The modern food industry uses in its production different types vegetable oils. Yes, and in stores today there is a huge selection of them, and when cooking we no longer use only one sunflower oil, but use other types. Many of them are also used in heavy industry, as they have a number of unique properties. Let's look at the features of these oils and the differences between them.
What does vegetable oil mean?
The most popular type of fat is vegetable oil; it is the main element for dressing salads and frying foods. It is extracted by pressing seeds and fruits, which are preheated and crushed. Crops related to Maslenitsa are taken. The consistency is:
- Liquid oil- obtained from sunflowers, rapeseed, olives, corn, peanuts, sesame, flax, etc.
- Solid- cocoa, coconut, palm oil.
There are several ways to obtain oil:
- Cold- squeezing out the crushed seeds is carried out with a press. The liquid released during this process is oil.
- Hot- the crushed seeds are first heated to 100 degrees and only then are they sent for spinning. Exposure to elevated temperatures leads to increased fat secretion.
- Extracted- This method is not good for health. All fats dissolve in gasoline. The seeds are poured into it and only after the oil has been released does the gasoline evaporate.
- Unrefined- this oil undergoes filtration from impurities and mechanical cleaning. Preserves all the benefits of the product from which it is made: smell, taste. Its consistency is thicker with rich color. During long-term storage, sediment is released. It is used as a salad dressing, but it is bad for frying.
- Refined- in addition to filtration, other cleaning methods (neutralization with alkali) were also used. This oil is tasteless and odorless, can be stored well and is better for frying with. It does not smoke or foam and is used primarily for culinary purposes.
- Hydrated- the oil is cleaned using sprayed hot water. It has no sediment and is not cloudy.
- Deodorized- hot steam under vacuum is used for cleaning. This oil is odorless, tasteless and colorless.
Calorie content vegetable oil very high, since it contains fat 99,9% . But it is impossible to completely remove it from the diet; the body will lack vitamin E, polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids, which are involved in the construction of our cells. All of them have a large number of useful substances, so the choice depends on your taste.
For example, rapeseed oil is often used in industry and only after refining is it suitable for cooking. But sesame is the main ingredient in Asian cuisine and in India.
Properties of sunflower oil
Sunflower oil is the most common vegetable oil in Russia; we all use it almost every day. In addition, the Russian Federation is the main producer of this type of oil. The technology was developed in Russia in the 19th century.
This oil is high in calories, contains vitamins E, A, D, has a wonderful taste and is universally used (cooking, frying, salad dressing).
Sunflower oil happens refined and unrefined- these are the main types. There are others, but they are less common. Of course, the non-refined version is healthier, since all the vitamins are kept fresh, and it has the smell of sunflower.
The oil is used both in folk and official medicine for prevention and treatment. These are diseases such as the gastrointestinal tract, liver and lungs, heart, toothaches and headaches, arthritis, etc. This oil is added to ointments. It is also often used in cosmetology as an additive to masks and sometimes even in its pure form.
Harmful properties of oil- These are carcinogens that are released during frying. Therefore, you cannot eat a lot of fried foods and use the same oil several times. Be sure to wash the pan after each use.
Do not store sunflower oil in the light, it provokes the destruction of beneficial elements.
What are the similarities and differences between sunflower and vegetable oils?
Sunflower also belongs to vegetable oils. Well, they are all very useful for our body, at any age (vitamins, fatty acids, etc.), but everything should be consumed in moderation. In addition, they are all used for cooking. Sunflower and other vegetable oils are used successfully in cosmetology and medicine. Oils are similar in production method and types, such as: refined, unrefined, etc.
There are few differences, but they are:
- Sunflower oil is made from sunflowers, and vegetable oils are made from various other crops (flax, cotton, coconut, peanuts, sesame, olives, etc.).
- IN industrial production A large number of vegetable oils are used, but sunflower oil is generally not practiced.
- Vegetable oils, except sunflower oil, are more popular outside of Russia. But sunflower oil, on the contrary, is in greater demand in the Russian Federation than other oils. And the technology was developed in Russia.
- Another difference is that depending on the plant (its medicinal properties) from which the oil is produced, it has a preventive or therapeutic effect to a specific organ in our body.
In short, we can conclude that all vegetable oils, including sunflower oil, are good for us and should be consumed. Fortunately, today there is a large assortment of them in stores and you can choose it to your taste.
Until recently, when you visited a store, you could purchase any product and be sure of its quality, or at least that you bought exactly what you wanted. But today, literally each of us can easily miss - you buy one thing, but read the ingredients, and begin to understand that they slipped something completely different. A striking example of this, which every housewife has probably encountered, is butter. “So what is this, plant-based?” - a thought flashes when back side of a square pack of “creamy” you can read the ingredients in small letters. Well, it turns out that our favorite creamy (looking) butter today may well be vegetable.
Let's understand all the wisdom that resourceful manufacturers generously gift us with. Finally, let's find out whether vegetable oil is butter or sunflower, how they differ and which one is healthier. And of course, you can’t do without little tricks: is it possible to replace it with a vegetable one if you don’t have it at home and you’re already busy preparing the dough?
Vegetable oil
All oils that are classified as vegetable are made from plant seeds and nothing else. In our country, perhaps the most popular vegetable oil is sunflower, followed by olive, corn, flaxseed, pumpkin, and so the list can be continued almost indefinitely.
How is oil obtained from plants?
- Cold pressed - crushed seeds are pressed. The liquid that is formed as a result is the very oil that we use.
- Hot pressing - the seeds are crushed, heated to a temperature of 100 degrees, and only then put under the press. Under the influence of temperature, the seeds secrete fat more actively, which means more oil will be produced.
- Extraction is perhaps the most unhealthy method. Any of them can be easily dissolved with gasoline. It is to them that the seeds are poured, and after they give up all their juices, they begin to evaporate the gasoline. As a result, it burns and only oil remains.
Refined or not, what's the difference?
After the oil is obtained, it goes through several purification modes:
- Unrefined oil is a product that has been filtered from all kinds of impurities. It has a thicker, richer consistency and color. If such oil is stored for a long time, a light sediment will appear at the bottom. This oil is not particularly suitable for frying, but it is better to season cold dishes and salads with it.
- Refined vegetable oil is a product that has undergone not only a filter, but also a number of other additional purifications. This oil does not foam when frying, has no pronounced taste or smell, and is stored much better. It is used to make margarine, mayonnaise, and is used in canning and cooking. Refined oils are tasteless and odorless, and their smoke point is almost twice as high. They are much more convenient to use.
The benefits of vegetable oils for us
To talk about the benefits of each specific species, you need to take into account what plant it was obtained from. After all, each of them gives the oil only its inherent vitamins and useful substances. Let's think about what our vegetable oil is: sunflower, peanut or soybean? So, olive oil, for example, can lower cholesterol, pumpkin and flaxseed are rich in Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids, and corn oil contains twice as much vitamin E as sunflower oil. But all these oils, regardless of their origin, are united by their high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is they who take an active part in the creation of new cells, which means they are very useful for our youth and health in general.
Butter and spread
It is obtained from cream collected from the surface of milk and churned. That is, they are obtained from animal products. Today, manufacturers often add vegetable oil to the composition of such a product. Is it creamy or sunflower, you ask? It all depends on the composition. But remember, real butter can never be cheap. If you notice such an oddity in the price, then carefully read the composition. Surely it will indicate the addition of vegetable fats. According to GOST, since 2004 all manufacturers have been required to call such products not “butter”, but “butter product” or “spread”. This kind of oil is a creamy vegetable oil, but percentage The contents of each component must be indicated on the packaging and may differ significantly.
How is the spread different?
The advantages of this oil include its soft and pliable structure. It does not harden in the cold and is easy to spread on bread due to the fact that it contains vegetable oil. Is it creamy or sunflower? Rather, it is a mixture of two types: vegetable and animal fats. It will be very good if the manufacturer adds sunflower oil to such a product, then you can talk about your health once again not to worry. But there are also those who are trying in every possible way to save on production and at the same time increase sales. That’s when a well-known vegetable fat in cosmetology comes into play: palm oil. This product is cheap and has similar properties to butter made from pure cream - it hardens when cooled. It is convenient to use as a substitute for animal fat, you just need to add a little taste and aroma. There will be no particular harm from such a replacement, but there will be no benefit either. Therefore, standing in front of a store counter, think about who benefits from such “availability”, the manufacturer or you? It’s better not to save extra money for your health, so even when buying margarine or baking spread, try not to take the cheapest one.
Is it possible to replace butter with vegetable oil?
This question has probably been raised by every housewife. At the most crucial moment, you open the refrigerator, and the butter is out! Will I really have to give up baking, after all, I planned to? In fact, vegetable oil may well help you out. This creamy product has a high cholesterol content, but vegetable products do not have it, so this fusion will be quite good. This will not affect the taste at all, because ordinary refined oil has neither taste nor smell, but at the same time it is fat, albeit vegetable. You just need to remember that you need to add a little less vegetable oil than indicated in your favorite recipe. For example, a pack of butter weighing 220 g should be replaced with ¾ cup of vegetable oil.
About proper use, or How not to harm
Now you know a little more about what vegetable oil is - butter or sunflower, why it is useful and how it is produced. But there is one more factor due to which such oil can serve an evil purpose, and one should not forget about it. This is the correct temperature regime when cooking. Each type of fat has its own specific heating point. If you overheat the oil, it can form carcinogens that end up in your food. Determining this point is quite simple - if the oil in the frying pan begins to smoke or burn, then you have clearly overheated it, and it is better not to use it for food. For frying food at high temperatures(for a wok frying pan, for example), it is better to choose special oils with high level smoking.
By the way, butter begins to smoke already at a temperature of 170 degrees, but refined corn, sunflower and palm oil only at 232. It is always better to use for salads or sauces; they are not suitable for frying. And also do not forget that the longer your dish is subjected to heat treatment, the more it loses vitamins and benefits for your body.
We hope that this information will be helpful. Let culinary creativity bring you pleasure and give you new unexpected discoveries. Cook tasty and healthy!
Fats plant origin play big role in complete human nutrition. Exist different kinds oils based on raw materials, production processes and consistency. Let's look at what vegetable fats there are, their quality indicators, and how they are classified.
According to the degree of purification, vegetable oils are classified into:
1. Unrefined - has undergone only mechanical purification. With this method, the beneficial properties of vegetable oils are preserved as much as possible, they acquire the taste and smell characteristic of the product from which they are obtained, and may have sediment. This is the healthiest vegetable oil;
2. Hydrated – spray cleaned hot water. It has a less pronounced odor, without sediment and is not cloudy;
3. Refined – neutralized with alkali after mechanical cleaning. This product is transparent, with a weak taste and odor;
4. Deodorized – cleaned with hot steam under vacuum. This product is almost odorless, tasteless and colorless.
According to the method of pressing the oils, the following are obtained:
When cold pressed, such oils have greatest benefit for the body;
With hot pressing - when the raw material is heated before pressing, so that the oil it contains is more liquid and is subject to extraction in a larger volume;
During extraction, the raw material is treated with a solvent that extracts the oil. The solvent is subsequently removed, but some small part of it may remain in the final product, which can be harmful to the body.
Classification of oils by consistency:
1. Solids, consisting of saturated fatty acids: coconut, cocoa butter, palm.
2. Liquid, consisting of unsaturated fatty acids:
Contains monounsaturated acids (olive, peanut);
With polyunsaturated fatty acids (sunflower, sesame, soybean, rapeseed, corn, cottonseed, etc.).
The properties of vegetable oil depend on the method of production and the degree of processing during production. An unrefined cold-pressed product will bring more benefits to the body than a refined product obtained by extraction. The method of its production also determines the quality indicators.
Which vegetable oil is best to buy for food depends on its beneficial properties and application. Let's consider the types of vegetable oils based on their raw materials, their use and benefits for the body.
The table below will help the buyer understand vegetable oils, their properties and proper use.
Table - Types of vegetable oil: composition, properties and proper use
| Type of vegetable oil | Compound | Properties | Application |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contains a lot of linoleic acid, lecithin, vitamins A, D, E, K and F (a complex of healthy unsaturated fatty acids) and Omega-6 acids. | Positively affects the functioning of the cardiac and genitourinary systems, gastrointestinal tract. Improves the condition of skin and hair. | Used for salad dressing (unrefined), for frying and baking (refined). It is also used in the production of margarines, sauces and mayonnaise, and canned food. | |
| Contains a large amount of oleic acid, as well as fat-soluble vitamins, unsaturated acids, and a small amount of Omega-6 acids. | Prevents diseases of the cardiovascular system, reduces cholesterol. It has a good effect on digestion, as it is absorbed better than other vegetable oils. Helps reduce excess weight. | For dressing salads, sauces and frying. When heated, it does not form harmful carcinogens like sunflower oil. Used in pharmacology and cosmetology. | |
| Soy | Contains lecithin, essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, trace elements, vitamins E, K and choline. Contains both Omega-3 and Omega-6 acids. | It is well absorbed by the body, strengthens the immune system, increases resistance to stress, and improves metabolism. | Used for frying, in making sauces, in food production and baby food. |
| Corn | A source of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (Omega-6), beneficial phosphatides, biologically active substances (membrane components) and tocopherol. | Regulates cholesterol metabolism, improves brain and heart function, relieves nervous tension. | Used for stewing, frying over low heat, and dressing salads. |
| Sesame | Contains a lot of calcium compared to other oils, but little vitamin E and A. Contains the powerful antioxidant squalene and Omega-6 fatty acids. | Useful for the digestive, cardiovascular, nervous systems, and brain function. Positively affects the endocrine and female reproductive systems. | Widely used in Indian and Asian cuisines, in production. Not suitable for frying, only for seasoning ready-made dishes. |
| Contains a large amount of Omega-3 (more than all other vegetable fats) and Omega-6 fatty acids. | Normalizes metabolic processes in the body, improves performance digestive system, strengthens the immune system. | For dressing ready-made dishes, salads and cereals, not for frying. | |
| Palm | Consists mainly of saturated fatty acids, contains a large amount of vitamin A, as well as E, phytosterols, lecithin, squalene, Omega-6 acids. | Has antioxidant properties, improves skin and hair condition. | Widely used in many sectors of food production. Suitable only for frying, as when cold it is in a semi-solid state. |
| Mustard | High content biologically active substances: vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, small amounts of Omega-3 and 6 acids, phytoncides, essential mustard oil. | It has bactericidal and wound-healing properties, improves the functioning of the digestive system and blood composition, and is beneficial for women and children. | For dressing salads, baking and frying, for preservation, as it oxidizes slowly. |
In food laboratories, assessment of the quality of vegetable oils includes a set of studies of organoleptic (taste, color, smell, transparency) and physical and chemical indicators (density, color, melting and pour point, determination of the acid number of vegetable oil, peroxide and iodine, mass fraction moisture).
For the average buyer, these are complex laboratory research are not available, so it is important to know some rules in order to buy quality vegetable oil.
1. Refined vegetable oil should be transparent, without visible impurities and sediment.
2. The color of the oil can vary from light to dark yellow and green depending on the raw material and the degree of purification.
3. There should be no foreign smell or taste, only those corresponding to the product.
4. Look at the production and expiration dates. You should not buy a product that has been on the store shelf for a long time, even if it has a long shelf life.
5. Good vegetable oil cannot be cheap. But a high price does not guarantee anything. It is better to choose one manufacturer with good quality product and always use it for food. A conscientious food supplier is concerned about the opinions of consumers.
6. The label must contain information about compliance with GOST for vegetable oil. The presence of quality management systems in production may also be indicated ( international standards ISO, QMS).
7. Study the label carefully. Vegetable oil is often counterfeited: a mixture of other fats is sold under the guise of sunflower oil. The label must clearly indicate the type of oil and its grade, and not just the inscription “vegetable oil”.
How to store vegetable oil
If you choose it in a store, it is worth remembering that the unrefined one will be the most useful. Which unrefined sunflower oil is better? Cold pressed. It is in such a product, which has not undergone thermal and chemical treatment, that vitamins and biologically active substances are better preserved. The benefits of unrefined sunflower oil include a large amount of phospholipids, antioxidants and beta-carotene.
Any vegetable oil is susceptible to oxidation in light, so it must be stored in a dark place. The optimal temperature is from 5 to 20 degrees Celsius without sudden temperature changes. Unrefined oils should be stored in the refrigerator. It is better to use a glass storage container with a narrow neck, but not metal.
The shelf life of vegetable oil can be long - up to 2 years, provided that the temperature is maintained and there is no light. An opened bottle should be used within a month.
Chapter 6. Russian-Etruscan writing
Of course, it is difficult to imagine that almost all knowledge in astronomy, biology, medicine, agriculture, animal husbandry, metallurgy, etc. was concentrated in one civilizing people, while the rest vegetated in a kind of cave savagery, ate each other and nothing else.
But, firstly, one cannot think that the ancient Aryans were some kind of homogeneous tribe of Russians who knew each other by sight. A kind of elite, they say, obliged under any conditions to bring the light of reason and technology to the barbarians. No, and now the Russian people, in essence, are very heterogeneous, multifaceted, it is often impossible to say that their culture expresses a single style - not counting the basic, unshakable styles, such as, for example, religious views. But here, as we see, everything is mixed, synonymous, and often antonymous or even antagonistic. The most ancient goddess In one ancient Aryan tribe, Baba Yaga is presented as an irresistible beauty with unimaginable sexually fertile capabilities or desires; in another tribe, she is a terrible, evil old woman (“tits are wound on a hook”), who has outlived her usefulness and plots intrigues for man, but, nevertheless, less, revered. The same with Koshchei.
More. Baba Yaga, Morena, Marya Morevna, Yara, Bela, Cybele, Lada, Zhiva, Rhoda (the list, as you remember, can be continued) - the same goddess, only at different times of the existence of the Aryans (or among different tribes).
The same is with the oldest god in our memory - Koshchei. He is Kuret, and Yarilo (Yarila), and Bel (Belobog), and Chernobog, and Ra, and Perun, and Tur (Taurus), etc., etc. The explanations are the same.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the Aryans who emerged from Hyperborea (Atlantis), who set off to seek happiness around the world, did not march in marching columns, not even in a chain, but at intervals of one hundred, two hundred, thousand years, dispersed around the planet not in accordance with the cosmic plan (although , if we recall R. Bauval and especially W. Sullivan’s “Secrets of the Incas,” what the hell isn’t it?), but by themselves. They carried high, but heterogeneous knowledge, which in one tribe may not coincide with the knowledge of another (such as, for example, two proofs of 1 of the same theorem). The people of Hyperborea could well have had several variants of writing: after all, we can verify this even in the Hittite way of writing. And hieroglyphic and hieratic writing Ancient Egypt? If these two alphabets had come to scientists from completely different parts of the planet, no Champollion, no genius would have guessed that this was the writing of the same people - the ancient Copts.
Thus, the Aryans brought with them (or developed locally over several millennia) the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. This is how the Phoenician letters-signs arose. Another mystery is the Etruscan writings. These letters have been found in Italy since 1444, but no one bothered to read them, although at the hands of “readers” - you can’t blame them, because they may have read it, but it hasn’t reached today’s scientists - there were also Greek writings, and Old Russian (at least in some documents compiled in some of the European and Russian languages - actually bilingual). True, there was no archeology, cryptography and other sciences common for the needs of non-aggressive knowledge.
Be that as it may, the Etruscans are not aliens; any non-scientist, not to mention specialist linguists, can understand and apply this alphabet.
And guess what? The Etruscan language has not yet been read! N. Nepomniachtchi recently made a sensational report: “Has the key to the Etruscan language been found?”
“Well, thank God, they finally read it at the end of the 20th century,” I thought. And I read N. Nepomniachtchi’s material:
“The tablet, called Tabula Cortonensis, is from the city of Tuskan, where it was allegedly found by a builder in 1992...”
The message already causes terrible bewilderment: why “supposedly” and in what sense? Did he find it in the thirteenth century? Or was it in 1992? If in 1992, then scientists of the 20th century already knew how to formalize the find according to all the rules, and then the word “presumably” cannot exist. Or was it only supposedly found, but not actually found? Or supposedly a builder (but actually a janitor)?
“It was written by two hands, contains 32 lines and 60 lexical items and adds 27 unknown words to the Etruscan vocabulary. It refers to a written contract, probably a transaction for the purchase of a plot of land between two noble families, drawn up by a notary.”
Apparently, the tablet was made of a very hard material, if the writer held the stylus with both hands, and apparently pressed with all his might. Poor notary! He probably had to “fill” twenty of these contracts a day. How tired he was!
Sorry for the sarcasm - it is clear, of course, that “with both hands” can mean that it was written by two people. But there may be another reading here, which N. Nepomnyashchy, apparently, simply does not know about. But more on that later. Let's deal with the message first. We read further:
““The importance of this document,” explains linguist Luciano Agostiniani from the University of Perugia, “is that it contains some grammatical structures and rules that allow us to finally understand the connection of certain verbs that were unclear before...” It goes on to say only that the found plate was put on public display in Florence, and then handed over to the city archaeological museum.”
All this is wonderful. Particularly remarkable is the assurance of the Italian “expert” that he is about to understand “the connection of certain verbs.” It turns out that, without knowing the verb compounds, he knows for sure that the find is a contract for the purchase of real estate by one “noble family” (what if they are crooks? - how many realtors are fooling people now!) from another.
Are Western scientists really unable to do anything or don’t want to see the obvious? Or they don’t represent something more important, namely, that the Etruscans are ancient Russians.
Now about the “two hands” with which the text is written. It is known that the Etruscans are not the ancestors, of course, but they are closer than others to the origins of the development of magical texts. These can be encrypted texts or texts that can be read with only a little effort. The “simplest” in this regard are Etruscan inscriptions made in a mirror image. So the concept of “with two hands” could be interpreted in such a way that some inscriptions on the tablet are depicted in a direct, real form, and some in a mirrored or inverted form. You never know! - after all, they never showed us the image of the sign. And the Italian-Florentines, who, by and large, did not care at all about the Etruscans, “put the sign on display for all to see.”
So, thanks to N. Nepomniachtchi for the information. But then I’ll tell you about another method and a different approach.
Alexander Egurnov, who devoted his entire life to deciphering iconic pictures and texts, easily reads and translates Etruscans (unfortunately, he passed away several years ago, but I don’t want to write about him in the past tense). And he doesn’t need to compile dictionaries, “connect verb to verb,” and so on. Because no one bothered to read Etruscans in Russian - not even Russian linguists!
I will not go into details and will give only a few short phrases (there are at least 10,000 of them on Etruscan tombstones alone, which are still being found).
We read the first inscription: “N (e) IARO NODEBINO MEN (e)” (please note that the Etruscan alphabet is not Cyrillic, but I provide the entry in Cyrillic letters the way it is published by A. Egurnov). The author of the reading, trying to read as close to the original as possible, “translates”: “It’s not rage that I need.” It seems? Without a doubt. However, I would take the liberty of tweaking Alexander Egurnova a little. After all we're talking about about the Russian inscription. “It’s not rage that I need” is somehow dry and something seems wrong. Couldn’t the word “IARO” be an adverb? Yaro. Of course, this could be the god Yar. But most likely, the adverb is “fiercely”, that is, strongly, very, very... and so on. I propose an option (considering that the Russian writer at that time, just as today, would have put into the message a certain amount of humor, which, by the way, the Italians, as long-time relatives of the Russians, should also have). This is what can happen: “That’s not all I need.”
The second inscription: “KA AND TOBI ZVR(e) KOZIOY” (all according to Egurnov).
Unfortunately, I do not have a reading of Egurnova himself. But, judging by the picture, the last and third from the end letters may not be the same letter. The horizontal line, the shelf on which the letters lie, is in the way. I think the last one should be the letter "L".
And here is the result: “Like you, the beast is a goat.” I think this is a meaningful and, again, not devoid of some humor expression. To make it completely clear: “And for you, a goat is a beast.” The second, more generalizing, is almost a saying: “Any animal is a goat to you.”
And finally, the third phrase, presented by A. Egurnov: “TOI DITV (o) R (a) AND FOR REST.”
There are, of course, more options here. Firstly, I would add instead of (a) yet (e) - it will turn out to be DITVORE. A. Egurnova - I don’t know why - turns out: “And peace to everyone is yours and mine.”
As far as I understand, “rest” is “peace.” I don't dare argue. But if I had to read this inscription on my own, without the help of specialist A. Egurnova, I would read: “TOY D(e) AND T(a)VR A TO REST.” And in translation: “Your god (deu) and Taurus (Tur) are buried.” That is, knowing the context of the phrase, it is even easier to read. I assumed that the last, third inscription is a phrase from a tombstone. There can be two meanings here:
1. Your god Tur will give you peace.
2. God Tur is your funeral (that is, on the grave, in addition to the slab, a sculptural image of a bull is placed, or a bull or calf is drawn on the slab itself).
Etruscan letter
Pay attention to the images of letters of the Etruscan alphabet. No more or less literate person will be able to a lot of work read this text, which is similar in lettering to both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet. The Greeks used the Phoenician and Etruscan alphabet when compiling theirs. Nothing is new under the sun, just as nothing lasts forever! (This is already Ecclesiastes.)
By the way, Cyril and Methodius did not compose the Cyrillic alphabet, but the Glagolitic alphabet. Many today attribute to them something that did not happen. And here are a few more readings by A. Egurnova, given in the article “Etruscans - Russes of the Mediterranean?” from the newspaper “Other Dimensions” (1999):
ROVIES ON LUMNI(e) N(e) M(e)SCHIL(e) MAI(e) O(not) - “The ravines on LUMNI were further outlined for me”
V ZHIVOZY(s) YAIMU YAZEO - “He has an ulcer in his stomach”
S E AND STEERS ARE TELLING - “The sisters are telling fortunes.”
That's all their European learning is. The time did not come, as it did with Heinrich Schliemann or Howard Carter, but a Russian man came to his hands, took it and read it. And Italians to this day, since 1992, apparently have been wondering how to connect verb with verb. And they complicate the Etruscan language to such an extent that no one can really read it in their dictionaries.
“Avil yeni aka pulu mkva” - “The years are like a poppy field,” - so this phrase back in the late 1980s. read by Vladimir Ivanovich Shcherbakov. What to talk about?
Let's talk about the Etruscans themselves - about what has not yet been said.
There are two opinions among the scientific world: the first is that the Etruscans appeared in the Apennines in the 12th century BC. e. as a result of the Trojan cataclysm. Maybe I applied strong word, but it was precisely from this event that the major exodus of the Roussins-Russians from Asia Minor began. True, according to A. Abrashkin and, especially, according to the brilliant material by V. Batsalev about Troy in the book “Riddles of Ghost Cities,” it turns out that it is still unknown who won the Trojan War. The Greeks scattered for 20–40 years; for some reason, like Odysseus, they could not return home (as if the events took place far away). And those who returned were met with contempt or boycott at home. What happened there, only Poseidon knows. Be that as it may, the weakened Trojans were attacked by local states that did not participate in the war. That is, probably not much time passed, and the Etruscans had to seek refuge somewhere on the side. They chose the Apennines.
And why? Why did they painlessly end up on the Apennine Peninsula and even occupied a gigantic “living space” at that time - the entire North, almost the entire “bole” of the Italian “boot”? Yes, probably because those who say that they lived and lived here since time immemorial are right, and only accepted Trojan refugees, brothers by blood and language. True, there are also discrepancies in the name of this people. Starting with Herodotus, other ancient authors call the Etruscans either Tyrrhenians (named after the god Tire, Taurus), who even gave the name to the adjacent sea waters - the Tyrrhenian Sea - or Pelasgians, or even Lycians. At the same time, the Etruscans themselves called themselves Raseni. Most likely, the Etruscans, like today's Russians, accepted not only related Trojans, Pelasgians or Lycians (all of them are Russians, Rasen), but also alien tribes - most likely Celtic, Germanic. One should not discount the southern Finno-Ugric people, a large component of a country like Hettia... It is unlikely that the Finno-Ugric people lived too locally in south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.
Now about the significance of the Etruscans. Firstly, the Romans themselves recognized them as teachers. That is, late Rome considered the Etruscans its teachers. A. Abrashkin gives impressive examples (although they are not, perhaps, of a global nature, but they are really impressive). The well-known “Roman courtyard” in the center of the house and the water supply system with sewerage, “built by the slaves of Rome” - these are not Roman devices (structures) at all, but Etruscan ones. The Etruscans were also brilliant navigators and shared their knowledge with the Roman brothers. They were also teachers of the future masters of their lives in military affairs. Invention was also not alien to them: an anchor and a copper ram on the bow of the ship were invented. The name Rome itself is most likely either an inversion of the word World (that is, something solid, for centuries, “a statement only here”), or, as Yaroslav glorifies Yar, Ra (also an inversion of the same name), a variant of Pa -To them, that is, the Name of Yar, the Name of Ra. Since toponymy is more primary, it is difficult to believe that the city was named after Romulus or Remus, and in general their story with the she-wolf is too reminiscent of old legends from the Egyptian era - remember the transformation of the Egyptian Osiris into the Wolf.
And the haruspex priests, fortune-tellers using the entrails of animals - it was from them that Rome learned to tell fortunes in such a strange, in our opinion, way. And he succeeded in this. It turns out that the circus and gladiator fights also passed to the Romans from the Etruscans. And much more, which I will not bore the reader with. However, one cannot fail to mention one more important circumstance. It is believed that Celtic and Scandinavian runic writing also came from the magical writing of the Etruscans, and not vice versa.
How did the Etruscans live?
They occupied the north of the Apennines completely; the Etruscan state consisted of a union of twelve cities, and this union was quite strong. The power of the alliance could withstand both the warlike Gauls and the Achaeans, who did not sleep and saw themselves in the Apennines. True, the Etruscans favored their Messenian relatives who fought the hated Sparta... But this was much later, almost before the very end of the state.
The Etruscans occupied the territory bounded on the south by the Tiber River (Tours, Taurus, Bull), on the north by the Arno, on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the east by Apennine mountains. The city of Spina, which they built on the swamps of the Po River floodplain (ancient Pad), was an example of an exemplary trading city and was probably very populated. Trade ships from all over the Mediterranean, which was then equivalent to “the whole world,” entered the port. Etruria traded with everyone - with the Greek colonies in the south of the Apennines (Sybaris were also relatives of the “Siberians” who worshiped Siwa), with Athens, Corinth, Carthage, Phenicia.
The Etruscan kings were also Lucumoni priests.
A. Abrashkin says that they saw the reign in their own way and did not hesitate to do any hard work, including cultivating their own land... It seems that these people could build roads and a water supply system.
But with the arrival of the Latins, who, having suffered in exile (also former Trojans), decided to strengthen themselves on this land thoroughly and, with the help of the Etruscans, built the city of Rome, the forces began to change. Rome gained more and more greatness, and things became more and more difficult for the resilient Etruscans. Finally, having passed through the stage of flourishing from the 8th to about the 6th centuries BC. e., they came to the Roman throne. The Etruscan reign was very short-lived. Already in 509, a conflict arose, an uprising occurred, Tarquin the Proud, the leader of the Etruscans, was expelled (luckily not killed), and a republic was established in Rome.
That same year, the treacherous “friends” of the Greeks attacked the Romans. This was not an anti-Roman event, but an anti-Etruscan one. The Greeks themselves wanted to dominate the Mediterranean and collect tribute from goods brought from all countries. The Etruscans easily defeated the Greeks in 509. But fifteen years later, the outcome of a similar conflict was not in their favor. The Battle of Cumae, a Greek colony in the Apennines, ended in the defeat of the Etruscan army of half a million, while the Greeks had much fewer warriors. The Greeks began to trade! They did it much worse than the Etruscans, virtuosos in their field. Etruria's maritime dominance ended. And then things went badly on land. Then the physical destruction of the people began.
And at the beginning of the 4th century, the Romans besieged the city of Veii. The situation with Troy is repeated almost one to one: the war (the siege of a well-fortified city) went on for ten years, but the city fell thanks to some kind of military cunning of the Romans. Historians pointed to an undermining under the powerful walls of the city, but no traces of such an undermining were discovered by any excavations. Some kind of betrayal is possible: Russians are masters at choosing friends and believing all sorts of scum who swear friendship and loyalty. And no treachery was expected from the Roman brothers. But a new period in history was beginning - the period of the greatness and success of Rome.
A century later, in beginning of III V. BC e. There were very few Etruscans remaining on the peninsula. Most of the people, led by leaders who did not want to humble themselves, left the land and, having made their way through the Gauls to Brutia, to the Veneti brothers, left Italy forever.
Many, then and now, are wondering why the Etruscans fell, why a period of weakness and lack of resistance began. Probably, defeat after defeat occurred because, as some historians have found out, including A.S. Khomyakov, the Etruscan people (like the Russians today) consisted of several different nations, who were prevented by something from forming a single fist. Perhaps this is true.
Be that as it may, the historical truth remained with Rome.
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The question of the Etruscan language is a problem that, despite numerous attempts to solve it, continues to puzzle scientists. For centuries, the greatest authorities in linguistics and comparative philology have tried to decipher the language that was spoken in Tuscia until the beginning of the Christian era and which the Etruscan priests used both in Tuscia and in Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e. However, in other areas there was no shortage of discoveries that allowed us to understand idioms that were apparently even more difficult than the Etruscan ones. More than a hundred years ago, Egyptian hieroglyphs were deciphered. About ten years ago, the pictographic writing of the Hittites was deciphered; most recently, the language spoken by the Mycenaeans in 2000-1000. BC e., known as Linear B. Let us begin to consider the problem of the Etruscan language - what progress has been made in deciphering it and what obstacles remain in the way of its interpretation.
Sources
Came down to us Etruscan linguistic material is quite extensive. Fertile land Tuscany gave us about ten thousand inscriptions, carved or written on all kinds of objects and works of art - mirrors, tombs, vases, statues, paintings and ceramics, on columns, funerary urns and sarcophagi. 
These are epigraphic texts, and their large number should not deceive us: in fact almost all of them come down to a few words. Nine-tenths of all inscriptions are gravestones, these short epitaphs tell us only the name of the deceased who his parents were and at what age he died. We can read them without any difficulty, since Etruscan alphabet does not present any difficulties; For centuries, amateurs and experts alike have deciphered these obscure texts with ease. Problems arise when we encounter longer inscriptions, but, unfortunately, they come across very rarely. In fact, we know of only about ten texts consisting of more than one line; and only two - one is carved on tiles found in Capua, and second - on a tombstone (cippus) found near Perugia, - consist of about a hundred words.
Rice. 7. Etruscan alphabet - archaic and late versions(second and third columns), and the Greek alphabet, which served as a model for him and transcription (first and fourth columns).
To these should be added quite long handwritten text. Oddly enough, it is written on twelve canvas bandages, in which a mummy from the Greco-Roman period was swaddled, found in Alexandria and kept in Zagreb Museum. This is the resemblance canvas (linen) book, which found a completely unexpected application. In it one and a half thousand words, However, its actual dictionary is only five hundred words due to repetitions. However, this is still quite a lot, and the text on the Zagreb mummy is very important for the research of etruscologists. We were able to almost certainly establish what was before us something like a sacred calendar, listing religious ceremonies, which should be performed in honor of the gods. The text is divided into chapters, and the general meaning of the various expressions is known. But many points are unclear, and in general this fundamental the text has never been deciphered.
To these direct sources of information on the Etruscan language, we must add other sources, including indirect ones, but no less valuable. There are glossaries Etruscan words, compiled by ancient authors, in particular the compiler Hesychius of Alexandria. Sir Thomas Dempster, whom we have already mentioned as one of the pioneers of Etruscology, writing in 1616-1619. his great work on Etruria, took care to include this invaluable material, which in our time remains one of the few reliable sources. Yes, we know that "aisoi" - "aisoi" in Etruscan it is “ gods"; capus - “capys” - “falcon”; falado - “falado” - “sky”; lanista - “lanista” - “gladiator”, a word that passed into Latin, like subulo - "subulo" - "flautist". To this we can add the names of the months contained in "Liber glossarum" of the 8th century . Name June – acllus – “aclus” – appears in the form of "acale" on the Zagreb mummy. All this is very valuable material, but from it we learn the meaning of no more than thirty words.
In the most recent research, the known epigraphic material has been supplemented by excavations carried out in different parts of Tuscany and by chance discoveries. But new discoveries do not bring us any closer to such a desired solution; however, from the inscriptions brought to light, we now and then learn valuable information about the history of Etruscan cities and various aspects Etruscan language.
The most important finds were made on the borders proper Etruscan territory, in Pompeii and Latium. In the winter of 1942-1943. Mayuri – an outstanding archaeologist whose name will always be associated with scientific excavations in Pompeii, Herculaneum and Campania, - discovered in Pompeii under the foundation of the Temple of Apollo a garbage pit with various items, dated 550-460. BC e., including fragments Bucchero pottery with Etruscan inscriptions. Mayuri immediately recognized them as archaic initiations with expressions like “mini mulivanishe” = “mini muluvanice” – “dedicated (signed) me...”. Hence, around 500 BC e. in Pompeii there lived people who spoke Etruscan; This fact is probably associated with the period of short-lived political and commercial control of the Etruscans over the city in the interval between the two periods of Greek domination, which occurred in VI and V centuries BC. e.
Etruscan hegemony over Latium and Rome in the last decades of the 6th century mentioned in several Greco-Latin literary sources. Some people question it without any reason, because the fact of Etruscan cultural influence in archaic Latium is confirmed by archaeological discoveries, and the presence of the Etruscans can be easily determined from the inscriptions found in Satricum and in Rome at the foot of the Capitol.
Some languages were initially more difficult to understand than Etruscan. In fact, they contained two unknown elements: on the one hand, the alphabet, and on the other, the meaning of words. An example is the decrypted Linear B.. True, behind this letter in reality was hiding dialect closely related to ancient Greek and therefore familiar to people who have tried to decipher it.
In the case of the Etruscan language, there remains only one unknown element is the language itself. The Etruscan alphabet does not present any serious difficulties these days, and its close relationship with the Greek alphabet has long been known to everyone. The last Etruscan symbol that caused difficulties was the “+” sign, which was incorrectly interpreted as a “T”, – was defined in 1936 by Eva Fiesel as hissing sound - X. Therefore, we can easily read Etruscan inscriptions, even those that we do not understand at all.
There is a problem with the Etruscan alphabet, but purely historical nature. Could the fact that the Etruscans borrowed a certain type of alphabet from the Greeks somehow explain the mystery of their origins?
The archaic Greek alphabets can be divided into two large groups, known as the Western and Eastern alphabets of the earth, – Alphabet of the Marcigliana d'Albegni, dating back to around 700 BC. e., has a distinctly Western character. But how was this alphabet borrowed?
Proponents of the theory eastern origin The Etruscans believe that they borrowed this alphabet when they lived in their native Anatolia, and this argument seems very reasonable.
The Marcigliana d'Albegni alphabet also includes three sibilants of Phoenician origin, in particular the sign called "samesh", which, as far as we know, was not included in any of the Western Greek alphabets.
So borrowing Etruscan alphabet occurred in the period even before the division of the Greek alphabets into Western and eastern group, that is before the beginning Greek colonization in Italy.
According to this hypothesis, The Etruscans could only borrow the alphabet before their migration to the west. However, no matter how strong this argument may be, it cannot be decisive, since we know the Greek alphabets of southern Italy are younger than the alphabet of Marcigliana d'Albegni.
In more old Etruscan alphabets may have contained the sign “samesh”, which later, like and in Etruria, fell out of use. Therefore, we cannot exclude the possibility that the Etruscans borrowed their alphabet from a Greek colony in the south of the Apennine Peninsula, for example from Cumea, where they used Chalcidian alphabet, having many analogies with Etruscan. None of these hypotheses can be refuted, and it is very difficult to make a choice in favor of one option or another.
Methods of text interpretation
Now we come to the complex and still unresolved the problem of the meaning of Etruscan inscriptions, which even a student can easily read after several months of study and practice. We are sorely lacking any bilingual texts; the presence of such texts would be a tremendous help for research, even if it would not allow us to come to clear conclusions. However, the Etruscan Rosetta Stone has not yet been found, and we can only summarize the attempts of researchers, whose perseverance was not always rewarded by fate.
Since the end of the 19th century, this problem has been known to us from a methodological point of view. You can try to figure out hidden meaning Etruscan texts in two ways: either the so-called etymological and deductive method, when the Etruscan language is compared with any already known language, considered related to Etruscan, either the so-called combinatorial, or inductive method; the latter method does not require external comparisons and is limited to the study of the Etruscan language through itself, say, by comparing similar terms and formulations used in various texts, attempts are made to find out the meaning of the words and phrases in question. 
We must admit that etymological method brought almost no results, up to the present time. All attempts to find any similarities between the Etruscan language and any other idioms have proven fruitless. Required big head only to list all the keys to the Etruscan language that have been offered by amateurs and specialists. 
Attempts have been made to decipher the Etruscan language by comparing it with Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Albanian, Basque, Hungarian and Anatolian, to name just the best-known variants. (And russian?). We must submit to the obvious. As far as we can tell at present, Etruscan language is not included in any of the known language families and he does not even have distant relatives, let alone close relatives. This does not mean that the etymological method is completely useless - it just needs to be used carefully and in a very limited area. Because the Etruscan was spoken in the center of the peninsula, this language was not completely divorced from the surrounding dialects. Between Etruscan, Latin and Umbrian languages exchanges and borrowings occurred as a result of contacts between different civilizations, which were not only useful, but also inevitable. Analysis of such borrowings sometimes allows us to explain one set of terms in terms of another.
Judging by the continuous failures deductive method Etruscan language does not seem to belong to the great family Indo-European languages. The presence in Etruscan of some words of Indo-European origin, such as “nefts” - “nefts” - “nepos” (grandson), “sak” - “sac” - “sacni”, reminiscent of the Latin “sanctus” (holy) and Umbrian "saahta", and "tur" (to give), similar to Greek " doron" — "doron" - to give, does not pose a mystery, since these are actually borrowings that came into Etruscan from geographically neighboring languages. Several more examples can be given, solely to prove the weak penetration of Indo-European elements into the Etruscan vocabulary over the centuries. In fact, it would be strange if this did not happen. But There is nothing Indo-European either in the structure of the Etruscan sentence or in the system of verbs as a whole. For example, it is impossible to distinguish between active and passive voices. Concerning conjugations of the Etruscan language, then they do not correspond to the harmonious system of Indo-European conjugations.
Besides Greco-Latin glosses, we can understand quite big number Etruscan words. Why does this happen if, as we have already established, the etymological method has almost completely failed? These specific results were obtained by analyzing and comparing short epigraphic inscriptions. At the same time, a number of conclusions can be drawn by paying attention to what objects the inscriptions are made on.
Thanks to grave inscriptions discovered in the same tomb, by comparative analysis we found out the meaning of the basic words denoting kinship - clan - “clan” (son, knee), sech - “sech” (daughter), nefts - “nefts” (grandson), ati - “ati” (mother); But the word for father is still unknown. The same inscriptions make it easy to find out the meaning of a constantly repeated word "lupuse" — "lupuce" - "he is dead." From phrases that tell the age of the deceased, we learn the meaning of the word "avils" — "avils" (years). So gradually we figured out the meaning of a very limited but basic vocabulary that allows us to accurately understand such short epitaphs as “ Partunus Vel Velthurus Satlnal-c Ramthas clan avils lupu XXIIX", what does it mean "Vel Partunu, son of Velthur and Ramtha Satlnia, died at the age of 28"(Corpus inscriptionum etruscarum, 5425).
Difficulties arise when gravestone inscriptions become longer and contain information about the life and successes of the deceased or when specific inscriptions are dedicated to an object or monument. Meaning of most used Etruscan we don't know the words, and the combinatorial method, even used with the utmost care and caution, does not allow penetration into true meaning terms used and ideas expressed.
However, thanks to an ingenious discovery, it became possible to use another auxiliary a method known as bilingual, or parallel text method. It becomes clear that in different periods there was mutual influence between the peoples inhabiting the Apennine Peninsula: Etruscans, Latins, Osco-Umbrians and Greeks. This brings us to the concept of relative unity and cultural community ancient Italy. Yes, still unclear ritual formulas or prayers, found in Etruscan texts, can be compared with Latin and Umbrian rituals, and there are certainly deep and formal analogies between them. This method has already been used, not without success, for the interpretation of long Etruscan texts on Capuan tiles and Zagreb mummy. A comparison of the ritual rules described in the last text with the short Roman prayers that Cato tells us in his essay “On Agriculture” and poetic prayers on Umbrian tablets from Gubbio, allows us to explain, at least in in general terms, some passages and formulas of Etruscan ritual.
Naturally, the application of this bilingual method also requires the greatest caution. Here, as in the entire field of Etruscan linguistics, research must be carried out with the greatest possible caution and an ever-vigilant critical attitude. However, the first results obtained by the new comparative method and thanks to the creation of somewhat artificial bilingual texts, are very encouraging. Since the new method has recently been developed, much can be expected from its further application.
Results
Etruscan linguistics has been actively developing lately, and therefore it is not easy to say exactly which results can be considered certain and which are subject to revision. Therefore, we will limit ourselves to a general overview.
Of course, we are most familiar with Etruscan phonetics. Etruscan transcription of well-known names from Greek mythology - names of heroes and gods- allows us to fully understand the main phonetic trends of the Etruscan language. In the early era, vocalization was more developed than in later periods, and therefore variations in vowel pronunciation are common. Yes, it's the same thing female name occurs in the form "Ramatha", "Rametha", "Ramutha" and "Ramtha". We note cases of vowel harmony, such as in Greek Klytaimestra matches the shape "Cluthumustha." In general, voiceless consonants tend to become aspirated sounds, which become fricatives. C goes to сh, t- V th, V ph And f. At the beginning of a word, an aspirated or fricative sound often turns into a simple aspirative h. Characteristic absence of voiced consonants b, d, g - they unknown in Etruscan language, at least in historical times. The stress is strictly fixed on the first syllable words, which often leads to syncopation of vowels in an unstressed syllable. This happens especially often in late period, and complex consonant clusters result. Greek "Alexandras"» the shapes on the Etruscan mirrors correspond “Alechsantre” - “Alechsantre”, “Elchantre” - “Elchantre”.
In the field of Etruscan morphology our knowledge is also essential. Thanks to the work of researchers such as Trombetti and his students, we know a lot important facts. Apparently, the structure of the Etruscan language was very different from the structure of the Indo-European languages. Suffixes used in word formation are interchangeable, and some grammatical categories are weakly expressed. Interesting fact - a superposition of various suffixes to express a specific grammatical function. Yes, extremely common Etruscan name Lar - Larth has two genitive cases (whom?) - Lartal and Lartals - Larthal and Larthals– the last form is a declension of an already changed word form. The actual types of declination are not easy to reconstruct, but we can distinguish two groups by shape genitive case , which ends with either s, on either l.
Etruscan pronouns: I - mi (mi), me - mini (mini)
you - ti (ti)
he\she - an (an)
we are mi- r (world;"the whole world")
they - ein (ein; enti)
relative pronoun - you - fas, fashe (fas, fashe)
plural suffix numbers (for animate) -r(eg. Tau-ri - Tauri - Scythians)
plural suffix (for inanimate) -hwa -xva(e.g. wealth va)
It is possible to define some personal pronouns - mi and mini - first person forms, demonstrative pronouns and some particles. It's a shame that it's a mystery the first six numerals, carved on two dice stored in the Cabinet of Medals has still not been solved, although there is hope that modern researchers will soon succeed. Serious problem still represent Etruscan verbs. Many forms derived from verbal roots have a nominal category. The only clearly identified form is the third person singular perfect form in -se: “mulvenice” - “mulvenice” means “dedicated”, “turche” - “turce” - “gave”.
In semantic terms, we just talked about deciphering a certain number of Etruscan words using various methods. In general it is already clear the meaning of about one hundred roots of Etruscan words has been determined. They allow us to more or less definitely interpret very short gravestone inscriptions that repeat the same wording. As soon as words of more complex meaning appear in eulogies of the dead or in longer inscriptions - words not found in short epitaphs - literal translation becomes impossible. We can often understand to which semantic sphere a particular word belongs, but we are not able to give its exact translation. There is still an ongoing debate regarding three words that undoubtedly mean three highest positions in Etruscan cities: “zilat” - “zilath” or “zilch” - “zilch”, “purtne” - “purthne” and “marunich” - “marunuch”; but, despite the efforts of the best scientists, they exact value still dont clear.
In the last few years, research into large ritual texts on tiles from Santa Maria di Capua And on the Zagreb mummy were especially intense. The conclusions of scientists are beyond doubt: these texts define the necessary order of sacrifices, and relevant rituals are listed extremely detailed, which is very reminiscent of the Umbrian rituals recorded on the tablets from Gubbio. Zagreb text determines the necessary sequence of ceremonies, obviously being religious calendar, in which months and days of religious holidays are listed. Ritual from Capua is of a funerary nature and gives us an idea of the famous books of Acheron where it was kept Etruscan doctrine of death and the afterlife.
Was incomprehensible punctuation of Etruscan texts, seemed extremely confusing. Its confident interpretation was made quite recently, making it possible to more in-depth study such texts and somewhat simplifying their understanding. That's exactly what happened with text on Capuan tiles, which, in addition, was badly damaged, was practically impossible to decipher until the problem with punctuation was solved.
Dots follow consonants at the end of a syllable, and denote voiced consonants at the beginning of words. This strange system is not found in the most ancient inscriptions and is known to us only from the middle of the 6th century. Where it came from is still unclear. We would stray too far from the topic if we tried to reproduce the various interesting hypotheses on this matter. One way or another, the system is now clear, which was another step towards solving Etruscan mysteries.
Immediate prospects
All of the above illustrates the current state of research into the Etruscan language. Scientific methods have certainly been improved and enriched; researchers no longer wander in the dark. At the same time, in all areas of Etruscology there is slow but undoubted progress. There is an opportunity to create grammar of the Etruscan language, and it is compiled. Of course, there is still a lot of unknown in it, but we also learned a large number of clear rules. Translation of texts causes the most problems. Our Erussian vocabulary is very small, and this seriously complicates attempts to interpret the texts at our disposal.
What can we expect from the future? It is difficult to answer such a question, since the answer depends on an unpredictable factor - the number and meaning of the inscriptions, which will become known through chance finds or organized excavations. If the material at the disposal of researchers is not enriched, progress in Etruscan linguistics will certainly be very slow, and each new achievement will require enormous effort. It is extremely unlikely that recent comparisons with any other known languages will explain the nature of the origin of the Etruscan language. Only the methods listed above will lead to success, although progress will be constantly accompanied by difficulties and obstacles.
However, there is no reason not to believe that the situation will not change thanks to the discoveries - either in the East or in Etruria - of unexpected documents that will make it possible to understand the mystery of the Etruscan language or some of its aspects. Archeology also has more precise methods at its disposal. The result of new research may be surprises Anatolian plateau, which is still little studied. Or from the Etruscan land, which archaeologists continue to dig up with zeal, inspired by the ever-increasing discoveries: suddenly a document will be found that will give the key to the solution - a really lengthy text, or even bilingual in Etruscan and some already known language, for example Latin or Greek. Similar bilingual documents probably existed; maybe they were glued to the walls of the houses of Etruscan cities, where, after the conquest by Rome, Tuscans and Romans coexisted for centuries, leading the same way of life and obeying the same laws.
Until recently, excavations were limited to tombs, cemeteries, where the researcher could be sure that if discovered, he would come across perfectly preserved objects of a large artistic value. On rocky plateaus, where Tuscan cities stood the discoveries are less spectacular: the pickaxe brings to light only the ruins of religious and civil buildings. But history and linguistics have much to expect from such research.
In the ancient land of Tarquinia Astonishing panegyrics have recently been discovered, written in Latin, but telling about the life and achievements of Etruscan citizens of distant eras: the heirs of these people wished to honor their ancestors in solemn inscriptions of praise. These texts, relatively short and much corrupted, still give us important information about social institutions in Etruscan cities. It’s easy to imagine what a gift similar texts written in two languages would be for a linguist. The result will be the solution to a centuries-old riddle.