The interrelated problems of modernization and development have been and remain central to dozens of states seeking to increase their role in the world economy, especially those that emerged from the collapsed colonial empires.
Given the significant diversity of these states, the differences in the levels and types of their socio-economic development, the discrepancy in approaches to solving development problems, a number of similar characteristics stand out that allow us to consider the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, or "South", as they are sometimes called, as a specific community.
After the Second World War, the process of decolonization began, associated with the collapse of the colonial empires of the European powers. This process was greatly influenced by Japan's seizure of vast territories in Asia and the creation of local administrations there, which the European metropolises had to face after the end of the war in the Pacific.
Many of the former colonies gained independence peacefully. Others, due to the importance of their strategic location and abundance natural resources, the metropolis tried to hold on at any cost. The result was colonial wars Great Britain in Malaya, France in Indochina and Algeria, Portugal in Angola and Mozambique, which cost the people of these countries great sacrifices and led to destruction and material losses.
Back in the 1940s. The Philippines, British India, and Indonesia gained independence in the 1950s. the peoples achieved liberation South-East Asia. 1960s went down in history as the “year of Africa,” when most of the colonial possessions on this continent gained independence. The last colonial empire in history, Portugal, collapsed in 1975.
Conflicts and crises in developing countries. The acquisition of independence did not always guarantee the possibility of further unhindered development. The borders of many newly emerged states did not coincide with ethnic and religious ones, which became the cause of many conflicts, both internal and international. After British India was granted independence, it split along religious lines into India and Islamic Pakistan, and millions of people became refugees. Military conflicts have already arisen several times between these countries over the remaining disputed border territories. A permanent source of tension appeared in the Middle East, where, according to a UN decision, it was planned to create Arab and Jewish states in Palestine. The conflict between them, which ended in 1948 with Israel's seizure of the entire Palestinian territory, led to a state of constant tension between it and neighboring Arab states, which repeatedly led to wars.
The availability of natural resources in many developing countries has not always helped solve the problems they face. Without opportunity independent development riches of their subsoil, the countries possessing them became an arena of especially acute competition between the leading powers of the world, the largest TNCs. The main instruments in this struggle were the organization of coups and separatist movements. So, in the 1960s. In Zaire (formerly Belgian Congo) in the province of Katanga, a separatist movement developed, leading to a civil war and the deployment of UN troops into this country. In the most populous country African continent In Nigeria, the Igbo people of the oil-rich Biafra province declared independence, leading to a three-year civil war. In the 1970s In Angola, three large military-political groups (MPLA, UNITA, FNLA), based on various tribal associations, after liberation from the colonial rule of Portugal, entered into a struggle with each other for control of the country. At the same time, one of them was supported by the USSR and Cuba, the other was supported by the USA and South Africa, and the third by neighboring Zaire.
Results of the first transformations. In most states that chose their path of development, pre-capitalist relations still prevailed.
Up until the 1930s. Latin American countries developed primarily as agrarian states. They exported the products of large latifundia (landowner farms), which widely used the labor of low-paid employees.
Since the 1930s, and especially in post-war years, most Latin American countries have embarked on the path of modernization and accelerated industrial development. This was facilitated by a number of favorable circumstances.
During the Second World War, the demand for agricultural products from Latin American countries increased. Being remote from the theaters of war, these countries provided shelter to many emigrants from warring countries hiding from the war and its consequences (including from the defeated powers of the fascist Axis). This ensured an influx of qualified specialists and workers. Latin America was perceived as relatively safe and, thanks to the abundance of natural resources and undeveloped lands, a profitable area for investment. Despite frequent coups, successive military regimes, as a rule, did not dare to affect the interests of foreign capital, especially since most of it belonged to US corporations. The United States did not hesitate to resort to direct military intervention or change of ruling figures in Latin American countries if their interests were infringed. Thus, in response to the nationalization of lands belonging to the largest agricultural company in the United States, United Fruit, a coup was organized in Guatemala in 1954 with the support of the American military. The new government returned the company's property.
The failure of the attempt to overthrow the government of F. Castro in Cuba, which came to power by revolutionary means, after the overthrow of the regime of General F. Batista in 1959 and set a course for cooperation with the USSR, forced the United States to adjust its policy. In 1961, US President D. Kennedy proposed the Alliance for Progress program to Latin American countries, for which $20 billion was allocated. The purpose of this program, adopted by 19 countries, was to help solve pressing socio-economic problems of the countries of the continent and prevent them from seeking support from the USSR.
Authoritarian regimes: experience of modernization. D. Kennedy's program helped solve the problems of modernization, but did not strengthen the foundations of political stability. The cycle of alternating military and civilian regimes in Latin America could not be interrupted, since it essentially fulfilled the same socio-economic role as the change in power between right and left parties in democracies.
Military and dictatorial regimes, as a rule, took a course towards accelerated modernization of the economy, limited the rights of trade unions, and curtailed social programs, froze wages for most employees. The priority became the concentration of resources on large-scale projects and the creation of incentives to attract foreign capital. These policies often brought significant economic benefits. Thus, in the largest country in Latin America, Brazil (population 160 million people), the “economic miracle” occurred during the years when the military junta was in power (1964-1985).
Roads and power plants were built, metallurgy and oil production developed. To accelerate the development of the interior of the country, the capital was moved from the coast inland (from Rio de Janeiro to the city of Brasilia). Rapid development has begun natural resources the Amazon River basin, the population of this area increased from 5 to 12 million people. With the help of foreign corporations, in particular such giants as Ford, Fiat, Volkswagen, General Motors, the country established the production of cars, aircraft, computers, and modern weapons. Brazil has become a supplier of machinery and equipment on the world market. Its agricultural products began to compete with American ones. Along with the import of capital, the country began to invest its capital in less developed countries, in particular Africa.
New social structure of modern society
The social structure of society is a combination of different numbers, social status in system public relations relatively stable forms of social groups, communities, their social positions and interactions between them.
Modern society is based on a broad division of labor and functions of people in the process of social reproduction.
§ 5. DEVELOPMENT ROUTES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Most of the peoples of the countries of Asia and Africa at the time of their transformation into colonies and semi-colonies of industrial powers lived under conditions of a feudal or tribal system. The results of their conquest industrial countries were extremely ambiguous.
Colonialism was especially destructive, using the methods of the pre-capitalist era in the exploitation of colonies. They included the robbery of colonies, the export of gold, silver, and cultural monuments to the metropolis, and the creation of a slave trading system, from which the population of Equatorial Africa especially suffered in the 16th-19th centuries.
Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements. The metropolises of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets and using the resources of the colonies, including cheap labor, tried to create a system of orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), however, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.
The onslaught of European goods ruined many local artisans. The peasantry, forced to pay taxes not only to local princes, but also to the colonial authorities, was ruined and deprived of their land. It was destroying
a system of communal farming and subsistence farming, that is, extremely conservative, stagnant ways of life that have not changed for centuries, incompatible with any development. The freed-up cheap labor force was used in newly created industries that served the economies of the metropolises. This, in turn, expanded the scope of commodity-money relations and accelerated the collapse of traditional ways of life.
The policies of industrial states had the same impact on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. Thus, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open its five largest ports to free trade and accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their own administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, France and the United States obtained detailed concessions that have become typical for dependent countries from China. Then began the division of China into economic spheres influence, capture of strongholds on its territory.
Germany occupied Qiao Chao Bay in 1898, imposing a 99-year lease on the Chinese government. Russia then “leased” the Liaodong Peninsula with the Port Arthur fortress. Great Britain received, under the same conditions, the Kowloon Peninsula and the adjacent islands, where the colony of Hong Kong had been located since 1842. Japan grew stronger as a result of the war with China in 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact a sphere of influence of Japan. The United States in 1899 came up with the doctrine “ open doors" in China. According to this doctrine, which has raised objections only from Russia, none of the great powers should have greater economic benefits than others. It also assumed that any Additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the remaining powers.
Resistance to the domination of industrial powers over countries that found themselves in the position of colonies and semi-colonies has not ceased since the emergence of the colonial system. It has become the most important feature historical development XX century.
Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the rise of mass anti-colonial movements was not uncommon. Their common feature was their focus on restoring the traditional way of life and expelling foreigners. For example, during the so-called “Boxer” uprising in China in 1900 (another name is the uprising of the Yihetuan, “Yellow Turbans”), which was initiated by peasants and the urban poor, the rebels destroyed railways, communication lines, killed foreigners and Chinese, wearing foreign clothes.
None of the anti-colonial protests under traditionalist slogans ended in success. The military-technical superiority of the colonialists was too great. In addition, the idea of a return to the orders of pre-colonial times was close only to the poorest, uneducated segments of the population, and religious leaders who were irritated by the activities of Christian missionaries. The local feudal nobility split into supporters and opponents of the new order.
In the colonies and dependent countries there was an influential layer of the ruling elite, bureaucrats, representatives of commercial and industrial capital, who collaborated with capital and the authorities of the metropolises. In this layer, which was called “comprador” (venal), as well as in other segments of the population, there was a desire for liberation. At the same time, she considered violent methods of struggle for liberation as harmful and senseless. It was clear to the educated part of the population that in response to the uprisings, the troops of the colonialists and their local allies would devastate vast territories, and having won, they would tighten the control regime, which would weaken the chances of liberation.
Local officials and entrepreneurs collaborating with the colonialists tried to avoid violent methods of struggle for liberation. An alternative to them was a course towards a gradual, step-by-step weakening of the power of the metropolises through peaceful means. This course assumed the implementation of reforms, mastery of industrial production in cooperation with the capital of the metropolises.
In fact, the very idea of change and development was for most Asian peoples a product of European conquest. The mother countries did not set themselves the goal of promoting the development of the economy of the colonies and dependent countries. Nevertheless, they created certain prerequisites for future modernization. In colonial countries there was new layer a ruling elite educated in developed countries and seeking to modernize their societies. For the delivery of goods, the export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a network of railways was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry were developed, and the plantation economy was oriented toward foreign markets. The peoples of the colonies received access, albeit limited, to the achievements of European medicine. During the First, and especially the Second World War, enterprises for the repair and assembly of military equipment arose in many overseas possessions and underdeveloped countries, and the production of electricity increased.
It is significant that in the 20th century, the least developed countries were those Asian countries that managed to defend their independence, or those possessions where the power of the colonialists was purely nominal and limited. Thus, Afghanistan, which was repeatedly subjected to English invasions from the territory of British India and retained its independence, and by the end of the 20th century remains one of the few states in the world without railways, with a tribal structure of society, a predominance of subsistence farming, and engulfed in religious and intertribal wars.
The desire for accelerated development, to catch up with the powers that have experienced industrial revolution, create a modern industry, military equipment, manifested itself in many colonial and dependent countries. However, only Japan managed to achieve quick results along this path. The source of its success was a compromise between supporters of traditionalism and modernization. The first realized that it was impossible to preserve the traditional appearance of Japanese society and the originality of its culture without modernization, the study and development of European and American science and technology, and the creation of a European type of education system. Such forms of implementation of the modernization process were found that only when absolutely necessary changed the customary forms of life and everyday life of the bulk of the population, an original and unique Japanese culture of the early 20th century emerged, combining many features inherent in feudal society (the special role of the emperor and the nobility, paternalistic relations of employers and hired workers), with a highly developed industry.
Other colonial and dependent countries also tried to embark on the path of modernization. However, the interests of its implementation came into conflict with the spontaneous traditionalism of the masses, shared by many religious leaders, as well as people from the clan and feudal nobility. Modernization could only be carried out with the involvement of foreign capital and technology. It assumed development along the capitalist path and required an effective central state power capable of carrying out reforms and supporting industry. All this was difficult to combine with the ideas of equal distribution of land or communal land use, popular among the masses, and the aspirations of the military-feudal, bureaucratic elite to strengthen their power.
In most Asian countries, the rapprochement between adherents of traditionalism and supporters of development along the European path was possible only for a short time. In China, dissatisfaction with the Manchu dynasty, which made constant concessions to foreign powers and did nothing to modernize the country, was widespread. In 1911-1912 As a result of the revolution, China was proclaimed a republic. However, adherents of the Kuomintang party that carried out the revolution were expelled from parliament in 1913, and the Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen emigrated. With the death in 1916 of General Yuan Shikai, who usurped presidential power, China became an arena of confrontation between feudal-militaristic cliques that controlled power in the provinces.
In Turkey in 1908, the so-called Young Turk revolution, led by military personnel seeking modernization, led to the collapse of absolutism and its replacement constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created, the majority of which was won by supporters of modernization. But the results of their reign were limited. Railway construction with the participation of German capital expanded, and the army was modernized with the involvement of German officers.
At the beginning of the 20th century, in the countries of the East, with the exception of Japan, only the prerequisites for modernization were formed. Separate centers of industrial production have developed in China and Turkey. The share of the working class, wage workers employed in industry, construction and transport, did not exceed 1% of the amateur population.
Features of the development of Latin American countries. More serious preconditions for modernization existed in Latin American countries. Colonial dependence from Spain and Portugal was eliminated there at the beginning of the 19th century. After the War of Independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, Mexico in 1821, Peru in 1824, Brazil also gained independence in 1822, although until 1889 it remained a monarchy under the rule of the king’s son and then grandson Portugal.
In 1823, the United States adopted the Monroe Doctrine, which declared the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to annexing part of the territory of Mexico and establishing control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.
By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the USA, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba its length turned out to be greater than in all of China. Oil production grew rapidly in Mexico and Venezuela. Mining developed in Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, although the overall agricultural orientation of the economy predominated.
A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landowner farms - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. Local industry was poorly developed; basic needs for industrial goods were met by importing them from industrialized countries. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American countries (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed and political parties had formed.
Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character. Historical memory about the traditions in the states of pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by European colonialists back in the 16th century, were preserved only in certain inaccessible areas. The majority of the population were professing the Catholic religion, descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, and slaves taken from Africa (mestizo, mulatto, creole). Only in Argentina were immigrants from European countries numerically predominant.
A stable tradition that has developed since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes that relied on the army met the interests primarily of the landowners-latifundists. They were faced with a protest by plantation workers against low wages and harsh conditions, and the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by the latifundists.
Planters and the military most often showed disinterest in any changes. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw materials orientation of Latin American countries on the world market was demonstrated primarily by the national trade and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its position.
A symbol of the coming changes in Latin America was the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917, in which the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists was supported by the bourgeoisie with its desire to establish democracy. Despite the US military intervention in events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution in 1917, which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.
DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
From a note from the US government to the British government regarding the "open door" policy in China, September 22, 1899:
“It is the sincere desire of my Government that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China shall not be harmed by the exceptional measures of any of the controlling Powers. My Government hopes to maintain in them an open market for the commerce of the whole world,
eliminate dangerous sources international irritation and thereby speed up the united actions of the powers in Beijing to carry out administrative reforms, so urgently necessary to strengthen the imperial government and preserve the integrity of China, which, in his opinion, is all western world equally interested. It believes that the achievement of this result can be greatly advanced and secured by declarations of the various powers claiming spheres of interest in China<...>the following essentially:
1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of treaty ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interests or leased territory that it may have in China;
2) that the current Chinese treaty tariff will be applied equally in all ports located within the said area of interest (except free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties so collected shall be collected by the Chinese Government;
3) that in ports within its sphere it will levy no higher port dues on ships of other nationalities than on ships of its own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within its sphere no higher port dues will be imposed. higher tariff rates on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those levied on like goods belonging to the own citizens of that power and transported over equal distances.”
From a revolutionary leaflet by the Yihetuan during the uprising in Northern China (1900):
“Foreign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants, is increasing every day. These churches have no family ties with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they attracted to their side all the greedy and self-seeking and committed oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth. This is how telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign rifles and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find locomotives excellent, Balloons And electric lamps“Although they ride on stretchers that do not correspond to their rank, China still considers them barbarians, whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate them.”
From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan rebellion, September 7, 1901:
“Article 5. China has agreed to prohibit the import into its possessions of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended exclusively for the production of weapons and ammunition. By imperial decree of August 25, 1901, it was decided to prohibit such imports for two years. New decrees may be issued subsequently to extend this period every two years, in case the powers find it necessary. Article 6. By Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901, His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay the powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million Haiguan lan (taels)<...>This amount will yield 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China in 39 years<...>
Article 7. The Chinese government has agreed to consider the quarter occupied by the missions as specially designated for their use and placed under the protection of their own police;
in this quarter the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to demolish the forts at Ta-ku, as well as those that could interfere with free communication between Beijing and the sea. In pursuance of this, measures were taken. Article 10. The Chinese government has undertaken to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all cities of the provinces:
a) decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting, under penalty of death, from belonging to an anti-European party;
b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>
e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors-general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European riots or other violations of the treaties that are not immediately suppressed and for If the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to assume new positions and receive new honors.”
From the work of D. Nehru “A View of World History.” 1981. T. 1. P.472,475,476:
“One of the goals that I have consistently strived for English politics in India, was the creation of a propertied class, which, being a creature of the British, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. The British therefore strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of large zamindars and talukdars and even encouraged social conservatism on the pretext of non-interference in religious affairs. All these propertied classes were themselves interested in exploiting the country and in general could only exist thanks to such exploitation<...>In India there has gradually developed middle class who has accumulated some capital to invest in a business<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the brainchild, actually born from a connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it the national movement grew."
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Explain how you understand the term “traditionalism”.
2. Describe the changes that occurred in colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.
3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.
4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial protests: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, and means of struggle?
5. Using examples from the history of Japan, China, India and other countries, reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words “spontaneous traditionalism of the masses.”
6. Name character traits modernization of Latin American countries.
Working programm
M.: “Enlightenment”, 2008 2. Zagladin, N.V. Worldwidestory. XXcentury/ N.V. Zagladin. - M.: Russian word... K.V. Games in the classroom stories. 10 -11 classes. – M.: Russian word..., V.S. Morozova “ Story Russia XX-beginning of XXI century. 11 Class. A basic level of...
Appendix to the explanatory note to the curriculum of the profile (socio-economic
Program2001, author. Khachaturyan V.M. Course program " Worldwidestory:XXcentury".10 -11 classes. Auto. Zagladin N.V., Zagladina Kh.T. Russian word... late XIX century" auto Zagladin N.V. Russian Word 2004 “Social Studies”: 10 -11 Class- "Social science 10 -11 cl...
This program provides an opportunity for all students to obtain the minimum historical knowledge necessary for a Russian citizen by the end of 11th grade.
Program... « Worldwidestory . Story Russia and the world in XX-beginning of XXI century", textbook for 11 class, M, “Russian Word”, 2009 N.V. Zagladin “ WorldwidestoryXXcentury" ...
Periodicals from Asia, Africa and Latin America
After achieving national independence, developing countries faced very serious problems hampering the development of journalism (and in particular the periodical press). These problems include economic backwardness, mass illiteracy of the population, and outdated printing facilities of the press. As a result, only one in two hundred people in Bangladesh reads a newspaper, while in India it is one in 25. In Pakistan, only about a quarter of the population is literate, which significantly narrows the scope of the country's periodicals. Great difficulties, including technical ones, are created by the multilingualism of the population. Thus, in Pakistan, printing is adapted mainly to serve English-language publications and newspapers in Urdu, while newspapers published in other languages face problems associated with a shortage of fonts and linotypes adapted to them. Technological and economic difficulties of the Pakistani press and administrative oppression have caused a reduction in the number of daily newspapers.
By the early 1990s, there were over 2,280 daily newspapers in India. And the total number of periodicals exceeded 25.5 thousand - as per English language(4276) and in the languages of the peoples of India - Hindi (6429), Bengali (1299), Malayalam (1737), Gujarati (1138), Urdu (1363), Tamil (1193), etc. However, the vast majority of newspapers are low-circulation. their economic situation unstable.
In many countries of South Asia - India, Pakistan. Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and other former British possessions have strong traditions formed under the influence of the English school of journalism. The presentation of material and the style of publication of the local English-language press bears a clear imprint of the experience learned over many decades of communication with the British press. Many large publishing companies and periodicals were established in these countries during the colonial period. The appearance and style of newspapers and magazines in local languages is more diverse. The distribution of such publications and their influence on society increased steadily during the post-colonial period. However, it is widely believed that the best journalists are concentrated in the editorial offices of English-language newspapers and magazines, which are recognized as the most influential and informed publications.
The periodicals of the Asian economic giant, Japan, are unique. The development of the Japanese press, which began under the influence of the processes of social modernization, led to the appearance in the 1870s. a number of periodicals, some of which are published to this day (among them are the two largest modern newspapers - “Asahi” and “Yomiuri”). In the first decades of the 20th century. Thousands of newspapers and magazines were published in Japan, most of them with very limited circulation. The strengthening of militaristic tendencies in the political life of Japan in the thirties led to tightening government control over the press and radio broadcasting. In order to ensure controllability and control of the periodical press, to expand the possibilities of its use for chauvinistic expansionist propaganda, the then rulers of Japan took the path of a sharp reduction in the number of publications (to 55 in 1943) while simultaneously significantly increasing their circulation.
The situation, characterized by the dominance of several high-circulation publications in the system of Japanese newspaper periodicals, has continued in post-war period. After the abolition of preliminary censorship introduced by the US occupation authorities in July 1948, in terms of circulation and influence on the Japanese audience, not a single Japanese newspaper can compare with the three giants - Asahi, Yomiuri and Mainichi, which combine in their activities signs of “quality” and “mass” press.
Chinese periodicals. In 1919, a new stage began in the development of Chinese journalism, as a new press unit appeared in the country - the communist press, which had a great impact on the further development of Chinese journalism. Long time Chinese journalism developed in difficult conditions civil war, Japanese occupation. After the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in October 1949, the country began to create a press system controlled by the ruling Communist Party. All Kuomintang publications and radio stations were closed. Private newspapers gradually passed into the hands of the state (often bought out from their owners). By 1954, 270 newspapers were published in the populous country with a total circulation of 8 million copies, more than half of them were publications of the ruling Communist Party. The preservation of the formal multi-party system ensured the publication of some publications - the printed organs of the parties - political allies PDA. In 1956, a reform of Chinese journalism was carried out, strengthening the distribution and influence of the central press, led by the People's Daily newspaper.
After the start of the Cultural Revolution in the mid-1960s. The number of periodicals in China has declined sharply. As a result of the largest political and ideological purge in a huge country in 1970, only 42 newspapers were published, and their total number decreased by 301 (compared to 1965). However, the total circulation of the published newspaper press decreased slightly, which indicated a desire to ensure influence on a mass audience through a small number of newspapers with unified content. The number of published magazines has decreased by 40 times. In 1970, only 21 magazines were published, and the circulation of magazine periodicals also decreased significantly. 84.4% of all surviving publications were party organs at various levels.
Measures taken in the 1970s to support periodicals (in particular, through compulsory subscriptions) produced limited results. Excessive politicization and unification of the content of publications did not contribute to the growth of reader interest in the press, and the low standard of living and the state of literacy of the population limited the possibilities of subscribing to periodicals. Even by the beginning of the new century, after twenty years of reforms and continued economic growth, 16% of men and 38% of women remained illiterate in China.
Under the influence of the political and economic reforms that began in the country after the death of Mao Zedong and the removal from power of the radical group in the leadership of the CPC, the prerequisites and conditions were created for rapid growth periodicals. The eighties became a period of reform in Chinese journalism and the rapid development of periodicals, both in the number of publications and in the scale of their distribution. In 1986, ten years after the change began, 6,000 newspapers and magazines were already published in China. At the same time, many publications, especially newspapers, were published in small circulations. Of the 1,777 newspapers published during that period, only 98 had a daily frequency. There has been a tendency towards a reduction in the circulation of party publications.
A fifth of the total number of newspaper periodical titles were general political newspapers - organs of party organizations different levels– from the Central Committee of the CPC to the district party committees.
However, newspaper periodicals have become more diverse in terms of types of publications. Newspapers were also published - organs of public organizations (trade unions, Komsomol, etc.), scientific and technical, economic, pedagogical, legal and sports.
Journal periodicals were dominated by publications, mainly specialized on problems of social and natural sciences, as well as popular science, socio-political and literary and artistic magazines. The audience's great interest in scientific and popular science periodicals is mainly due to the fact that modern China is going through a stage of accelerated scientific and technological modernization. Some of these publications actively supported the ideas of liberalization of Chinese society, which also attracted the attention of some of the intelligentsia and scientific and technical workers.
The content of publications has become more diverse and their design has improved. Work with readers has intensified. Many problems that were previously taboo received coverage - unemployment, inflation, the plight of many rural residents - members of agricultural communes. The press began to actively criticize various negative aspects of the development of Chinese society - corruption, abuses of party and government officials. This was consistent with the views of Deng Xiaoping and his supporters in the Chinese party leadership on the role of the press as a catalyst for the country's modernization. The leadership of the party propaganda proclaimed that from now on newspapers could decide for themselves what topics they should avoid in publications. At the same time, party leader Hu Yaobang said that 80% of news in the press should be devoted to the successes of reforms, and 20% to shortcomings.
Even in critical statements of the press, the foundations of the existing socio-political system in China, based on the dominance of the CPC and the omnipotence of the highest party leaders, were usually not questioned. The idea of the press as a “weapon of class struggle,” an instrument of political and ideological influence of the ruling party on the masses, has not changed either.
Among Chinese journalists, three main directions took shape, differing in their attitude to reforms and their prospects: Maoist orthodoxies, supporters of limited reforms (believing that changes should cover mainly the production and economic basis, without affecting the foundations of the existing socio-political system), and also adherents of liberalization, oriented towards Western models.
After the Tiananmen Square protests in Beijing in 1989, party-state control over the press tightened. Some liberal-minded journalists were fired, some ended up in prison or in exile. “Die-hard” Maoists were appointed to many leading positions in the editorial offices.
By the mid-1990s, the position of the Chinese media changed somewhat due to the adjustment of the official domestic political course after the speech of Deng Xiaoping in 1992, who proclaimed the deepening of reforms. Many editorial teams received the opportunity to self-govern (this did not affect the editorial offices of the party and state press), their powers in maintaining independent economic activity. One of the indicators successful work editorial offices become aware of the amount of funds received through the publication of commercial advertising. As a result, for example, Shanghai newspapers received 4 billion 500 million yuan in advertising revenue during 1995, and in five years the volume of incoming advertising increased sixfold. The South Chinese Guangzhou Daily alone received about 300 million yuan in advertising revenue annually. The corresponding income item for China's central TV, which received about 1 billion yuan a year in the form of fees for broadcast commercial advertising, looked impressive. Nine out of ten popular Chinese magazines advertised foreign fashion, films, sports, food and technology. Commercial advertising has become one of the powerful channels for disseminating Western cultural stereotypes and patterns of consumer behavior in the country. At the same time, the growth of advertising revenues contributed to rapid development China's media: in the mid-nineties, more than 2,000 newspapers were published in the country, over a thousand radio stations and about 2,000 on-air, cable and satellite television centers operated.
Under the influence of reform processes, the content of the Chinese press is changing. The topics of speeches have expanded, the style of materials has become more lively, and the vocabulary of journalistic works has become more diverse. Today, even in party periodicals, there are often scandalous (from the point of view of prevailing ideas about morality in China) publications that help increase the readership rating of publications. The main value promoted in the press is personal initiative, whereas previously collective efforts in the interests of general welfare were praised. Successful entrepreneurs have become the “heroes of the day,” whose example is propagated by the press, whereas previously they were advanced workers, peasants, and military personnel.
Due to the decline in the influence of the party press, the editors of Renmin Ribao (People's Newspaper) announced in 1998 the need for a “new face of the publication.” During the Cultural Revolution, the newspaper's circulation was 6 million copies. By the end of the 1990s it had halved.
The further increase in the professionalism of the press in China is directly related to the development of the system of training journalists. In previous decades, the main advantage of journalists, considered ideological workers, was political loyalty. Professional qualities were in the background. Net educational institutions training of journalists was clearly insufficient for a huge country. As a result, in the first half of the nineties, only about 6% of Chinese journalists had vocational training. Half of working journalists have not received a university education.
Arabic press.“Today there is no free press in the Arab world,” prominent Egyptian publicist Mohammed Hassanein Heikal said in a conversation with the author of these lines. This confession by a former associate of President Nasser and the editor of the largest Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram, a highly informed and influential veteran journalist in the Arab world, reflected not only the presence of widespread state control over Arabic periodicals.
Indeed, in most Arab countries Periodicals are published and financed by the state; authoritarian methods of management and control are applied to the press and journalists. At the same time, it should be noted that until recently in the Arab world there were relatively few “independent” private newspapers and magazines that could be published without financial support from the state: limited audience (due to low educational level a significant part of the population) and the narrowness of national advertising markets made it fundamentally impossible to develop a commercial press model in many countries. In the early 1980s, private publications existed only in Bahrain, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Kuwait, Morocco, Tunisia and Saudi Arabia. Traditionally, Arabic periodicals are highly politicized.
The legislation of Arab countries provides for numerous restrictions on the activities of the press. Thus, in Iraq, under the regime of Saddam Hussein, there was a legal ban on covering a number of topics in the press. The death penalty was imposed for publications deemed offensive to the president and senior officials.
Arab publishers and journalists are under pressure not only from government circles. The press is also under the close attention of extremist forces of various kinds, mainly Islamic fundamentalists. It is not uncommon for journalists and editors to receive death threats for their professional activities. Attacks and murders of journalists are also not uncommon. One of the Egyptian editors, sentenced to death by fundamentalists, is forced to constantly keep a loaded pistol under the papers on his desk: despite the armed security of his office, installed by government decision, the constant threat of a terrorist attack is more than real.
Exception from general rules is the activity of the so-called pan-Arab publications that are published in countries Western Europe, where there is no strict control by Arab governments.
Currently, with the further development of market relations and the growth of entrepreneurship, the emergence of more and more oil-producing Arab countries with rapidly growing levels of national income (in the 1990s these included Oman and Yemen - former economic “outsiders”), in the Arab world The trend towards media commercialization is intensifying. This allows us to make a prediction that in the future Arab states More and more private periodicals will appear, financed mainly by revenues from the publication of commercial advertising and independent of government agencies.
Development of periodicals in Africa. In all African countries, only about 170 daily newspapers were published during the post-colonial period. The circulation of many of them did not exceed several thousand copies, much less often – several tens of thousands. In a number of states, for example Chad, daily newspapers were not published during the post-colonial period. Many published newspapers were like bulletins filled with official information.
The development of periodicals in Africa in the post-independence period was hampered by a number of negative factors. Along with political instability, economic backwardness, high levels of illiteracy, underdeveloped communications and means of delivery, young African states were faced with insurmountable problems associated with the extreme ethnic diversity of the population. The continent's inhabitants speak 800 languages and hundreds of dialects. It is not uncommon for the population of the same country to speak dozens of languages. Thus, in Nigeria there are more than 250 languages and dialects.
This seriously complicates the use of periodicals as a means of mass communication. The use of intermediary languages is not always effective in African conditions: most of the local languages do not have written or literary form, and the language of the former colonialists is known mainly to educated Africans, who make up a minority of the population (approximately 10%). Moreover, traditional African cultures were dominated oral forms communications, the printed word has never played a significant role in people’s communication.
Ethnic diversity prevented the creation of strong economic foundations for the functioning of the private press, based on income from advertising activities, since in conditions of linguistic disunity it is impossible to form a mass readership. The narrowness of the real advertising market is also evidenced by the low purchasing power of the vast majority of Africans (excluding the population of South Africa). Private publications were published in the first post-colonial decades only in a few African countries - Malawi, Togo, Madagascar, Kenya and some others.
The named factors, as well as the political course national leadership in most African states that have achieved independence led to preferential development in the post-colonial period state seal. The party press in Africa is represented mainly by the print organs of the ruling parties. In connection with the policy of perestroika in the Soviet Union and the subsequent collapse of the USSR, as well as the collapse of the socialist system, a new situation has arisen in Africa, as in developing countries in general. The former "socialist commonwealth" stopped economic assistance and left without political and military support African countries that were previously part of the zones of influence of the Soviet bloc. Source dependent foreign aid, they were forced to look for new partners in the West. At the same time, pressure on the states of the continent from Western economic donors increased, demanding liberalization of public and political life in response to the further provision of economic and technical assistance.
The second half of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s were marked by significant changes in the systems of national periodicals and the operating conditions of the press and journalists in African states. In a number of countries, attempts are being made to update and democratize the political and state systems that emerged after achieving independence. In particular, eliminate the monopoly of the ruling parties, allow a multi-party system, ensure political pluralism of the media and remove them from strict state control, create legal conditions for the publication of private newspapers and magazines, ensure real opportunity criticism of the actions of the authorities in the press and protection of journalists - authors of critical speeches.
In a number of African countries during this period, the so-called “alternative” press became widespread - publications that distanced themselves from the ruling regimes, and often opposed them, and belonged, as a rule, to private owners. Revenue from the publication of commercial advertising played a growing role in their financing. The growth of private enterprise in Africa (caused, in particular, by the need to follow the urgent recommendations of financial donors - the IMF and the World Bank - to encourage the private sector) contributed to the expansion of the advertising market and the array of distributed advertising.
“Alternative” publications helped expose the abuses of government officials, covered many topics that were previously considered taboo, and served as a mouthpiece for those social circles that demanded social changes in line with liberalization political system. For example, in Benin, “alternative” private newspapers played a significant role in the transition from a one-party system to political pluralism.
Periodicals in Latin America more developed than in Asian and African countries. However, Latin American periodicals (mostly private) are characterized by a stratification between the “big” metropolitan press and the rest printed publications, which are in quite complex economic conditions. Despite the presence in a number of countries of Central and South America of numerous population groups who speak only Indian languages (Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, etc.), periodicals are published mainly in European languages - Spanish or Portuguese. The presence of a significant percentage of illiteracy and economic factors hinder the achievement of a level of prosperity for the population in Latin America periodicals, characteristic of European countries, the USA and Japan.
Chapter 3. Electronic media in global communication processes
Most countries in Asia and Africa at the beginning of the 20th century continued to exist as colonies of industrial states. The metropolises, despite the capitalist era, continued to exploit colonial lands using classical feudal methods: forced export precious metals, the creation of a slave trade system, high in-kind and monetary taxation.
Anti-colonial movements
It was during this period that active resistance to liberation movements in colonial countries began. The main goal of their activities was to expel monopolists and change the existing barbaric predatory orders. Participants in the anti-colonial movements were the most vulnerable segments of the population: the peasantry, workers and clergy.
The local elite actively cooperated with the authorities of the monopolies and did not feel any particular infringement of rights and freedoms. Members of anti-colonial movements were in no hurry to join liberation wars, because they understood that the enemy represented powerful states with a strong army and technical base, which the countries of Asia and Africa did not possess.
Liberation from the power of the metropolises came from the most unexpected direction; the First World War was unleashed on the territory of Europe. World War, which led to the fall of most powerful empires.
After the end of World War II, the states of Asia and Africa entered a period of significant economic and cultural growth. The population of these regions first became acquainted with medicines, which the metropolis did not previously consider necessary to provide to the colonial territories.
Industry was significantly modernized, primary educational institutions were opened, thanks to which illiteracy of the population was eliminated. However, these states were unable to fully support the European path of development.
Development of Latin American countries
Compared to the countries of Asia and Africa, the states of Latin America had more serious prerequisites for economic and technical development. Absolutely all countries of Latin America freed themselves from the power of the metropolises back in the 19th century and during the same period acquired state independence.
The first half of the 20th century was marked by an industrial boom: new factories and factories were built, agriculture was intensively developed, and new railway lines were created (the total length of the Chilean railway was several times greater than the length of the Chinese railways).
Latin America has become the world leader in the export of plant and animal products. Before the outbreak of World War II, the region enjoyed logistical and technical support from the United States and European countries.
But, despite the visible economic growth, the development of Latin American countries was overshadowed by the power of dictatorial regimes that existed in the region virtually until the end of the 20th century. In many countries, a military totalitarian dictatorship was established in the 1930s.
After the fall of the Third Reich, Latin American states became a haven for German and Italian fascists. Social and political stability was undermined by regular military coups d'etat, as a result of which one tyrant replaced another. Liberal democratic rule in Latin America was established only in 1991.
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Paths of development of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America D.Z. §6
Check of knowledge. 1.1. Which Asian country was the first to take the path of modernization at the end of the 19th century? 1.2. Which country until the middle of the 19th century? maintained global economic leadership?
The concept of “East” is the Asian-African world. By the end of the 19th century. Most European countries either went through or were at the stage of modernization. Asia - except Japan - no. The East was forcibly included in the system of the world capitalist economy. In these countries, by the end of the 19th century. many problems accumulated, most of which were created by the domination of Europeans. Late XIX- beginning of the twentieth century. - This is a time of strengthening of the anti-colonial movement. In each country it took on its own unique features. At the beginning of the 20th century. China was in a state of deepest political crisis. The crisis was caused not only by internal reasons, but also by unequal treaties with foreign powers that infringed on the independence of the Celestial Empire. The failed reforms of 1898 prompted popular uprising Yihetuan (1898-1901).
In 1904, the Russian-Japanese War began. China declared its neutrality, but Japanese and Russian troops fought on the fields of Manchuria, devastating the area, evicting the Chinese from the war zone. These events forced Empress Cixi to announce reforms. Reforms 1904-1910 called "new politics". One of the main goals of the “new policy” was to continue reforming the army. As a result, a modern professional army arose on the German model with good training and discipline. The military has become a new political force in Chinese society. Although many decrees were called “constitutional,” they, first of all, were supposed to strengthen absolute power monarchs. No problems were solved national entrepreneurship, neither land question. The reforms were interrupted in 1908. At the end of 1908, Empress Cixi died. In 1910, China suffered another blow: Japan captured Korea. Korea has always been in the sphere of interests of Chinese rulers. Loss of Korea national disgrace for the ruling dynasty. The situation in the country required either radical changes or a violent regime change, i.e. revolution. China chose the latter. 1911-1913 – Chinese Revolution
The result of the revolution was the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty and the establishment of a republic. But the main tasks of the revolution turned out to be unresolved. Feudal oppression and the dominance of foreign colonialists remained. Although the establishment of the republic was an important progressive event in the history of the Chinese people, no fundamental changes occurred. The same social forces that dominated under the Qing monarchy remained in power. Revolution 1911-1913 ended in defeat. From the middle of the 19th century. India is becoming an area for British capital. The first major object of British investment in India was the railways. Railway network connected the main strongholds of the British in India. The second most important object of British investment was irrigation construction. Irrigation structures were built in areas where export crops—cotton and wheat—were grown. Using the water tax, the British received huge profits. Irrigation facilities and railways were the property of the metropolis.
In the 70-80s of the XIX century. In India, a movement begins to revive ancient Indian ethical and spiritual values based on a synthesis of the cultures of East and West. In December 1885, the founding congress of the Indian National Congress (INC) was held in Bombay. The leadership of the INC launched vigorous political activities in India, seeking constitutional concessions. The Indian opposition demanded the right to include its representatives in the lower house of the British Parliament and, through this representative body, seek for India a status close to that of a British dominion. The progressive liberal wing of the INC was the liberal moderate wing, which identified the following goals: protection of national industry; tax reduction; creation of a bank loan system; expansion of self-government and elected representation. The left wing in the INC was headed by B. Tilak (1856-1920). Switched from loyal opposition to the English colonial regime in the 40s. XX century to an active struggle for national independence, for the rights of Indian patriots. All India Muslim League - Political Party, which called for the division of British India and the separation of a Muslim state from its composition. The Muslim League was founded in 1906 in Lucknow to defend the rights of the Muslim minority in India against the dictates of the Hindu majority.
Latin America at the beginning of the twentieth century. Early XIX V. - the period of national liberation wars against Spain. By the beginning of the twentieth century. All Latin American countries were formally independent. However, back in 1823, the United States proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine - “America for the Americans!” Since that time, Latin America has become an object of expansion of US capital. In these countries, the United States owned industrial enterprises, railroads, and banks. Features of the development of Latin America: - the dominance of US capital in the main sectors of the economy; -existence of latifundia in agriculture; - poor development of local industry; -weakness of the local commercial and industrial bourgeoisie; - great influence on the life of society of the army and the church;