Magnet
Magnets, like the toys stuck to your refrigerator at home or the horseshoes you were shown in school, have several unusual features. First of all, magnets are attracted to iron and steel objects, such as the door of a refrigerator. In addition, they have poles.
Bring two magnets closer to each other. The south pole of one magnet will be attracted to the north pole of the other. The north pole of one magnet repels the north pole of the other.
Magnetic and electric current
The magnetic field is generated by electric current, that is, by moving electrons. Electrons moving around an atomic nucleus carry a negative charge. The directed movement of charges from one place to another is called electric current. An electric current creates a magnetic field around itself.
This field, with its lines of force, like a loop, covers the path of electric current, like an arch that stands over the road. For example, when a table lamp is turned on and a current flows through the copper wires, that is, the electrons in the wire jump from atom to atom and a weak magnetic field is created around the wire. In high-voltage transmission lines, the current is much stronger than in a table lamp, so a very strong magnetic field is formed around the wires of such lines. Thus, electricity and magnetism are two sides of the same coin - electromagnetism.
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Electron movement and magnetic field
The movement of electrons within each atom creates a tiny magnetic field around it. An electron moving in orbit forms a vortex-like magnetic field. But most of the magnetic field is created not by the movement of the electron in orbit around the nucleus, but by the movement of the atom around its axis, the so-called spin of the electron. Spin characterizes the rotation of an electron around an axis, like the movement of a planet around its axis.
Why materials are magnetic and not magnetic
In most materials, such as plastics, the magnetic fields of individual atoms are randomly oriented and cancel each other out. But in materials like iron, the atoms can be oriented so that their magnetic fields add up, so a piece of steel becomes magnetized. Atoms in materials are connected in groups called magnetic domains. The magnetic fields of one individual domain are oriented in one direction. That is, each domain is a small magnet.
It is difficult to find a field in which magnets would not be used. Educational toys, useful accessories and complex industrial equipment are just a small fraction of the truly huge number of options for their use. At the same time, few people know how magnets work and what is the secret of their attractive force. To answer these questions, you need to dive into the basics of physics, but don't worry - the dive will be short and shallow. But after getting acquainted with the theory, you will learn what a magnet consists of, and the nature of its magnetic force will become much clearer to you.
Electron is the smallest and simplest magnet
Any substance consists of atoms, and atoms, in turn, consist of a nucleus around which positively and negatively charged particles - protons and electrons - rotate. The subject of our interest is precisely electrons. Their movement creates an electric current in the conductors. In addition, each electron is a miniature source of a magnetic field and, in fact, a simple magnet. It’s just that in the composition of most materials the direction of movement of these particles is chaotic. As a result, their charges balance each other. And when the direction of rotation of a large number of electrons in their orbits coincides, a constant magnetic force arises.
Magnet device
So, we've sorted out the electrons. And now we are very close to answering the question of how magnets are structured. In order for a material to attract an iron piece of rock, the direction of the electrons in its structure must coincide. In this case, the atoms form ordered regions called domains. Each domain has a pair of poles: north and south. A constant line of movement of magnetic forces passes through them. They enter the south pole and exit the north pole. This arrangement means that the north pole will always attract the south pole of another magnet, while like poles will repel.
How a magnet attracts metals
Magnetic force does not affect all substances. Only certain materials can be attracted: iron, nickel, cobalt and rare earth metals. An iron piece of rock is not a natural magnet, but when exposed to a magnetic field, its structure is rearranged into domains with north and south poles. Thus, steel can be magnetized and retain its changed structure for a long time.
How are magnets made?
We have already figured out what a magnet consists of. It is a material in which the orientation of the domains coincides. A strong magnetic field or electric current can be used to impart these properties to the rock. At the moment, people have learned to make very powerful magnets, the force of attraction of which is tens of times greater than their own weight and lasts for hundreds of years. We are talking about rare earth supermagnets based on neodymium alloy. Such products weighing 2-3 kg can hold objects weighing 300 kg or more. What does a neodymium magnet consist of and what causes such amazing properties?
Simple steel is not suitable for successfully producing products with a powerful force of attraction. This requires a special composition that will allow the domains to be ordered as efficiently as possible and maintain the stability of the new structure. To understand what a neodymium magnet consists of, imagine a metal powder of neodymium, iron and boron, which, using industrial installations, will be magnetized by a strong field and sintered into a rigid structure. To protect this material, it is coated with a durable galvanized shell. This production technology allows us to produce products of various sizes and shapes. In the assortment of the World of Magnets online store you will find a huge variety of magnetic products for work, entertainment and everyday life.
What causes some metals to be attracted to a magnet? Why doesn't a magnet attract all metals? Why does one side of a magnet attract and the other repel metal? And what makes neodymium metals so strong?
In order to answer all these questions, you must first define the magnet itself and understand its principle. Magnets are bodies that have the ability to attract iron and steel objects and repel some others due to the action of their magnetic field. The magnetic field lines pass from the south pole of the magnet and exit from the north pole. A permanent or hard magnet constantly creates its own magnetic field. An electromagnet or soft magnet can create magnetic fields only in the presence of a magnetic field and only for a short time while it is in the zone of action of a particular magnetic field. Electromagnets create magnetic fields only when electricity passes through the wire of the coil.
Until recently, all magnets were made from metal elements or alloys. The composition of the magnet determined its power. For example:
Ceramic magnets, like those used in refrigerators and for carrying out primitive experiments, contain iron ore in addition to ceramic composite materials. Most ceramic magnets, also called iron magnets, do not have much attractive force.
"Alnico magnets" consist of alloys of aluminum, nickel and cobalt. They are more powerful than ceramic magnets, but much weaker than some rare elements.
Neodymium magnets are composed of iron, boron and the element neodymium, which is rarely found in nature.
Cobalt-samarium magnets include cobalt and the rare elements samarium. Over the past few years, scientists have also discovered magnetic polymers, or so-called plastic magnets. Some of them are very flexible and plastic. However, some only work at extremely low temperatures, while others can only lift very light materials, such as metal filings. But to have the properties of a magnet, each of these metals needs a force.
Making magnets
Many modern electronic devices are based on magnets. The use of magnets for the production of devices began relatively recently, because magnets that exist in nature do not have the necessary strength to operate equipment, and only when people managed to make them more powerful did they become an indispensable element in production. Ironstone, a type of magnetite, is considered the strongest magnet found in nature. It is capable of attracting small objects such as paper clips and staples.Somewhere in the 12th century, people discovered that iron ore could be used to magnetize iron particles - this is how people created the compass. They also noticed that if you constantly move a magnet along an iron needle, the needle becomes magnetized. The needle itself is pulled in a north-south direction. Later, the famous scientist William Gilbert explained that the movement of the magnetized needle in the north-south direction occurs due to the fact that our planet Earth is very similar to a huge magnet with two poles - the north and south poles. The compass needle is not as strong as many permanent magnets used today. But the physical process that magnetizes compass needles and pieces of neodymium alloy is almost the same. It's all about microscopic regions called magnetic domains, which are part of the structure of ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt and nickel. Each domain is a tiny, separate magnet with a north and south pole. In non-magnetized ferromagnetic materials, each of the north poles points in a different direction. Magnetic domains pointing in opposite directions cancel each other out, so the material itself does not produce a magnetic field.
In magnets, on the other hand, virtually all, or at least most, of the magnetic domains point in one direction. Instead of canceling each other out, microscopic magnetic fields combine together to create one large magnetic field. The more domains pointing in the same direction, the stronger the magnetic field. The magnetic field of each domain extends from its north pole to its south pole.
This explains why, if you break a magnet in half, you get two small magnets with north and south poles. This also explains why opposite poles attract - lines of force come out of the north pole of one magnet and into the south pole of the other, causing the metals to attract and creating one larger magnet. Repulsion occurs according to the same principle - the lines of force move in opposite directions, and as a result of such a collision, the magnets begin to repel each other.
Making Magnets
In order to make a magnet, you simply need to “direct” the magnetic domains of the metal in one direction. To do this, you need to magnetize the metal itself. Let's consider the case with a needle again: if the magnet is constantly moved in one direction along the needle, the direction of all its areas (domains) is aligned. However, you can align magnetic domains in other ways, for example:Place the metal in a strong magnetic field in a north-south direction. -- Move the magnet in a north-south direction, constantly hitting it with a hammer, aligning its magnetic domains. -- Pass an electric current through the magnet.
Scientists suggest that two of these methods explain how natural magnets form in nature. Other scientists argue that magnetic iron ore becomes a magnet only when it is struck by lightning. Still others believe that iron ore in nature turned into a magnet at the time of the formation of the Earth and has survived to this day.
The most common method of making magnets today is the process of placing metal in a magnetic field. The magnetic field rotates around the given object and begins to align all its domains. However, at this point there may be a lag in one of these related processes, which is called hysteresis. It may take several minutes to get the domains to change direction in one direction. Here's what happens during this process: Magnetic regions begin to rotate, lining up along the north-south magnetic field line.
Areas that are already oriented in a north-south direction become larger, while the surrounding areas become smaller. The domain walls, the boundaries between neighboring domains, gradually expand, causing the domain itself to grow larger. In a very strong magnetic field, some domain walls disappear completely.
It turns out that the power of the magnet depends on the amount of force used to change the direction of the domains. The strength of the magnets depends on how difficult it was to align these domains. Materials that are difficult to magnetize retain their magnetism for longer periods, while materials that are easy to magnetize tend to demagnetize quickly.
You can reduce the strength of a magnet or demagnetize it completely if you direct the magnetic field in the opposite direction. You can also demagnetize a material if you heat it to the Curie point, i.e. the temperature limit of the ferroelectric state at which the material begins to lose its magnetism. High temperature demagnetizes the material and excites magnetic particles, disturbing the equilibrium of the magnetic domains.
Transporting magnets
Large, powerful magnets are used in many areas of human activity - from recording data to conducting current through wires. But the main difficulty in using them in practice is how to transport the magnets. During transportation, magnets may damage other objects, or other objects may damage them, making them difficult or practically impossible to use. In addition, magnets constantly attract various ferromagnetic debris, which is then very difficult and sometimes dangerous to get rid of.Therefore, during transportation, very large magnets are placed in special boxes or ferromagnetic materials are simply transported, from which magnets are made using special equipment. In essence, such equipment is a simple electromagnet.
Why do magnets “stick” to each other?
You probably know from your physics classes that when an electric current passes through a wire, it creates a magnetic field. In permanent magnets, a magnetic field is also created by the movement of an electric charge. But the magnetic field in magnets is formed not due to the movement of current through the wires, but due to the movement of electrons.
Many people believe that electrons are tiny particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom, like planets orbiting the sun. But as quantum physicists explain, the movement of electrons is much more complex than this. First, electrons fill the shell-shaped orbitals of an atom, where they behave as both particles and waves. Electrons have charge and mass and can move in different directions.
And although the electrons of an atom do not move long distances, such movement is enough to create a tiny magnetic field. And because the paired electrons move in opposite directions, their magnetic fields cancel each other out. In the atoms of ferromagnetic elements, on the contrary, electrons are not paired and move in one direction. For example, iron has as many as four unconnected electrons that move in one direction. Because they have no resisting fields, these electrons have an orbital magnetic moment. A magnetic moment is a vector that has its own magnitude and direction.
In metals such as iron, the orbital magnetic moment causes neighboring atoms to align along north-south lines of force. Iron, like other ferromagnetic materials, has a crystalline structure. As they cool after the casting process, groups of atoms from parallel spinning orbits line up within the crystalline structure. This is how magnetic domains are formed.
You may have noticed that the materials that make good magnets are also capable of attracting magnets themselves. This happens because magnets attract materials with unpaired electrons that spin in the same direction. In other words, the quality that turns a metal into a magnet also attracts the metal to magnets. Many other elements are diamagnetic - they are made of unpaired atoms that create a magnetic field that slightly repels a magnet. Several materials do not interact with magnets at all.
Magnetic field measurement
You can measure the magnetic field using special instruments, such as a flux meter. It can be described in several ways: -- Magnetic field lines are measured in webers (WB). In electromagnetic systems, this flux is compared to current.
Field strength, or flux density, is measured in Tesla (T) or in the unit of Gauss (G). One Tesla is equal to 10,000 Gauss.
Field strength can also be measured in webers per square meter. -- The magnitude of the magnetic field is measured in amperes per meter or oersteds.
Myths about the magnet
We deal with magnets all day long. They are, for example, in computers: the hard drive records all information using a magnet, and magnets are also used in many computer monitors. Magnets are also an integral part of cathode ray tube televisions, speakers, microphones, generators, transformers, electric motors, cassette tapes, compasses and automobile speedometers. Magnets have amazing properties. They can induce current in the wires and cause the electric motor to rotate. A strong enough magnetic field can lift small objects or even small animals. Magnetic levitation trains develop high speed only due to magnetic push. According to Wired magazine, some people even insert tiny neodymium magnets into their fingers to detect electromagnetic fields.Magnetic resonance imaging devices, which operate using a magnetic field, allow doctors to examine the internal organs of patients. Doctors also use electromagnetic pulsed fields to see if broken bones heal properly after an impact. A similar electromagnetic field is used by astronauts who are in zero gravity for a long time in order to prevent muscle strain and bone breaking.
Magnets are also used in veterinary practice to treat animals. For example, cows often suffer from traumatic reticulopericarditis, a complex disease that develops in these animals, which often swallow small metal objects along with their feed that can damage the stomach walls, lungs or heart of the animal. Therefore, often before feeding cows, experienced farmers use a magnet to clean their food from small inedible parts. However, if the cow has already ingested harmful metals, then the magnet is given to her along with her food. Long, thin alnico magnets, also called "cow magnets", attract all metals and prevent them from harming the cow's stomach. Such magnets really help to cure a sick animal, but it is still better to ensure that no harmful elements get into the cow’s food. As for people, they are contraindicated from swallowing magnets, since once they get into different parts of the body, they will still be attracted, which can lead to blocking the blood flow and destruction of soft tissues. Therefore, when a person swallows a magnet, he needs surgery.
Some people believe that magnetic therapy is the future of medicine as it is one of the simplest yet effective treatments for many diseases. Many people have already become convinced of the action of a magnetic field in practice. Magnetic bracelets, necklaces, pillows and many other similar products are better than pills in treating a wide variety of diseases - from arthritis to cancer. Some doctors also believe that a glass of magnetized water as a preventive measure can eliminate the appearance of most unpleasant ailments. In America, about $500 million is spent annually on magnetic therapy, and people around the world spend an average of $5 billion on such treatment.
Proponents of magnetic therapy have different interpretations of the usefulness of this treatment method. Some say that the magnet is able to attract iron contained in hemoglobin in the blood, thereby improving blood circulation. Others claim that the magnetic field somehow changes the structure of neighboring cells. But at the same time, scientific studies have not confirmed that the use of static magnets can relieve a person from pain or cure a disease.
Some proponents also suggest that all people use magnets to purify water in their homes. As the manufacturers themselves say, large magnets can purify hard water by removing all harmful ferromagnetic alloys from it. However, scientists say that it is not ferromagnets that make water hard. Moreover, two years of using magnets in practice did not show any changes in the composition of water.
But even though magnets are unlikely to have a healing effect, they are still worth studying. Who knows, perhaps in the future we will discover the useful properties of magnets.
Our understanding of the basic structure of matter has evolved gradually. The atomic theory of the structure of matter showed that not everything in the world works as it seems at first glance, and that complexities at one level are easily explained at the next level of detail. Throughout the twentieth century, after the discovery of the structure of the atom (that is, after the appearance of the Bohr model of the atom), the efforts of scientists were focused on unraveling the structure of the atomic nucleus.
It was originally assumed that there were only two types of particles in the atomic nucleus - neutrons and protons. However, starting in the 1930s, scientists increasingly began to obtain experimental results that were inexplicable within the framework of the classical Bohr model. This led scientists to believe that the nucleus is actually a dynamic system of diverse particles, whose rapid formation, interaction and decay play a key role in nuclear processes. By the early 1950s, the study of these elementary particles, as they were called, had reached the forefront of physical science."
elementy.ru/trefil/46
“The general theory of interactions is based on the principle of continuity.
The first step in creating a general theory was the materialization of the abstract principle of continuity to the really existing world that we observe around us. As a result of such materialization, the author came to the conclusion about the existence of the internal structure of the physical vacuum. A vacuum is a space continuously filled with fundamental particles - bions - the various movements, arrangements and associations of which can explain all the richness and diversity of nature and mind.
As a result, a new general theory was created, which, based on one principle, and therefore identical, consistent and logically connected visual (material), rather than virtual particles, describes natural phenomena and phenomena of the human mind.
The main thesis is the principle of continuity.
The principle of continuity means that not a single process that actually exists in nature can begin spontaneously and end without a trace. All processes that can be described by mathematical formulas can only be calculated using continuous relationships or functions. All changes have their reasons, the speed of transmission of any interactions is determined by the properties of the environment in which objects interact. But these objects themselves, in turn, change the environment in which they are located and interact.
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A field is a set of elements for which arithmetic operations are defined. The field is also continuous - one element of the field passes into another smoothly, it is impossible to indicate the boundary between them.
This definition of the field also follows from the principle of continuity. It (definition) requires a description of the element responsible for all types of fields and interactions.
In the general theory of interactions, in contrast to the currently dominant theories of quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity, such an element is explicitly defined.
This element is bion. The entire space of the Universe, both vacuum and particles, consists of bions. A bion is an elementary dipole, that is, a particle consisting of two connected charges, identical in size, but different in sign. The total charge of the bion is zero. The detailed structure of the bion is shown on the page Structure of the physical vacuum.
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It is impossible to indicate the boundaries of the bion (a clear analogy with the Earth’s atmosphere, the boundary of which cannot be accurately determined), since all transitions are very, very smooth. Therefore, there is practically no internal friction between bions. However, the influence of such “friction” becomes noticeable at large distances, and is observed by us as a red shift.
Electric field in the general theory of interactions.
The existence of an electric field in any region of space will represent a zone of consistently located and oriented bions in a certain way.
b-i-o-n.ru/_mod_files/ce_image...
Magnetic field in the general theory of interactions.
The magnetic field will represent a certain dynamic configuration of the location and movement of bions.
b-i-o-n.ru/theory/elim/
An electric field is a region of space in which the physical vacuum has a certain ordered structure. In the presence of an electric field, the vacuum exerts a force on the test electric charge. This effect is due to the location of bions in a given region of space.
Unfortunately, we have not yet been able to penetrate the mystery of how an electric charge works. Otherwise, the following picture emerges. Any charge, let it be negative for example, creates the following orientation of bions around itself - an electrostatic field.
The main part of the energy belongs to the charge, which has a certain size. And the energy of the electric field is the energy of the ordered arrangement of bions (every order has an energy basis). It is also clear how distant charges “feel” each other. These “sensitive organs” are bions oriented in a certain way. Let us note another important conclusion. The rate of establishment of the electric field is determined by the speed of rotation of the bions so that they become oriented with respect to the charge as shown in the figure. And this explains why the speed of establishment of the electric field is equal to the speed of light: in both processes, bions must transfer rotation to each other.
Having taken the easy next step, we can say with confidence that the magnetic field represents the next dynamic configuration of bions.
b-i-o-n.ru/theory/elim
It is worth noting that the magnetic field does not manifest itself in any way until there are objects on which it is capable of influencing (a compass needle or an electric charge).
The principle of magnetic field superposition. The bion rotation axes occupy an intermediate position, depending on the direction and strength of the interacting fields.
The effect of a magnetic field on a moving charge.
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The magnetic field does not act on a charge at rest, because rotating bions will create oscillations of such a charge, but we will not be able to detect such oscillations due to their smallness.
Surprisingly, in not a single textbook did I find not only an answer, but even a question that obviously should arise in everyone who begins to study magnetic phenomena.
Here's the question. Why does the magnetic moment of a current-carrying circuit not depend on the shape of this circuit, but only on its area? I think that such a question is not asked precisely because no one knows the answer to it. Based on our ideas, the answer is obvious. The magnetic field of the circuit is the sum of the magnetic fields of bions. And the number of bions creating a magnetic field is determined by the area of the circuit and does not depend on its shape."
If you take a broader look, without going into theory, a magnet works by pulsating a magnetic field. Thanks to this pulsation, the orderliness of the movement of force particles, a general force arises that affects surrounding objects. The impact is transferred by a magnetic field, in which particles and quanta can also be released.
The bion theory distinguishes the bion as an elementary particle. You see how fundamental it is.
The graviton space theory identifies the graviton as the quantum of the entire universe. And gives the fundamental laws that govern the universe.
n-t.ru/tp/ns/tg.htm Theory of graviton space
“The dialectics of the development of science consists in the quantitative accumulation of such abstract concepts (“demons”), describing more and more new patterns of nature, which at a certain stage reaches a critical level of complexity. The resolution of such a crisis invariably requires a qualitative leap, a deep revision of basic concepts, removing “ demonicity" from accumulated abstractions, revealing their meaningful essence in the language of a new generalizing theory.
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TPG postulates the physical (actual) existence of a transitive space, the elements of which, within the framework of this theory, are called gravitons.
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Those. We assume that it is the physical space of gravitons (PG) that ensures the universal interconnection of physical objects accessible to our knowledge, and is the minimum necessary substance without which scientific knowledge is impossible in principle.
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TPG postulates the discreteness and fundamental indivisibility of gravitons, their absence of any internal structure. Those. The graviton, within the framework of the TPG, acts as an absolute elementary particle, close in this sense to the atom of Democritus. In a mathematical sense, a graviton is an empty set (null-set).
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The main and only property of a graviton is its ability to self-copy, generating a new graviton. This property defines a relation of strict imperfect order on the set of PGs: gi< gi+1, где gi – гравитон-родитель и gi+1 – дочерний гравитон, являющийся копией родителя. Это отношение интенсионально определяет ПГ как транзитивное и антирефлексивное множество, из чего следует также его асимметричность и антисимметричность.
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TPG postulates the continuity and maximum density of the PG, filling the entire universe accessible to knowledge in such a way that any physical object in this Universe can be associated with a non-empty subset of the PG, which uniquely determines the position of this object in the PG, and therefore in the Universe.
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PG is a metric space. As a natural PG metric, we can choose the minimum number of transitions from one neighboring graviton to another, necessary to close the transitive chain connecting a pair of gravitons, the distance between which we determine.
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The properties of the graviton allow us to talk about the quantum nature of this concept. The graviton is a quantum of motion, realized in the act of the graviton copying itself and the “birth” of a new graviton. In a mathematical sense, this act can be put in correspondence with adding one to an already existing natural number.
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Another consequence of the PG's own motion is resonance phenomena that generate virtual elementary particles, in particular photons of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
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Using the basic concepts of TPG, we have built a physical model of space, which is not a passive container of other physical objects, but itself actively changes and moves. Unfortunately, no conceivable instruments will give us the opportunity to directly study the activity of GHGs, since gravitons permeate all objects, interacting with the smallest elements of their internal structure. Nevertheless, we can obtain meaningful information about the movement of gravitons by studying the patterns and resonance phenomena of the so-called cosmic microwave background radiation, which is largely due to the activity of GHGs.
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The nature of gravitational interaction
“That gravity should be an intrinsic, inherent and essential attribute of matter, thereby enabling any body to act on another at a distance through a vacuum, without any intermediary by which and through which the action and force could be transmitted from one body to to another, it seems to me such a blatant absurdity that, in my deep conviction, not a single person who is at all experienced in philosophical matters and endowed with the ability to think will agree with it.” (from Newton's letter to Richard Bentley).
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Within the framework of TPG, gravity is deprived of its force nature and is completely defined precisely as the pattern of movement of physical objects that “bind” free gravitons with the entire volume of their internal structure, since gravitons freely penetrate any physical object, being integral elements of its internal structure. All physical objects “absorb” gravitons, distorting the isotropic proliferation of GHGs; it is due to this that fairly close and massive space objects form compact clusters, managing to compensate for the expansion of GHGs within the cluster. But these clusters themselves, separated by such volumes of GHGs, the proliferation of which they are unable to compensate, scatter the faster, the larger the volume of GHGs separating them. Those. the same mechanism determines both the effect of “attraction” and the effect of the expansion of galaxies.
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Let us now consider in more detail the mechanism of “absorption” of gravitons by physical objects. The intensity of such “absorption” significantly depends on the internal structure of objects and is determined by the presence of specific structures in this structure, as well as their number. The gravitational “absorption” of a free graviton is the simplest and weakest of such mechanisms, which does not require any special structures; a single graviton is involved in the act of such “absorption”. Any other type of interaction uses interaction particles corresponding to this type, defined on a certain subset of gravitons, therefore the efficiency of such interaction is much higher; in the act of interaction, many gravitons are “absorbed” along with the particle defined on them. Let us also note that in such interactions one of the objects must act in the same role as the PG plays in gravitational interaction, i.e. it must generate more and more new particles of a given interaction, using for such activity the very specific structures that we mentioned above. Thus, the general scheme of any interaction always remains the same, and the power of interaction is determined by the “volume” of interaction particles and the activity of the source generating them."
One can understand magnetic interaction as a model of the generation and absorption of elementary particles of a magnetic field. Moreover, the particles have different frequencies, and therefore a potential field is formed, consisting of tension levels, a rainbow. Particles “float” along these levels. They can be absorbed by other particles, for example, ions of the crystal lattice of some metals, but the influence of the magnetic field on them will continue. The metal is attracted to the body of the magnet.
Superstring theory, despite its name, paints a clear picture of the world. Better: it highlights the many trajectories of interaction in the world.
ergeal.ru/other/superstrings.htm Superstring Theory (Dmitry Polyakov)
“So, the string is a kind of primary creation in the visible Universe.
This object is not material, however, it can be approximately imagined in the form of some kind of stretched thread, rope or, for example, a violin string flying in ten-dimensional space-time.
Flying in ten dimensions, this extended object also experiences internal vibrations. From these vibrations (or octaves) all matter comes (and, as will become clear later, not only matter). Those. all the variety of particles in nature are simply different octaves of one ultimately primordial creation - the string. A good example of two such different octaves originating from a single string is gravity and light (gravitons and photons). True, there are some subtleties here - it is necessary to distinguish between the spectra of closed and open strings, but now these details have to be omitted.
So, how to study such an object, how ten dimensions arise, and how to find the correct compactification of ten dimensions to our four-dimensional world?
Not being able to “catch” the string, we follow its tracks and examine its trajectory. Just as the trajectory of a point is a curved line, the trajectory of a one-dimensional extended object (string) is a two-dimensional SURFACE.
Thus, mathematically, string theory is the dynamics of two-dimensional random surfaces embedded in higher dimensional space.
Each such surface is called a WORLD SHEET.
In general, all kinds of symmetries play an extremely important role in the Universe.
From the symmetry of a particular physical model, one can often draw the most important conclusions about its (model’s) dynamics, evolution, mutation, etc.
In String Theory, such a cornerstone symmetry is the so-called. REPARAMETRIZATION INVARIANCE (or “group of diffeomorphisms”). This invariance, speaking very roughly and approximately, means the following. Let us mentally imagine an observer “sat down” on one of the world sheets “swept” by a string. In his hands is a flexible ruler, with the help of which he examines the geometric properties of the surface of the World Sheet. So, the geometric properties of the surface obviously do not depend on the graduation of the ruler. The independence of the World Sheet structure from the scale of the “mental ruler” is called Reparameterization Invariance (or R-invariance).
Despite its apparent simplicity, this principle leads to extremely important consequences. First of all, is it valid at the quantum level?
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Spirits are fields (waves, vibrations, particles), the probability of observation of which is negative.
For a rationalist, this is, of course, absurd: after all, the classical probability of any event always lies between 0 (when the event certainly will not happen) and 1 (when, on the contrary, it will definitely happen).
The likelihood of Spirits appearing, however, is negative. This is one of the possible definitions of Spirits. Apophatic definition. In this regard, I am reminded of the definition of Love by Abba Dorotheus: “God is the center of a circle. And people are radii. Having loved God, people approach the Center like radii. Having loved each other, they approach God as the center.”
So, let's summarize the first results.
We met the Observer, who was placed on the World Sheet with a ruler. And the graduation of the ruler, at first glance, is arbitrary, and the World Sheet is indifferent to this Arbitrariness.
This Indifference (or symmetry) is called Reparameterization Invariance (R-invariance, group of diffeomorphisms).
The need to link Indifference with Uncertainty leads to the conclusion that the Universe is ten-dimensional.
In fact, everything is somewhat more complicated.
With just any ruler, of course, no one will let an observer onto the World List. The ten-dimensional world is bright, strict and does not tolerate any gag. For any gag with the World Sheet, the bastard’s ruler would be forever taken away and he would be well flogged, like a Protestant.
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But if the Observer is not a Protestant, he is given a Ruler determined once and for all, verified, unchanged for centuries, and with this strictly selected Single Ruler he is allowed onto the World List.
In Superstring Theory, this ritual is called "gauge locking."
As a result of fixing the calibration, the Faddeev-Popov Spirits arise.
It is these Spirits who hand the Ruler to the Observer.
However, the choice of calibration is just a purely exoteric, police function of the Faddeev-Popov Spirits. The exoteric, advanced mission of these Spirits is to choose the correct compactification and, subsequently, to generate solitons and Chaos in the compactified world.
How exactly this happens is a very subtle question and not completely clear; I will try to describe this process as briefly and clearly as possible, omitting technical details as much as possible.
All reviews on Superstring Theory contain the so-called. Theorem about the Absence of Spirits. This Theorem states that the Spirits, although they determine the choice of calibration, nevertheless do not directly influence the vibrations of the string (the vibrations that generate matter). In other words, according to the theorem, the spectrum of the string does not contain Spirits, i.e. The space of Spirits is completely separate from the emanations of matter, and Spirits are nothing more than an artifact of calibration fixation. We can say that these are Spirits - a consequence of the imperfection of the observer, which is in no way connected with the dynamics of the string. This is a classic result, more or less true in a number of cases. However, the applicability of this theorem is limited, because all known evidence does not take into account one extremely important nuance. This nuance is connected with the so-called. "violation of the symmetry of paintings."
What it is? Consider an arbitrary vibration of a string: for example, an emanation of light (photon). It turns out that there are several different ways to describe this emanation. Namely, in string theory, emanations are described using the so-called. "vertex operators". Each emanation corresponds to several supposedly equivalent vertex operators. These equivalent operators differ from each other by their “spirit numbers”, i.e. structure of Dukhov Faddeev-Popov.
Each such equivalent description of the same emanation is called a Picture. There is a so-called "conventional wisdom", insisting on the equivalence of Paintings, i.e. vertex operators with different wind numbers. This assumption is known as "picture-changing symmetry of vertex operators".
This "conventional wisdom" is tacitly implied in the proof of the Absence Theorem. However, a more careful analysis shows that this symmetry does not exist (more precisely, it exists in some cases and is broken in others). Due to the violation of the Symmetry of Pictures, the Theorem mentioned above is also violated in a number of cases. And this means - Spirits play a direct role in the vibrations of the string, the spaces of matter and Spirits are not independent, but are intertwined in the most subtle way.
The intersection of these spaces plays a crucial role in dynamic compactification and the formation of Chaos. "
Another vision of Superstring theory elementy.ru/trefil/21211
"Various versions of string theory are now considered as the main contenders for the title of a comprehensive universal theory that explains the nature of all things. And this is a kind of Holy Grail of theoretical physicists involved in the theory of elementary particles and cosmology. The universal theory (also the theory of all things) contains just a few equations that combine the entire body of human knowledge about the nature of interactions and the properties of the fundamental elements of matter from which the Universe is built.Today, string theory has been combined with the concept of supersymmetry, as a result of which the theory of superstrings was born, and today this is the maximum that what has been achieved in terms of unifying the theory of all four main interactions (forces acting in nature).
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For clarity, interacting particles can be considered the “bricks” of the universe, and carrier particles can be considered cement.
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Within the standard model, quarks act as building blocks, and gauge bosons, which these quarks exchange with each other, act as interaction carriers. The theory of supersymmetry goes even further and states that quarks and leptons themselves are not fundamental: they all consist of even heavier and not experimentally discovered structures (building blocks) of matter, held together by an even stronger “cement” of super-energy particles-carriers of interactions than quarks composed of hadrons and bosons. Naturally, none of the predictions of the theory of supersymmetry have yet been tested in laboratory conditions, however, the hypothetical hidden components of the material world already have names - for example, the electron (the supersymmetric partner of the electron), squark, etc. The existence of these particles, however, is theorized kind is predicted unambiguously.
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The picture of the Universe offered by these theories, however, is quite easy to visualize. On a scale of about 10–35 m, that is, 20 orders of magnitude smaller than the diameter of the same proton, which includes three bound quarks, the structure of matter differs from what we are used to even at the level of elementary particles. At such small distances (and at such high energies of interactions that it is unimaginable) matter turns into a series of field standing waves, similar to those excited in the strings of musical instruments. Like a guitar string, in such a string, in addition to the fundamental tone, many overtones or harmonics can be excited. Each harmonic has its own energy state. According to the principle of relativity (see Theory of Relativity), energy and mass are equivalent, which means that the higher the frequency of the harmonic wave vibration of the string, the higher its energy, and the higher the mass of the observed particle.
However, if it is quite easy to visualize a standing wave in a guitar string, the standing waves proposed by superstring theory are difficult to visualize - the fact is that the vibrations of superstrings occur in a space that has 11 dimensions. We are accustomed to four-dimensional space, which contains three spatial and one temporal dimensions (left-right, up-down, forward-backward, past-future). In superstring space, things are much more complicated (see box). Theoretical physicists get around the slippery problem of “extra” spatial dimensions by arguing that they are “hidden” (or, in scientific terms, “compactified”) and therefore are not observed at ordinary energies.
More recently, string theory has been further developed in the form of the theory of multidimensional membranes - essentially, these are the same strings, but flat. As one of its authors casually joked, membranes differ from strings in about the same way that noodles differ from vermicelli.
This, perhaps, is all that can be briefly told about one of the theories that, not without reason, today claim to be the universal theory of the Great Unification of all force interactions. "
ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D... Superstring Theory.
A universal theory that explains all physical interactions: elementy.ru/trefil/21216
"There are four fundamental forces in nature, and all physical phenomena occur as a result of interactions between physical objects that are caused by one or more of these forces. The four types of interactions, in descending order of strength, are:
* strong interaction that holds quarks in hadrons and nucleons in the atomic nucleus;
* electromagnetic interaction between electric charges and magnets;
* weak interaction, which is responsible for some types of radioactive decay reactions; And
* gravitational interaction.
In Newton's classical mechanics, any force is just an attractive or repulsive force that causes a change in the nature of the movement of a physical body. In modern quantum theories, however, the concept of force (now interpreted as the interaction between elementary particles) is interpreted somewhat differently. Force interaction is now considered to be the result of the exchange of an interaction carrier particle between two interacting particles. With this approach, the electromagnetic interaction between, for example, two electrons is due to the exchange of a photon between them, and similarly, the exchange of other intermediary particles leads to the emergence of three other types of interactions. (See Standard Model for details.)
Moreover, the nature of the interaction is determined by the physical properties of the carrier particles. In particular, Newton's law of universal gravitation and Coulomb's law have the same mathematical formulation precisely because in both cases the carriers of interaction are particles lacking rest mass. Weak interactions appear only at extremely short distances (in fact, only inside the atomic nucleus), since their carriers - gauge bosons - are very heavy particles. Strong interactions also appear only at microscopic distances, but for a different reason: here it’s all about the “capture of quarks” inside hadrons and fermions (see Standard Model).
The optimistic labels “universal theory,” “theory of everything,” “grand unified theory,” and “ultimate theory” are now used for any theory that attempts to unify all four interactions, viewing them as different manifestations of some single and great force. If this were possible, the picture of the structure of the world would be simplified to the limit. All matter would consist only of quarks and leptons (see Standard Model), and forces of a single nature would act between all these particles. The equations describing the basic interactions between them would be so short and clear that they could fit on a postcard, while essentially describing the basis of each and every process observed in the Universe. According to the Nobel laureate, American theoretical physicist Steven Weinberg (1933–1996), “this would be a deep theory, from which the interference pattern of the structure of the universe would radiate like arrows in all directions, and deeper theoretical foundations would not be required in the future.” As can be seen from the continuous subjunctive moods in the quotation, such a theory still does not exist. All that remains for us is to outline the approximate contours of the process that can lead to the development of such a comprehensive theory.
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All unification theories proceed from the fact that at sufficiently high energies of interaction between particles (when they have a speed close to the limiting speed of light), “the ice melts,” the line between different types of interactions is erased, and all forces begin to act equally. Moreover, theories predict that this does not happen simultaneously for all four forces, but gradually, as the interaction energies increase.
The lowest energy threshold at which the first fusion of forces of different types can occur is extremely high, but is already within the reach of the most modern accelerators. Particle energies in the early stages of the Big Bang were extremely high (see also Early Universe). In the first 10–10 s, they ensured the unification of weak nuclear and electromagnetic forces into electroweak interaction. Only from this moment on did all four forces known to us finally separate. Until this moment, there were only three fundamental forces: strong, electroweak and gravitational interactions.
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The next unification occurs at energies far beyond those achievable in terrestrial laboratories - they existed in the Universe in the first 10e(–35) of its existence. Starting from these energies, the electroweak interaction combines with the strong one. Theories that describe the process of such unification are called grand unification theories (GUT). It is impossible to test them in experimental settings, but they well predict the course of a number of processes occurring at lower energies, and this serves as indirect confirmation of their truth. However, at the TBT level, our ability to test universal theories is exhausted. Next begins the field of superunification theories (SUT) or universal theories - and at the mere mention of them, a sparkle lights up in the eyes of theoretical physicists. Consistent TSR would make it possible to unify gravity with a single strong-electroweak interaction, and the structure of the Universe would receive the simplest possible explanation."
Man's search for laws and formulas that explain all physical phenomena is noted. This search includes micro-level processes and macro-level ones. They differ in the strength or energy that is exchanged.
Interaction at the magnetic field level is described by electromagnetism.
"Electromagnetism*
The study of electromagnetic phenomena began with Oersted's discovery. In 1820, Oersted showed that a wire through which an electric current flows causes a magnetic needle to deflect. He examined this deviation in detail from the qualitative side, but did not give a general rule by which the direction of the deviation could be determined in each individual case. Following Oersted, discoveries came one after another. Ampere (1820) published his works on the action of current on current or current on a magnet. Ampere has a general rule for the action of current on a magnetic needle: if you imagine yourself located in a conductor facing the magnetic needle and, moreover, so that the current is directed from the legs to the head, then the north pole deviates to the left. Next we will see that Ampere reduced electromagnetic phenomena to electrodynamic phenomena (1823). The work of Arago also dates back to 1820, who noticed that a wire through which an electric current flows attracts iron filings. He was the first to magnetize iron and steel wires by placing them inside a coil of copper wires through which current passed. He also managed to magnetize a needle by placing it in a coil and discharging a Leyden jar through the coil. Independently of Arago, the magnetization of steel and iron by current was discovered by Davy.
The first quantitative determinations of the effect of current on a magnet also date back to 1820 and belong to Biot and Savart.
If you strengthen a small magnetic needle sn near a long vertical conductor AB and staticize the earth's field with a magnet NS (Fig. 1), you will find the following:
1. When current passes through a conductor, the magnetic needle is set with its length at right angles to the perpendicular lowered from the center of the needle onto the conductor.
2. The force acting on one or the other pole n and s is perpendicular to the plane drawn through the conductor and this pole
3. The force with which a given current passing through a very long straight conductor acts on a magnetic needle is inversely proportional to the distance from the conductor to the magnetic needle.
All these observations and others can be deduced from the following elementary quantity law, known as the Laplace-Biot-Savart law:
dF = k(imSin θ ds)/r2, (1),
where dF is the action of the current element on the magnetic pole; i - current strength; m is the amount of magnetism, θ is the angle made by the direction of the current in the element with the line connecting the pole to the current element; ds is the length of the current element; r is the distance of the element in question from the pole; k - proportionality coefficient.
Based on the law, action is equal to reaction, Ampere concluded that the magnetic pole must act on the current element with the same force
dФ = k(imSin θ ds)/r2, (2)
directly opposite in direction to the force dF, which also acts in the same direction making a right angle with the plane passing through the pole and the given element. Although expressions (1) and (2) are in good agreement with experiments, nevertheless, they have to be looked at not as a law of nature, but as a convenient means of describing the quantitative side of processes. The main reason for this is that we do not know any currents other than closed ones, and therefore the assumption of the element of current is essentially incorrect. Further, if we add to expressions (1) and (2) some functions limited only by the condition that their integral along a closed contour is equal to zero, then the agreement with the experiments will be no less complete.
All the above facts lead to the conclusion that electric current causes a magnetic field around itself. For the magnetic force of this field, all laws that are valid for a magnetic field in general must be valid. In particular, it is quite appropriate to introduce the concept of magnetic field lines caused by electric current. The direction of the lines of force in this case can be determined in the usual way using iron filings. If you pass a vertical wire with current through a horizontal sheet of cardboard and sprinkle sawdust on the cardboard, then when lightly tapped, the sawdust will be arranged in concentric circles, if only the conductor is long enough.
Since the lines of force around the wire are closed, and since the line of force determines the path along which a unit of magnetism would move in a given field, it is clear that it is possible to cause the magnetic pole to rotate around the current. The first device in which such rotation was carried out was built by Faraday. Obviously, the strength of the current can be judged by the strength of the magnetic field. We will now come to this question.
By considering the magnetic potential of a very long straight-line current, we can easily prove that this potential is multivalued. At a given point, it can have an infinitely large number of different values, differing from one another by 4 kmi π, where k is a coefficient, the remaining letters are known. This explains the possibility of continuous rotation of the magnetic pole around the current. 4 kmi π is the work done during one revolution of the pole; it is taken from the energy of the current source. Of particular interest is the case of closed current. We can imagine a closed current in the form of a loop made on a wire through which current flows. The loop has an arbitrary shape. The two ends of the loop are rolled into a bundle (cord) and go to a distant element.