian) for the sound f. Individual Etruscan dialects had their own original characters.

Phonetics

The Latin transliteration of Etruscan words conveys many nuances that were not reflected in any way in the Etruscan inscriptions. Thus, in writing, the Etruscans did not distinguish between voiced and voiceless consonants, they omitted short vowels (Latin Subura - etr. spur, Lat. Caere - etr. cisre, Lat. Minerva - Etruscan menrva, etc.).

The letter distinguished 4 vowels: a, e, i, u (this feature is also characteristic of other Tyrrhenian languages).

The Etruscan language had a rich system of sibilants.

Vocabulary

It is believed that Latin and Greek borrowings are noted, although over the years it is very difficult to establish reliably who exactly borrowed from whom. For lexical matches with the Huttian language, see the article Huttian language.

Morphology

Word formation and inflection are exclusively suffixal (prefixes are not marked). Agglutinating language with a strong tendency towards inflection.

Name

Noun and adjective are declined according to the general paradigm:

nominative-accusative(absolute): no indicator.
genitive I: -s ; genitive II: -(a)l.
locative: -i.
ablative I: -is ; ablative II: -(a)ls (called “double genitive” in some publications).
possessive I: -si ; possessive II: -(a)le.
plural: -r (animated) ; -χva (inanimate).
genitive plural numbers: -ra-s (animated) ; -χva-l (inanimate).
possessive plural numbers: ra-si (animated); -χva-le (inanimate).
joint case= “and ...” (analogue of Latin ...que): -c (added after all other morphological indicators)

Adjectives derived from nouns have the -na indicator.

Verb

Verb suffixes:

present time: no indicator.
past, asset:-ce.
past, passive: -χe.
duty: -(e)ri.
injunctive:-e.
conjunctiva:-a.
imperative: no indicator (according to A.I. Nemirovsky - indicator -θ).
assets. prib. present vr.: -as(a); -u; -θ.
assets. prib. past vr.: -θas(a); -nas(a).
passive prib. (as well as parables from intransitive verb) past. vr.: -u; -icu; -iχu.

Particles

The negative particle has not been reliably identified.

Numerals

Thanks to the discovery of game cubes and numerous gravestone inscriptions, the numeral system has been generally restored, although debate continues about the meaning of some numerals:

1 θu(n)
2 zal, esal
3 ci
4 huθ
5 maχ
6 śa
7 semφ
8 cezp
9 nurφ
10 śar(doubtful)
20 zaθrum
"-twenty" = -alχ"without ...-x" = -em

		18 eslem zathrum 19 thunem zathrum 29 thunem cealch 30 cialch (cealch)	50 muvalch (machalch) 90 nurphalch(?)

18 eslem zathrum

19 thunem zathrum

29 thunem cealch

30 cialch (cealch)

50 muvalch (*machalch)

90 *nurphalch(?)

Syntax

The usual word order is “subject - direct object - predicate” (so-called SOV). Sentences, even in long texts, are usually short; professional philologists explain this by the fact that, supposedly, “in general, the Etruscan language was not adapted to the formation of complex and complex sentences.”

Calendar

The names of the eight months of the sacred calendar are known.

uelcitanus(lat.) = March.
aberas(lat.) = April; apirase= in the month of April.
ampiles(lat.) = May; anpilie= in the month of May.
aclus(lat.) = June; acal(v)e= in the month of June.
traneus(lat.) = July.
ermius(lat.) = August.
celius(lat.) = September; celi= in the month September.
xof(f)er(?)(lat.) = October.

Connections with other languages

Researchers

The following are the researchers of the Etruscan language:

Bauke van der Meer, Lammert - leading expert on Etruscan religion
Beekes, Robert - supporter of the Asia Minor hypothesis, also explores the hypothesis of a pre-Greek substrate
Wolanski, Tadeusz - philologist-enthusiast, proposed his own method for deciphering Etruscan texts based on ancient Slavic vocabulary
Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov - tried unsuccessfully to interpret the Etruscan language as related to Lydian
Zavaroni, Adolfo - systematized and published on the Internet a complete corpus of inscriptions in Etruscan and supposed related languages
Ricks, Helmut - author of the hypothesis about the Tyrrhenian family of languages

Inscriptions

dedication inscriptions, which are mainly contained on vases where the name of the owner or donor is indicated, for example, mi Larθa - I [am] the property of Lart (T.L.E. 154), mi mamerces: artesi - I [am] the property of Mamercus Arte (T.L.E. 338) .
votive inscriptions addressed to a hero or an altar, for example, mini muluvanece Avile Vipiiennas - Aulus Vibenna gave me (T.L.E. 35).
funerary inscriptions on sarcophagi and tombs, for example, mi larices telaθuras suθi - I [I am] the tomb of Larisa Telatura (T.L.E. 247).
inscriptions on steles dedicated to a specific person.
long inscriptions containing more than 20 words are the least numerous. For example, only 8 inscriptions containing more than 40 words are known:

Liber Linteus (The Linen Book) is a book written on linen, containing about 1,200 words, including 500 different ones.
The tiles from Capua (5th-4th centuries BC) contain an inscription on boustrophedon, consisting of 62 lines and approximately 300 words that can be read.
A boundary post from Perugia (2nd century BC) contains information about the division of two plots of land, contains 46 lines and 130 words.
A lead tape found in the Sanctuary of Minerva (5th century BC) contains 11 lines and 80 words (40 of them can be read).
Lead

“ETRUSCUM NON LEGITUR” (“Etruscan is not readable”) is a famous saying of the Latins. All attempts to read Etruscan inscriptions on the basis of any of the known languages, neither in the Middle Ages, nor in the Renaissance, and right up to the present day, alas, have led to nothing. “The Etruscan language is not related to the known European languages and is isolated” - this is the text of the verdict that linguistic science has persistently read to the Etruscan language since the times of Rome to the present day.
Perhaps it will still be possible to read some of the inscriptions using the alphabet of the ancient Wallachian language. For example, the inscriptions on Fig. 1-9.

The Etruscan alphabet is similar to the ancient Wallachian:
Etruscan alphabet
A – A
PT - B
M–B
P - V
J. (arrow) - D
В (8) – (т)Ць
K – (t)C
HER
=, #, o (cross in a circle) – F
N – F(G)
n - W
I – (a)I
I" - th
J–J
^ – J, L
X – K
q – K
F-Ka
L (often as x) – L
D – L
8, – Мь
N–M
N (rectangle with mountains, black and gray) – НН
+ – N
O, S – O
PT – P, B
P, G – Pb
Q (circle with a horizontal line in the middle) – Pb
@, Q (circle with a dot in the center) – P
R – P
F – TS

S–C
t – T
V – U, V
+ (horizontal element at the top of the letter)
E - X(a)
K–X (rarely found)
F – Ca
S – Ць
T – CH
Shch (similar to M) – Ch
R – Шь
: , J – b
I, L – b
Y – Yu
O (as "omega"), U – Z
In the Etruscan dialect: S: – b
I: – Y
IO – Yo
TI–CH
OO – U
About after ch. points to unstressed syllable, : before ch. - on stressed ch. sound, : after acc. – to a soft consonant sound, I after consonant. – to soft acc. sound. The sign J after the vowel, gov. about bezud. Ch. If this sign comes before the verb, then the syllable is stressed. Period before ch. replaces the accent mark, dot after ch. indicates an unstressed verb. sound. Point after acc. replaces soft sign.

Ill. 1. Inscription in Etruscan on the sarcophagus (Klassen E. Ancient history Slavs and Slavic-Russians. – M.: White Alva. 2005. – P. 285. Fig. 31).

Transliteration (see fig. 1): Jašojčić may. Imieux.
In modern Russian: My box. Name.
Conclusions should be drawn: 1) the language of the Etruscans was NOT DIFFERENT from the dialect of the ancient Vlachs, 2) the writing systems of the Etruscans and the ancient Vlachs are very similar.

Ill. 2. Inscription on an Etruscan mirror. Monumenti etruschi o di etrusco nome / F. Inghirami. – Poligrafia Fiesolana, 1824. T. 2. Table. XXXVII.
Transliteration (see Fig. 2): SERCULO.
In modern Russian: Mirror.

Ill. 3. The inscription (Klassen E. The ancient history of the Slavs and Slavic-Russians. - M.: White Alva. 2005. - P. 281. Fig. 23) is read from bottom to top. The line on the right is read first, then the line on the left. The inscription below is read from right to left. Transliteration (see Fig. 16): 1) What is it? 2) what?
Can you tell me the name?
This is a joke caption.

Ill.4. Inscription on the sarcophagus. See Monumenti etruschi o di etrusco nome / F. Inghirami. – Poligrafia Fiesolana, 1824. T. 1. Table. LI. Transliteration (ill. 18).
Top: nrzb. BELOW: STAY LIFE.
Top: nrzb. Bottom: Honoring life.
The inscription on top is made for the master completing the work. He had to cover the cast sarcophagus with a thin layer of marbled mortar and imprint an inscription on it in a frame (cartouche). Such inscriptions without frames are not uncommon.

Ill. 5. The inscription on the figure is ДЦЭЗШCH. Taken from: Monumenti etruschi o di etrusco nome / F. Inghirami. – Poligrafia Fiesolana, 1824. T. 3. Table. V.
Transliteration (ill. 19). Dtsezsch.
Honor.
A judge is depicted. To this day the judge is called YOUR HONOR.

Ill. 6. Inscription on the sarcophagus. Taken from: Monumenti etruschi o di etrusco nome / F. Inghirami. – Poligrafia Fiesolana, 1824. T. 1. Table. I.
Transliteration (see Fig. 6). Acheschtka.
Cleaning.
The layered structure of the concrete is visible. The sarcophagus needs to be cleaned before it is covered with a layer of marbled polymer concrete.

Ill. 7. Inscription on a tombstone found in Anzi in Basilicata (G.S. Grinevich. Proto-Slavic writing, vol. 1. – M., 1993. – Table II, Fig. No. 6).
Transliteration (ill. 7)
Vyachshel-
lame, still-
I'm great, I'm great -
I, vodtsyachatsl e - dtsechdtsya,
ale shmiliddyadtsya,
ale tsechdtschach - yavveyazhya!

In modern times Russian language. Celebration, fun, military honor, chanting, gratitude - this is an encouragement to a warrior, but courage, but honor - more clearly!

Ill. 8 a. Chimera. Bronze. V century BC e. according to the official chronology. Archaeological Museum of Florence. Photo by E.A. Mironova, 2010

Ill. 8 b. The inscription on the chimera's paw. A bronze sculpture of a chimera is kept in Archaeological Museum Florence (see ill. 8 a. Also: Koparev E. Forgotten Slavic writings. - M., electronic version, 2012).
On the right front paw of the chimera there is the inscription KHIZHVOTSAI - predatory (see Fig. 8 a and 8 b).

Ill. 9. Inscriptions in the Etruscan dialect. See Gori Antonio Francesco. Antiquitates Etruscae. - Nürnberg, 1770. - T. LIII. Transliteration (starting from the left box, see Fig. 9).
Inscription on the left drawer. Yashya, vegetables, eggs.
Food, vegetables, eggs.
Inscription on the middle drawer. Yes, yes, yes.
Food, food.
Inscription on the right drawer.
Yazha Katsezhnizh-
her, drinker.
Quality food, drinks.
All attempts to decipher Etruscan writing that were made by the 19th century scientists S. Ciampi, A.D. Chertkov and Tad. Volansky was met with fierce rejection from historians of all countries. The reason for this rejection was simple. Etruscan inscriptions are read in Slavic. This was indicated by the very morphology of Etruscan words.

The works of S. Ciampi, A.D. Chertkov and T. Volansky could not suggest that Western Europe was inhabited several centuries ago by the Slavs. If this is so, then the role of the Slavs in human history should be reconsidered. But this is what the ruling circles of the Western European powers did not want.

Historians throughout Europe were instructed to suppress discoveries that would shed light on the great past of the Slavic peoples. It should be said that the Slavs were not conquerors Western Europe, they originally, originally lived there. The Etruscans lived in Italy since time immemorial, even before the founding of Rome itself and the appearance Latin language. This is evidenced by the huge number of perfectly preserved Etruscan monuments with inscriptions made on them. “The first treaty between Rome and Gabia was written in Pelasgian characters...

Polyvius testifies that in his time the most learned of the Romans no longer understood the peace treaty concluded between Carthage and Rome in the first years after the expulsion of Tarquin. This treaty was written in a language so different from Latin that even Polyvius himself could hardly translate it. Consequently, the Romans... completely forgot their original Pelasgian language and have already turned into the later Latin. But even after this, the people always spoke a language very different from the written one (Maffei, Stor. di Verona, XI, 602). Oski and Volski, even in the flourishing time of the Latin language, retained their dialect, which was very well understood by the common people of Rome - proof that the learned Latin language was something composed by art and different from the folk dialect of all Pelasgian tribes,” argued A.D. Chertkov.

He was right, because the first textbook on the grammar of classical (also ancient) Latin, Elegantiae Linguae Latinae (On the Grace of the Latin Language), was published in 1471 by the Renaissance humanist Lorenzo Valla (his real name was Laurentius della Valle). Valla assured readers that he had "demonstrated the technique of the purity and elegance of classical Latin, free from medieval awkwardness." Thus, Valla announced to the whole world that there was no ancient Latin before 1471. The population of Western Europe spoke Slavic dialects and Germanic dialects. “In 1726, the “Etruscan Academy” was opened, the members of which were the noble lords of Cortona and other cities of Tuscany...

In reports and messages, devoid of a serious scientific basis, it was argued that not only in Italy, but in Spain and Anatolia, almost all traces of artistic activity belonged to the Etruscans,” complains the historian A. I. Nemirovsky. A.I. Nemirovsky does not believe that an ethnic group related to the Slavs could live in Turkey from time immemorial? But in Phrygia, on monumental buildings, the Proto-Slavs left many inscriptions that are impossible to read in Greek and Latin. “Three quarters of the Museum of the Etruscan Academy consisted of fakes and works of ancient art,” A. I. Nemirovsky assured the reader, without hesitation.

Are there too many “fakes” presented in the illustrations of this book? A. S. Khomyakov wrote about the distortion of Russian history by Western European scientists: “There is no such distant tribe, there is no such unimportant fact that would not become the subject of study by many German scientists. Only the human family attracted their attention little - the Slavic family. As soon as it comes to the Slavs, the mistakes of the German critics are so obvious, the mistakes are so funny, the blindness is so great that you don’t know what to attribute this strange phenomenon to. Nations, like people, have passions, and passions that are not entirely noble. Perhaps in the instincts of the Germans lies enmity that they themselves have not recognized, enmity based on fear of the future or on memories of the past, on insults inflicted or suffered in ancient, immemorial years. Be that as it may, it is almost impossible to explain (by anything else - author) the stubborn silence of the West about everything that bears the stamp of Slavism.”

Khomyakov does not think of the simple idea that it was not the Slavs who in the past caused damage to the Western European peoples, but quite the opposite: some Western European peoples caused damage to the Slavs, after which they began to fear revenge. “Already under Herodotus, the Vendians inhabit the beautiful shores of the Adriatic... Soon after him, the Vendians are already encountered by the Greeks on the cold shores of the Baltic... The Vendians (Venetas) occupy the picturesque slopes of the Ligurian Alps; the Vendians are fighting Caesar on the stormy waves of the Atlantic - and such a strange fact does not attract anyone's attention... And these are not scattered tribes, without communication and relations with each other, but an unbroken chain, embracing half of Europe (half of Western Europe - author. ). Between the Pomerania of the Baltic Vends and the Illyrian Vends - the great Vends... Then the Russian Wends, then the Austrian Wends (Vindobona),” continues Khomyakov. A. S. Khomyakov mentions both Vienna and the “French” Vendee... Did he know what happened to the Vendeans after the Great French Revolution?

Most Etruscologists to this day simply revel in the mystery hidden in the Etruscan inscriptions. It seems that all their efforts are aimed at poetically singing the secret hidden in the Etruscan writing, and not at all at deciphering the latter: “The heavy gates guarding the SECRET of the Etruscans are still closed. Etruscan sculptures, staring in a daze into the emptiness or plunged into self-contemplation with a dreamy half-smile, show with all their appearance that they have NOTHING TO SAY to our contemporaries. Etruscan inscriptions still remain silent, as if claiming that they are not intended for anyone except those who created them, and will never speak again,” however, Etruscan writings can still be read, as you saw by reading this article .

Links:
1. Chertkov A.D. About the language of the Pelasgians inhabiting Italy, and its comparison with ancient Slovenian. – Temporary journal of the Moscow Society for the History of Russian Antiquities. Book 23. M., 1855. – pp. 4-5.
2. Nemirovsky A.I. From myth to history. – M.: Nauka, 1983. – P. 5.
3. Ibid.
4. Khomyakov As. "Works in two volumes." Supplement to the journal "Questions of Philosophy". Volume 1. Works on historiosophy. – M.: Moscow Philosophical Foundation. “Medium”, 1994. – P. 57.
5. Ibid.
6. Burian Y., Moukhova B. Mysterious Etruscans. – M., Nauka, 1970. – P. 83.

Literature.
1. Burian Y., Moukhova B. Mysterious Etruscans. – M., Nauka, 1970.
2. Koparev E. Forgotten Slavic writings. - M., el. vers., 2012.
3. Nemirovsky A.I. From myth to history. – M.: Nauka, 1983.
4. Khomyakov As. "Works in two volumes." Supplement to the journal "Questions of Philosophy". Volume 1. Works on historiosophy. – M.: Moscow Philosophical Foundation. "Medium", 1994.
5. Chertkov A.D. About the language of the Pelasgians inhabiting Italy, and its comparison with ancient Slovenian. – Temporary journal of the Moscow Society for the History of Russian Antiquities. Book 23. M., 1855.

The Etruscan language is similar to Russian. Etruscan writing

Grammar

Alphabet

Phonetics

Vocabulary

Morphology

Name

Verb

Particles

Numerals

Syntax

Calendar

Connections with other languages

Researchers

Inscriptions

Notes

Literature

Links

Are common

Decryption

Vocabulary

see also

Grammar

Alphabet

Phonetics

Vocabulary

Morphology

Name

Verb

Particles

Numerals

Syntax

Calendar

Connections with other languages

Researchers

Inscriptions