“...The root of all good and evil is education”
Socio-economic transformations in Russia XVIII century, during the reforms of Peter I, the development of industry, the army and navy required not only qualified specialists, but also patriots of their country. Big role The school reform, begun by decree of the tsar on February 28, 1714, played a role in their upbringing. It envisaged the opening of digital schools and colleges in all provinces at the monasteries, compulsory education for the children of nobles, “parish ranks,” clerks and clerks. In 1722, training in reading and writing for “carpenters, sailors, blacksmiths and other craftsmen” was introduced. School reform took into account experience public education and education, intellectual achievements of Russian educators, public figures and teachers.
Russian historian and statesman
V.N. Tatishchev (1686 - 1750), supporting the initiatives of Peter I, in his pedagogical essays raised questions “about the benefits of sciences and schools”, the role of the teacher in education and upbringing. He emphasized that young people need to “know the civil and military laws of their Fatherland.”
One of the first legislative documents civil and patriotic education- approved by Catherine II (1729 - 1796, empress from 1762) in 1764 “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth.” Its author was public figure, personal secretary of Empress I.I. Betskoy (1704 - 1795). While studying abroad, he met pedagogical views Ya.A. Comenius (1592 - 1670, Czech humanist thinker, teacher, writer, founder of didactics), D. Locke (1632 - 1704, English philosopher, founder of liberalism), J.J. Rousseau (1712 - 1778, French writer, philosopher, supporter of the theory of social contract).
The “General Establishment...” states: “Art has proven that a mind adorned or enlightened by science alone does not make a good and upright citizen. But in many cases, it is even more detrimental if someone from the tenderest years of his youth is not brought up in virtues and they are not firmly rooted in his heart, but through negligence and daily bad examples he gets used to extravagance, self-will, dishonest delicacy and disobedience. With such a deficiency, we can safely say that expecting direct success in the sciences and arts and the third rank of people in the state is in vain and caressing oneself.
Therefore, it is clear that the root of all good and evil is education.”
The pedagogical views presented in the “General Establishment...” and a number of other documents are subordinated to the idea of education and upbringing of a citizen. The principles served this purpose new system enlightenment.
Decline of morality -
to the fall of the state
According to researchers, in the reforms of the times of Catherine II, the education of a person and a citizen was considered primarily as moral education. To make new schools primarily educational institutions, to harmoniously combine upbringing with education - this was the fundamental issue of educational reform. The education of a person, according to the initiators of the reform, should culminate in the education of a citizen. The new system of upbringing and education was based on the state's need for dedicated and qualified citizens.
Both a Serbian and a Russian teacher, a member of Russian Academy Sciences, participant in the development of the plan school reforms 1782 - 1786 F.I. Jankovic (1741 - 1814). He was a follower of Ya.A. Comenius, sought to increase the role of the teacher in teaching and education. In his “Charter for public schools in Russian Empire“education is associated with the civic-patriotic education of youth: “The education of youth was so respected among all enlightened peoples that they considered it the only means of establishing the good of civil society; and this is undeniable, for the subjects of education, which contain a pure and reasonable concept of the creator and his holy law and solid rules of unshakable loyalty to the sovereign and true love to the fatherland and their fellow citizens are the main pillars of the general state welfare. Education, enlightening a person’s mind with various other knowledge, adorns his soul; inclining the will to do good, it guides a virtuous life and finally fills a person with such concepts that he absolutely needs in the community.” He proposed that, along with books on grammar, history, arithmetic, and geography, it was mandatory to teach young people the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen.”
The reign of Catherine II is associated with the reform of the education system, the adoption of a number of legislative acts relating to the civic and patriotic education of youth. In her plays, articles, and books, the empress constantly turned to the idea of strengthening Russian state, emphasized that the decline of morality in the country, disrespect for the sovereign and superiors, the elderly, fathers and mothers indicate the imminent fall of the state. In her opinion, much in society depends on the correctness of decisions government leader. “First of all,” wrote Catherine II, “a statesman should keep in mind the following five subjects: 1. It is necessary to educate the nation that he must govern. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to create a state that is formidable in itself and inspires respect in its neighbors. Every citizen must be brought up in the consciousness of duty to the Supreme Being, to himself, to society...”
Honor, good behavior, nobility
In developing theoretical foundations A.N. plays a great role in state-patriotic education. Radishchev and A.F. Bestuzhev.
Writer, publicist, founder of Russian revolutionary pedagogy, sentenced to death for a book in defense of his people death penalty, only on the occasion of the conclusion of peace with Sweden was replaced by a prison, A.N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802) in his work “Conversation about the existence of a son of the Fatherland” emphasized: “Not everyone born in the Fatherland is worthy of the majestic name of a son of the Fatherland (patriot).” He identified three distinctive signs of a patriot worthy of this name: the first is ambition (love of honor). “He kindles this beneficial flame in all hearts; he is not afraid of the difficulties that he encounters during this noble feat of his... and if he is confident that his death will bring strength and glory to the Fatherland, then he is not afraid to sacrifice his life; if it is needed for the Fatherland, then it is preserved for the full observance of natural and domestic laws; to the best of his ability, he averts everything that could tarnish the purity and weaken the good intentions of them, as a detriment to the bliss and improvement of his compatriots.” The second sign is good behavior; the third is nobility. “A noble person is the one,” he writes, “who has made himself famous for his wise and philanthropic qualities and actions... true nobility is virtuous actions, animated by true honor... in continuous benefit to the human race, and especially to his compatriots.”
Democratic educator, military man and writer A.F. Bestuzhev (1761 - 1810) defended state system education and proposed to build it on the principles of Ya.A. Comenius. Giving preference to public education in the civic formation of youth, he pointed to its positive sides: opportunity to know civil society, understand the need to live, limiting the limits of one’s freedom, to develop in young people the ability to communicate with other members of society, the willingness to do everything that honor, position, and the Fatherland require.
Bestuzhev points out that civic-patriotic qualities are acquired in the process of education, passing from feelings to true concepts and then through experience to skills and habits. In his opinion, the subject of moral education is the formation of a person’s ability to be a fearless defender of the Fatherland in wartime, and in Peaceful time- a diligent citizen who fulfills his duties virtuously and law-abidingly job responsibilities. He suggests using moral education the principle of “from simple to complex”, a personal highly moral example of the teacher’s behavior, as well as a number of rules: “Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you”; “Do good for others, as far as it is possible for you to do for them”; “Keep the laws... protect the fatherland from enemy attacks”; “Deliver to the fatherland all the benefits that are within your power; do not stop within the limits only prescribed by the laws, but strive to do for him every good that your love can breathe; may its benefit be achieved by your supreme, only law.”
Turning to the civic-patriotic education of youth, literary critic V.G. Belinsky (1811 - 1848), argued: “Whoever does not belong to his fatherland does not belong to humanity.” He also noted: “Patriotism, no matter who it is, is proven not by word, but by deed.”
Russian writer, publicist, literary critic, one of the ideologists revolutionary movement in Russia N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828 - 1889), developing the ideas of citizenship and patriotism, wrote: “The nature of the means must be the same as the nature of the goal, only then can the means lead to the goal. Bad means are only suitable for bad ends.” He emphasized that only a person with a low soul can change the Motherland, and a true “patriot is a person serving the Motherland, and the Motherland is, first of all, the people.”
First - the individual, then - the specialist
Huge role in development civic education and the education of the younger generation of Russia was played by the founder scientific pedagogy in Russia K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870/71). Author of many pedagogical works, he contributed to the creation of a new system of women’s education and the revitalization of pedagogy in Russia, and was convinced that in order to establish a new system of educating youth, teachers were needed who were well versed in the physical and spiritual nature of man. In his opinion, education should become the main thing for a teacher. “This type of education,” he pointed out, “...has nothing to do with the production of ordinary officers, engineers, rural owners, teachers, etc., etc. ... upbringing must form, shape, first of all, a “person” - and then from him, as from a developed, moral personality, an appropriate specialist will certainly be developed, who loves his chosen work, is devoted to it, carefully studies it and is therefore able to bring greatest benefit in his chosen field of activity..."
A scientific contribution to the understanding of such categories as “Fatherland”, “Motherland” was made by the writer, lexicographer, ethnographer, creator of “ Explanatory dictionary alive Great Russian language" IN AND. Dahl (1801 - 1872). He said that “Russia is a land, the fatherland of many peoples, different in language and faith, that every people whose root is nested in the Russian land has the right to consider Russia a fatherland, and that a non-Russian living in Russia and considering it a fatherland is a full-fledged and worthy citizen." In his opinion, “The Fatherland is motherland, homeland, where someone was born, grew up; the root, the land of the people to which someone, by birth, language, faith, belongs.” Dahl explained: “In Russia there are more than sixty provinces and regions, and another province is more than an entire German or French land. To the people... everything is more Russian; and there are, in addition, many other nations. All these provinces, regions and multilingual peoples make up the Russian land,” all of them “must stand for each other, for the land, for their homeland... like same-family members.”
The creator of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” gave an understanding of the words “patriot” and “patriotism”. According to his definition, this is “a lover of the fatherland, a zealot for its good, a lover of the fatherland, a patriot or fatherlander. Patriotism... is love for the fatherland.”
Thus, in pre-revolutionary Russia main goal The formation of a patriotic citizen was recognized in the upbringing and education of the younger generation. The works of domestic educators and scientists, government and military figures, writers, publicists and teachers suggest solutions modern problems youth education.
Alexander GERASIMOV, Galina LISEENKO
A. N. RADISHCHEV.
CONVERSATION ABOUT THE SON OF THE FATHERLAND
Not everyone born in the fatherland is worthy of the majestic title of son of the fatherland (patriot). Those under the yoke of slavery are not worthy to be adorned with this name. - Resist, sensitive heart, do not pronounce your judgment on such sayings while you stand at the threshold.
Enter and wait! Who doesn’t know that the name of the son of the fatherland belongs to a person, and not to a beast or cattle or other dumb animal? It is known that man is a free being, since he is gifted with intelligence, reason and free will; that his freedom consists in choosing the best, that he knows and chooses this best through reason, comprehends it with the help of his mind and always strives for the beautiful, majestic, high. He acquires all this in a single adherence to natural and revealed laws, otherwise called divine, and derived from divine and natural civil or communal laws.
But in whom these abilities, these human feelings are suppressed, can he be adorned with the majestic name of the son of the fatherland?
He's not human, but what? he is lower than cattle; for even cattle follow their own laws, and no departure from them has yet been noticed in them. But the discussion about those is not relevant here; the unfortunate ones, whom deceit or violence have deprived of this majestic advantage of man, who are made such that without coercion and fear they no longer produce anything from such feelings, who are likened to draft cattle, who do not do higher than a certain work, from which they cannot be freed; which are likened to a horse condemned to carry a cart for life, and having no hope of freeing himself from his yoke, receiving equal rewards with the horse and suffering equal blows; not about those who do not see the end of their yoke except death, where their labors and their torment will end, although it sometimes happens that cruel sadness, having declared their spirit to be a meditation, kindles the weak light of their mind and makes them curse their disastrous state and seek to this end; We are not talking about those here who do not feel anything other than their humiliation, who crawl and move in the sleep of death (lethargy), who resemble a person only in appearance, otherwise they are burdened with the weight of their chains, deprived of all benefits, excluded from the entire heritage of people , oppressed, humiliated, despised; which are nothing more than dead bodies buried one against the other; work necessary for a person out of fear; they do not want anything other than death, and to whom the slightest desire is denied and the most unimportant undertakings are executed; they are only allowed to grow, then die; about whom it is not asked what they are worthy of humanity done? what commendable deeds, traces of their past lives, did they leave? What good, what benefit did this great number of hands bring to the state?
This is not what we are talking about here; they are not members of the state, they are not human beings, when they are nothing more than machines driven by the tormentor, dead corpses, draft animals!
Man, man is needed to bear the name of the son of the fatherland! But where is he? where is this one, worthily adorned with this majestic name?
Are you in the arms of bliss and lust? Are you not engulfed in the flames of pride, lust, violence? Is he buried in evil profitability, envy, malice, enmity and discord with everyone, even those who feel the same with him and strive for the same thing? or not sunk in the mire of laziness, gluttony and drunkenness? A helipad, flying around from midday (for then he begins his day) the whole city, all the streets, all the houses for the most senseless and empty conversation, to seduce chastity, to infect good morals, to catch simplicity and sincerity, making his head a flour store, his eyebrows a receptacle of soot , cheeks with boxes of white and red lead, or, better to say, a picturesque palette, the skin of his body with an elongated drum skin, looks more like a monster in his attire than a man, and his dissolute life, marked by the stench emanating from his lips and his whole body, is smothered a whole pharmacy of fragrant sprays - in a word, he is a fashionable man, completely fulfilling all the rules of dandy big world science: he eats, sleeps, wallows in drunkenness and lust, despite his exhausted strength; He changes clothes, talks all sorts of nonsense, shouts, runs from place to place, in short - he is a dandy.
Is this not the son of the fatherland? - or one who lifts his singing gaze in a majestic manner to the firmament of heaven, trampling under his feet all who are before him, tormenting his neighbors with violence, persecution, oppression, imprisonment, deprivation of rank, property, torture, deception, deception and murder itself, in a word, tearing apart those who dare to utter the words: humanity, freedom, peace, honesty, holiness, property and others like them, by all means known to him alone? Streams of tears, rivers of blood not only do not touch, but delight his soul. He who dares to oppose his speeches, opinions, deeds and intentions should not exist! Is this the son of the fatherland?
Or the one who stretches out his arms to seize the wealth and possessions of his entire fatherland, and if it were possible, the whole world, and who with composure is ready to take away from his unfortunate compatriots the last crumbs that support their dull and languid life, to rob, to plunder their specks of dust property; who delights in joy if an opportunity for a new acquisition opens up for him, let it be paid with rivers of the blood of his brethren, let him deprive people like him of the last shelter and food, let them die of hunger, serving, in the heat; let them weep, let them kill their children in despair, let them risk their lives for thousands of deaths; none of this will shake his heart; all this means nothing to him - he multiplies his property, and that’s enough. - And so this is not where the name of the son of the fatherland belongs?
Or is it not the same one, sitting at a table filled with the works of all four elements, to whose delight the taste and belly are sacrificed by several people taken away from serving the fatherland, so that, when he is full, he can be transferred to bed and there he can calmly engage in the consumption of other works that he pleases? until sleep takes away the strength to move his jaws? And so, of course, this one or one of the four mentioned above? (for we rarely find the fifth addition separately). The mixture of these four is visible everywhere, but the son of the fatherland is not yet visible if he is not one of these!
The voice of reason, the voice of the laws written in nature and the hearts of people, does not agree to call the calculated people sons of the fatherland! The very ones who are truly such will pronounce judgment (not on themselves, for they do not find themselves like that), but on those like themselves and will sentence them to exclude such from the number of sons of the fatherland, since there is no man, no matter how depraved and blinded he is by himself, so as not to feel at all the rightness and beauty of things and deeds.
There is no person who would not feel sorrow when he sees himself humiliated, reviled, enslaved by violence, deprived of all means and ways to enjoy peace and pleasure and not finding his consolation anywhere. Doesn't this prove that he loves honor, without which he is like without a soul. There is no need to explain here that this is true honor, for false, instead of deliverance, subjugates everything that has been said above and will never calm the human heart.
Everyone has an innate sense of true honor; but it illuminates the deeds and thoughts of a person as he approaches it, following the lamp of reason, which guides him through the darkness of passions, vices and prejudices to its quiet light, that is, honor. There is not a single mortal who is rejected by nature, who does not have that spring embedded in the heart of every person, directing him to love honor. Everyone wants to be respected rather than reviled, everyone strives for his further improvement, fame and glory: as if the caresser of Alexander the Great, Aristotle, tried to prove the opposite, arguing that nature itself has already disposed the mortal race so that one, and moreover much most of of them must certainly be in a slave state and, therefore, not feel that there is honor? and the other in the dominant, because not many have noble and majestic feelings.
It is not in dispute that the much nobler part of the mortal race is immersed in the darkness of barbarity, brutality and slavery; but this does not in the least prove that man was not born with a feeling that directs him to greatness and to self-improvement and, consequently, to the love of true glory and honor. The reason for this is either the type of life led, circumstances, or in which to be forced, or inexperience, or the violence of the enemies of the righteous and lawful exaltation of human nature, who by force and deceit subject it to blindness and slavery, which weakens the human mind and heart, imposing the heaviest shackles of contempt and oppression , overwhelming the strength of the eternal spirit.
Do not justify yourself here, oppressors, villains of humanity, that these terrible bonds are an order that requires submission. Oh, if you would penetrate the chain of all nature as much as you can, and you can do a lot! then you would feel different thoughts in yourself; would find that love as well. It is not violence that maintains such beautiful order and subordination in the world. All nature is subject to it, and where it is, there are no terrible disgraces that draw tears of compassion from sensitive hearts and at which the true friend of humanity shudders.
What would nature be then, other than a discordant mixture (chaos), if it were deprived of this spring? Truly, she would be deprived of the greatest way to both preserve and improve herself. Everywhere and with every person this fiery love for gaining honor and praise from others is born. The dream comes from innate to man feeling of limitation and dependence. The feeling of sleep is so strong that it always encourages people to acquire for themselves those abilities and advantages through which they deserve love both from people and from the highest being, evidenced by the pleasure of conscience; and having earned the favor and respect of others, a person becomes trustworthy in the means of preserving and improving himself.
And if this is so, then who doubts that this strong love of honor and the desire to acquire the pleasure of one’s conscience with the favor and praise of others is the greatest and most reliable means, without which human well-being and improvement cannot exist? For what then remains for a person to overcome those difficulties that are inevitable on the path leading to the achievement of blissful peace, and to refute that cowardly feeling that makes one tremble when looking at one’s shortcomings? What is the remedy for getting rid of the fear of falling forever under the most terrible burden of these? if you take away, firstly, the refuge to the highest being not as an avenger, but as the source and beginning of all good things; and then to those like ourselves, with whom nature united us for the sake of mutual assistance and who inwardly bow to the readiness to provide it and, despite all the muffling of this inner voice, feel that they should not be those sacrileges who interfere with the righteous human desire to improve themselves.
Who planted this feeling in man to seek refuge? - An innate feeling of dependence, clearly showing us this dual means of salvation and pleasure for us. And what finally prompts him to take this path? What drives him to unite with these two means of human bliss and to care to please them? - Truly nothing more than an innate fiery urge to acquire for oneself those abilities and beauty through which one deserves the favor of God and the love of one’s fellow humans, the desire to become worthy of their favor and protection.
He who examines human deeds will see that this is one of the main springs of all the greatest works in the world! And this is the beginning of that impulse to love honor, which was sown in man at the beginning of his creation! This is the reason for feeling that pleasure that is usually always associated with a person’s heart, how quickly God’s favor is poured out on it, which consists in sweet silence and pleasure of conscience, and how quickly he acquires the love of those like himself, which is usually depicted by joy at the sight of him, praises, exclamations. This is the object they strive for true people and where they find their true pleasure! It has already been proven that a true man and a son of the fatherland are one and the same; therefore, it will be a sure distinguishing sign of him if he is thus ambitious.
With this, he begins to decorate the majestic name of the son of the fatherland, the monarchy. For this he must honor his conscience, love his neighbors; for love is acquired by love alone; one must fulfill one’s calling as prudence and honesty dictate, without caring in the least about giving honor, exaltation and glory, which is a companion, or rather a shadow, always following virtue, illuminated not by the evening sun of truth; for those who pursue fame and praise not only do not acquire it for themselves from others, but even more so are deprived of it.
A true man is a true executor of all the laws ordained for his bliss; he religiously obeys them. Noble modesty, free from empty talk and hypocrisy, accompanies all his feelings, words and deeds. With reverence he submits to everything that order, improvement and general salvation require; for him there is no low state in serving the fatherland; By serving him, he knows that he is promoting the healthy circulation, so to speak, of the blood of the state body. He would rather agree to perish and disappear than to set an example of bad behavior for others and thereby take away children from the fatherland, who could be an adornment and support for it; he is afraid of contaminating the well-being of his fellow citizens; he flames with the most tender love for the integrity and tranquility of his compatriots, he yearns to see nothing so much as mutual love between them; he kindles this beneficial flame in all hearts; is not afraid of the difficulties encountered in this noble feat of his; overcomes all obstacles, tirelessly watches over maintaining honesty, gives good advice and instructions, helps the unfortunate, delivers from the dangers of error and vices, and if he is confident that his death will bring strength and glory to the fatherland, then he is not afraid to sacrifice his life; if it is needed for the fatherland, then it is preserved for the full observance of natural and domestic laws; to the best of his ability, he averts everything that could tarnish the purity and weaken the good intentions of them, as a detriment to the bliss and improvement of his compatriots. In a word, he well-behaved! Here's another one sure sign son of the fatherland!
The third and, it seems, the last distinctive sign son of the fatherland when he noble. Noble is the one who has made himself famous for his wise and philanthropic qualities and actions; who shines in society with reason and virtue and, being inflamed by truly wise curiosity, directs all his strength and efforts towards this only, so that, obeying the laws and the guardians thereof, the authorities who control both himself and everything that he has, not to be revered otherwise than as belonging to the patronymic. to use it as a pledge of the goodwill of his compatriots and his sovereign, who is the father of the people, entrusted to him, sparing nothing for the good of the fatherland. He is truly noble, whose heart cannot help but tremble with tender joy at the single name of the fatherland and who feels no differently at that memory (which is incessant in him), as if it were said about the most precious part of him in the world. He does not sacrifice the good of the fatherland to prejudices, which rush like brilliant ones into his eyes; sacrifices everything for its good: his supreme reward consists of virtue, that is, in that inner harmony of all inclinations and desires, which the wise creator pours into the immaculate heart and to which, in its silence and pleasure, nothing in the world can be compared. For true nobility There are virtuous deeds, animated by true honor, which is not found anywhere else, as in continuous beneficence to the human race, but mainly to one’s compatriots, rewarding each according to his dignity and according to the prescribed laws of nature and democracy. Decorated with these only qualities, both in enlightened antiquity, and now they are honored with true praise. And here is the third distinctive sign of the son of the fatherland!
Those who dream of reasoning with that Platonic system will be very mistaken. public education, the events of which we will never see, when even before our eyes, a kind of precisely such education and based on these rules was introduced by the godly monarchs, and enlightened Europe sees with amazement its successes, ascending to the intended goal with gigantic steps!
Radishchev "Conversation about the fact that there is a son of the fatherland."
This is a revolutionary journalistic article (1789), published in the magazine “Conversing Citizen”. Arguing about who should be awarded the title of true son of the Fatherland, Radishchev puts forward the main condition: he should only be a “free being”. Hence, he refuses this title to a peasant in serfdom, and refuses it with great pity. But how angrily does his denunciation sound against the oppressors, those feudal landowners, “tormentors” and “oppressors” who are accustomed to consider themselves sons of the Fatherland. In the article we are presented with whole line satirical portraits of evil, insignificant, frivolous landowners. But who is worthy to be the true son of the Fatherland? And Radishchev answers that a true patriot must be a person full of honor, nobility, capable of sacrificing everything for the good of the people, and if necessary, if he knows that “his death will bring strength and glory to the Fatherland,” then he will not be afraid sacrifice one's life. This is one of the strongest political speeches Radishchev the revolutionary, demanding freedom for the people.
Ode "Liberty"
For the first time theory people's revolution receives journalistic and artistic embodiment in written by Radishchev in 1781-1783. ode "Liberty", excerpts from which were included in "The Journey".
The fate of the homeland and people is the focus of the author’s attention, advanced person, capable of comparing historical facts and events with modern times and coming to general philosophical conclusions about the pattern of the emergence of a revolution in Russia, whose people are capable of responding to violence with violence. The ode “Liberty” is a work of enormous poetic and oratorical passion, testifying to the maturity of Radishchev’s revolutionary worldview. The “prophet of liberty” proves “that a person is free in everything from birth.” Starting with the apotheosis of freedom, which is realized as ʼʼ priceless gift man, “the source of all great deeds,” the poet further discusses what prevents this. Unlike the enlighteners of the 18th century. Radishchev, speaking about freedom, means not only natural, but also social equality, which must be achieved through the struggle for the rights of the people. He passionately denounces slavery and despotism, the laws established autocratic power, which are an “obstacle to freedom”. He exposes a dangerous alliance for the people royal power and the Church, opposing the monarchy as such.
The monarchy should be replaced by a democratic system based on social equality and freedom. In the “kingdom of freedom,” the land will belong to those who cultivate it.
Faith in the future victory of the people's revolution animates the poet; it is also based on studying the experience of his country ( peasant revolt under the leadership of Pugachev), and using examples taken from English and American revolutions. Historical events, historical names The leaders of the revolution, Cromwell and Washington, are instructive for other nations. Recreating the controversial image of Cromwell, Radishchev gives him credit for the fact that ʼʼ... You taught from generation to generation how peoples can take revenge on themselves: you executed Charles at his trial.
The ode ends with a description of the “chosen day,” when the revolution will win and renew the “dear fatherland.” The pathos of the ode is faith in the victory of the people's revolution, although the historically minded Radishchev understands that “there is still time to come.” The philosophical and journalistic content of the ode finds corresponding stylistic forms expressions. Traditional genre The ode is filled with revolutionary pathos, and the use of Slavicisms, which give a solemn sound to the ideas expressed, only emphasizes the unity artistic form and content. The success of the ode was enormous.
The theme of revolution in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by Radishchev. (printed in 1790ᴦ.)
Radishchev began writing “Journey” in the mid-80s. There is no calm narrator immersed in the world own feelings and experiences, but there is a person, a citizen, a revolutionary, filled with sympathy for the powerless and indignation towards the oppressors. The theme of revolution is heard in many chapters of “Travel”. Pictures of inhumane treatment of the people and awareness of social injustice evoke in Radishchev passionate calls for the overthrow of the power of the serf owners. Since the majority of people in an autocratic state are “likened to draft animals”, humiliated, the constantly insulted person, “drawn by a sense of his safety, is forced to repel the insult” (“Miracle”).
The cruelty and greed of the landowner - "bloodsuckers", whose actions are described in the chapter " Vyshny Volochokʼʼ, angers the traveler, who calls on the people to respond to violence with violence.
Everything that the traveler sees on his way: road meetings, observations of the life of different classes, makes him deeply sympathize with the oppressed people and fills him with a feeling of irreconcilable hostility towards the oppressors, a consciousness of the utmost importance revolutionary struggle for the liberation of the people, the struggle of the people themselves. Revolution arises as the inevitable result of oppression.
An open call for an uprising is also heard in the chapter “Gorodnya”, where there is a dramatic story about recruitment, about the illegal sale of people as recruits only because their landowner “needed money for a new carriage”.
Radishchev believes that the time will come when new people will emerge from the people and freedom will come not from above - “from the great patriots”, but from below - “from the very severity of enslavement,” but he understands that “the time has not yet come.” Historic thinking told him that the revolution in Russia would take place, but it would take time. Russian reality, features of Russian national character- the guarantee of the inevitability of revolution.
Radishchev’s experience also convinces him of the people’s ability to be indignant. Pugachev uprising. At the same time, the revolutionary writer understands that the spontaneous nature of the uprising cannot lead to fundamental changes in Russian reality, to the victory of the people. In this regard, the chapter “Khotilov” is complex and controversial, in which Radishchev gives an assessment of the Pugachev uprising and proposes a possible project for future transformations through reforms.
The basis of the “Journey” is a call for revolution, but Radishchev knew that victory was possible only after decades, and in this regard, it was quite possible for him to search for a solution to the most painful issue - the liberation of the peasants in other ways, one of which was a project as an attempt to alleviate the lot of the people at least for soon.
Radishchev "Conversation about the fact that there is a son of the fatherland." - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Radishchev "Conversation about the fact that there is a son of the fatherland." 2017, 2018.
This is a revolutionary journalistic article (1789), published in the magazine “Conversing Citizen”. When discussing who can be awarded the title of true son of the Fatherland, Radishchev puts forward the main condition: he can only be a “free being.” Hence he refuses this title to a peasant in serfdom, and refuses it with great pity. But how angrily does his denunciation sound against the oppressors, those feudal landowners, “tormentors” and “oppressors” who are accustomed to consider themselves sons of the Fatherland. In the article we see a whole series of satirical portraits of evil, insignificant, frivolous landowners. But who is worthy to be the true son of the Fatherland? And Radishchev answers that a true patriot can be a person full of honor, nobility, capable of sacrificing everything for the good of the people, and if necessary, if he knows that “his death will bring strength and glory to the Fatherland, then he is not afraid to sacrifice his life.” This is one of the strongest political speeches of Radishchev the revolutionary, demanding freedom for the people.
Ode "Liberty"
For the first time, the theory of popular revolution receives journalistic and artistic embodiment in the work written by Radishchev in 1781-1783. ode "Liberty", excerpts from which were included in "Journey".
The fate of the homeland and people is the focus of the author, a progressive person who is able to compare historical facts and events with modern times and come to general philosophical conclusions about the pattern of the emergence of a revolution in Russia, whose people are capable of responding to violence with violence. The ode “Liberty” is a work of enormous poetic and oratorical passion, testifying to the maturity of Radishchev’s revolutionary worldview. “The Diviner of Liberty” proves “that man is free in everything from birth.” Starting with the apotheosis of freedom, which is recognized as “a priceless gift of man,” “the source of all great deeds,” the poet further discusses what interferes with this. Unlike the enlighteners of the 18th century. Radishchev, speaking about freedom, means not only natural, but also social equality, which must be achieved through the struggle for the rights of the people. He passionately denounces slavery and despotism, the laws established by autocratic power, which are “an obstacle to freedom.” He exposes the dangerous alliance between royal power and the Church for the people, speaking out against the monarchy as such.
The monarchy should be replaced by a democratic system based on social equality and freedom. In the “kingdom of freedom,” the land will belong to those who cultivate it.
Faith in the future victory of the people's revolution animates the poet; it is based both on the study of the experience of his country (the peasant uprising led by Pugachev) and on examples taken from the English and American revolutions. Historical events, historical names of revolutionaries Cromwell and Washington can be instructive for other nations. Recreating the controversial image of Cromwell, Radishchev gives him credit for the fact that “... You taught from generation to generation how peoples can take revenge on themselves: you executed Charles at the trial.”
The ode ends with a description of the “chosen day” when the revolution will win and renew the “dear fatherland.” The pathos of the ode is faith in the victory of the people's revolution, although the historically minded Radishchev understands that “there is still time to come.” The philosophical and journalistic content of the ode finds appropriate stylistic forms of expression. The traditional genre of ode is filled with revolutionary pathos, and the use of Slavicisms, which give a solemn sound to the ideas expressed, only emphasizes the unity of artistic form and content. The success of the ode was enormous.
The theme of revolution in “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by Radishchev. (printed in 1790)
Radishchev began writing “Journey” in the mid-80s. There is no calm narrator, immersed in the world of his own feelings and experiences, but there is a man, a citizen, a revolutionary, filled with sympathy for the powerless and indignation towards the oppressors. The theme of revolution is heard in many chapters of the Journey. Pictures of inhumane treatment of the people and awareness of social injustice evoke in Radishchev passionate calls for the overthrow of the power of the serf owners. Since the majority of people in an autocratic state are “likened to draft animals”, humiliated, the constantly insulted person, “drawn by a sense of his safety, is forced to repel the insult” (“Miracle”).
The cruelty and greed of the “bloodsucker” landowner, whose actions are described in the chapter “Vyshny Volochok,” arouses the anger of the traveler, who calls on the people to respond to violence with violence.
Everything that the traveler sees on his way: road meetings, observations of the life of different classes, makes him deeply sympathize with the oppressed people and fills him with a feeling of irreconcilable hostility towards the oppressors, an awareness of the need for a revolutionary struggle for the liberation of the people, the struggle of the people themselves. Revolution arises as the inevitable result of oppression.
An open call for an uprising is also heard in the chapter “Gorodnya”, where there is a dramatic story about recruitment, about the illegal sale of people as recruits only because their landowner “needed money for a new carriage.”
Radishchev believes that the time will come when new people will emerge from the people and freedom will come not from above - “from the great patriots”, but from below - “from the very severity of enslavement,” but he understands that “the time has not yet come.” Historic thinking told him that the revolution in Russia would take place, but it would take time. Russian reality, the peculiarities of the Russian national character are the guarantee of the inevitability of revolution.
Radishchev’s experience of the Pugachev uprising also convinces him of the people’s ability to rebel. However, the revolutionary writer understands that the spontaneous nature of the uprising cannot lead to fundamental changes in Russian reality or to the victory of the people. In this regard, the chapter “Khotilov” is complex and controversial, in which Radishchev gives an assessment of the Pugachev uprising and proposes a possible project for future transformations through reforms.
The basis of the “Journey” is a call for revolution, but Radishchev knew that victory was possible only after decades, and therefore it was quite possible for him to search for a solution to the most pressing issue - the liberation of the peasants in other ways, one of which was a project as an attempt to alleviate the lot of the people at least in the near future time.
Composition
based on the article by A. N. Radishchev “Conversation about the fact that there is a son of the fatherland”
Does patriotism exist today?
"Two feelings are wonderfully close to us,
The heart finds food in them:
Love for the native ashes,
Love for fathers' coffins.
Based on them from time immemorial,
By the will of God himself,
Human independence
The guarantee of his greatness."
A.S. Pushkin
After reading A. Radishchev’s article “A Conversation about Being a Son of the Fatherland,” I noticed that thoughts about patriotism are still relevant today. Thinkers and writers of that time skillfully wrote critical articles and took on topics for reflection that attracted and will continue to attract readers for many centuries.
Before turning to your thoughts and starting to reflect on this topic of the essay, I would like to talk about Radishchev’s article.
He asks the question that torments him: “What is the son of the fatherland?” and examines in his work four types of young people of his time. Among them, unfortunately, he does not notice the slightest similarity with a patriot of his country, because... These people are busy only with themselves, with their well-being, and are known as real egoists. They are not at all concerned about the fate of the people, the fatherland; They are also not interested in the themes of love for the Motherland, kindness and honesty. Using these examples, the author ridicules representatives of his society, and, at the same time, his words reveal sadness and sadness about young people who are not interested in anything but themselves; who not only behave like real sons of the fatherland, they even have no idea how they look like that. They are simply not interested, and it makes them sad. Not only do they not care about defending their homeland, they also violate elementary laws society, existence and morality.
Next, Radishchev still tries to find a representative of patriotism and formulates what he should look like and what qualities he should have. His speech initially turns to honor. The writer says that every person from birth is invested love of honor, that “everyone would rather be respected than reviled, everyone strives for his further improvement, celebrity and glory...”.
After this he makes a small conclusion that a true man and a son of the fatherland are one and the same, and will be his hallmark unless of course he ambitious. The most important thing, Radishchev calls love for one's neighbors, as well as the fulfillment of all laws: social and divine.
The author believes that for a true son of the fatherland “there is no low state in serving the fatherland. The “son,” in his opinion, should be ready to sacrifice himself rather than set an example of bad behavior for his compatriots. This implies another quality of his, this person must be well-behaved. A patriot overcomes any obstacles in his path; he is not afraid of difficulties in such a good cause as defending the fatherland.
Finally, he names the last distinctive mark of a true man: nobility. By this, Radishchev understands the desire for wisdom and the possession of philanthropic qualities, as well as, naturally, good deeds towards others.
Gives a small definition of human nobility: “That is, downright noble, whose heart cannot help but tremble with tender joy at the single name of the fatherland and who feels no differently at that memory (which is incessant in him), as if it were said about the most precious thing in the world parts of it."
Talks about true nobility. " True nobility - There are virtuous deeds, enlivened by true honor, which is not found anywhere else, as in continuous beneficence to the human race, but mainly to one’s compatriots, rewarding each according to his dignity and according to the prescribed laws of nature and government.”
This is exactly how A.N. sees the son of the fatherland. Radishchev.
Now I would like to express my opinion and tell you what it looks like in my opinion true son fatherland.
I would be lying if I said that I did not agree with A.N.’s point of view. Radishcheva.
Of course, anyone else would want to stand out and stand out, show their supposed “courage” and argue with such wise man. However, I do not consider myself smarter than such people, therefore, expressing my point of view, I fully support this author. Since his thoughts are really close to me, is there any point in trying to dispute what is true? That's right, there's no point. So let's start thinking about it this issue: “What is a son of the fatherland?”
Having thought about this question, I realized that it is worth considering the “son of the fatherland” not as young man, eager to become one, but a person in general, and no matter what gender, race and age he belongs to.
So what does he seem like to me?
This is a Man (yes, exactly with capital letters), and not just a creature that looks like a person. As I wrote this, I was reminded of “ catchphrase"by the great Russian writer A.P. Chekhov: “Everything in a person should be beautiful: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts...”
How can you disagree with this? This expression is closely related to my ideas of a son of the fatherland.
However, I do not believe that a person is only naturally capable of becoming a patriot. It seems to me that this can be developed in oneself by improving throughout one’s life.
The fundamental principle, in my opinion, should be love for the fatherland. How can a person call himself a patriot if he hates his homeland? Well, okay, he doesn’t really hate her, he’s just indifferent to her. Yes, he was born here, grew up, and grew old, but this does not mean at all that he has a love for this place. To be honest, it is even very difficult to explain what love for the Fatherland is, as well as the term love in general. Since I don’t have enough life experience yet, I’ll stop thinking about it and “move on.”
Face. It can also be viewed from several angles. The face as a part of the body, and the face as honor, respect and place in society. What does this mean, the face of a patriot must be beautiful? Those. he should be well-groomed and handsome, or maybe his face should be completely symmetrical? Firstly, there are no absolutely symmetrical features, and secondly, in this context, it makes no difference whether the son of the fatherland is handsome or not, and it makes absolutely no difference whether he is good-looking. It's not about beauty, but about the expression, the message emanating from him. And more importantly, it's not external characteristic, and the concept of “face” as a person’s position in society. This means that the son of the fatherland must represent the best class of society (this in no way depends on financial status, nobility in society), and have respect for himself from people. But this respect should not be bribed, or hypocritically built, but true; and this must be earned, but in part it is very difficult to do. Good deeds will help you, because the main thing is not what a person says, but what he does.
Perhaps we will omit consideration of the concept of “clothing”, because it is not very interesting to me, and, perhaps, completely indifferent. Although, of course, one should not forget the proverb: “They meet you by their clothes, they see you off by their intelligence.”
Let's turn to the "soul". I believe that for the son of the fatherland she plays one of important roles. In general, the soul occupies an important place in the life of every person. No wonder psychology studies it. After all, any soul has a huge number of aspects, and it is eternal. Most often, a person tries not to show it, but everything that does not happen to us, no matter what actions we perform, no matter what we think about - it is all directly related to our state of mind.
What should the soul of a “true person” look like? It is unlikely that a definite answer can be given, because... I do not have psychological education, but it seems to me that it should be clean. It should not accumulate negative emotions in relation to other people, life; There is also no place for fears. His soul must be beautiful, it inspires a person, and also, I am not afraid to repeat, it must contain love for the homeland, neighbors, all creatures on earth, and there must be no self-interest. But perhaps there may be pain, pain from the imperfections of people and the fatherland itself; the desire to help her and be a savior.
And now we come to “thought”. This is much more complicated. After all, they are completely independent of us and emerge on their own. We cannot stop the “running of thoughts” even for a second, let alone for minutes. This is exactly what we have absolutely no control over.
But still, what thoughts should prevail in the head of a patriotic person? To be honest, I doubt that even true patriot Every day, every minute, he will think about his homeland, about love for it, for his compatriots. I think that to think like that means to be mistaken. Because we are all human, and we have a lot of events, experiences, grief and joy, problems and a huge number of “flowers of this bouquet” going on in our lives.
Probably, good intentions should arise in his head, and evil thoughts should be completely absent.
Now, continuing to reflect on my ideas about the son of the fatherland, it seems to me worth touching on the qualities that he should possess and, perhaps, some character traits.
Again, I’ll make a reservation that I don’t have big scientific knowledge and I may be mistaken in many ways, for which I apologize, but still I express my point of view, which is why I have every reason to write about what I think.
He must represent a man of virtue. Good deeds, reasonable thoughts, desire for improvement, helping people, solidarity, understanding, trying to make this world a better place. And all this is not full list what should be present in it.
Do good. Also, “good” is a flexible concept. As they say, “do no harm.” The son of the fatherland is obliged to treat people kindly and try to help them as much as he can. Or rather, treat them the way he would like to be treated.
Tolerance. He must be patient with others. After all, each person is individual, and sometimes you have to endure the not very pleasant qualities of even your family and friends.
Most likely, he should be more of an optimist than a pessimist. Otherwise, how can we talk about the prosperity of the state and homeland if all people begin to think pessimistically, and they do not want to talk about patriotism at all, much less become patriots.
The ability to forgive. This is one of the most remarkable qualities, which, in my opinion, should also belong to the son of the fatherland. After all, almost every person has the right to be forgiven and given another chance; it’s another matter if after that even the person does not change. But that's another conversation. He needs to be able to forgive and mentally let go of this person.
One can talk about good qualities forever, but of course, it is not a fact that a true patriot will look exactly like this and have such qualities.
But once again I hasten to note that I am creating my own image of “the ideal - the son of the fatherland”; naturally, such people have not yet been born in this world.
I would call this a kind of wish, what qualities I would like him to have.
Since we have considered the good qualities, let us list, perhaps, what we would under no circumstances want to find in a son of the fatherland.
Cowardice. He must be brave and ready for exploits for the sake of his homeland. Of course, this should not be taken to the point of absurdity, as in Michel de Cervantes' novel Don Quixote.
Deception, hypocrisy. They should not be inherent not only to the son of the fatherland, but also to man in general.
Pessimism - I already talked about it. You need to believe in your strength, in a better future and world peace.
Hatred. It is impossible to be a patriot while hating people and the world in general.
Racism. The son of the fatherland must treat equally well all peoples living on the territory of his homeland. There is no better or worse people.
Treason. Most terrible vice. A traitor to his homeland cannot under any circumstances be called a patriot.
Breaking laws. The laws of the state must be respected. And most important of all is observance of God's laws.
This is a small list of what should not be included in the concept of such a person as “son of the fatherland.”
Having considered the son of the fatherland from my point of view, I would now like to turn directly to the main topic of this essay, namely: “Does patriotism exist today?”
And again, depending on what we mean by this word.
For me patriotism- this is love for the fatherland, service to one’s homeland; lies in the ability to preserve valuables and, most likely, in the ability to make sacrifices for the well-being of one’s fatherland.
To be honest, this question left me a little stumped. If you were to ask me whether there was patriotism in our country during the Great Patriotic War, I would answer without hesitation - yes!
The devotion of these people, ready to die for the sake of their homeland, still delights us...
Pride for them, as well as tears, pity and regret that they had such a hard time, they won for us, for the sake of the peaceful sky above our heads! And we will never be able to thank them for the fact that we now live in freedom and peace. What a pity that my current peers sometimes don’t think about this, and victory in the Second World War is just a formality for them, and something that remains in the history of the last century...
What can I say about today's life, about youth and patriotism?
I believe that it is simply impossible to give a definite answer here.
Let's say I say that there is patriotism now. But is it? And if there is, is it to such an exalted degree as it was before?
Still, I would like to believe that patriotism has been preserved in our country (we will not consider other countries), but it is definitely not so pronounced.
Of course, our government has said more than once at various speeches, conferences, and so on, that it is necessary to develop patriotic qualities in today’s youth.
But really look at it. Is there even a drop of patriotism visible in the cheerful guys standing with cans of beer and smoking? I doubt that in the “mighty Russian language” they speak about their grandfathers and great-grandfathers and about the son of the fatherland... Or how they “excuse themselves” from the army (unfortunately, there is no other way to say it), buy military tickets, and do not want to serve, defend their homeland ...
Can this be called such a big word as patriotism?
Either I don’t understand at all what this concept means, or in reality, patriotism is practically absent (however, it is so described in theory).
Naturally, I cannot say that all my peers are exactly like this, and that we all (including me) do not understand anything about patriotism and do not think about it. It’s just that, unfortunately, the number of young people described above is becoming more and more numerous every year (it’s even scary to think what will happen next).
In addition, patriotism still remains in those people who defended us, or rather in those who survived after the Second World War.
He is probably present in the hearts of those who go to serve in the army, go to navy and carry out military missions. In those who have love in their homeland, and they are ready to defend it.
It is quite possible that patriotic feelings can arise completely unnoticed.
At this moment you understand that you are proud of your homeland, you understand that you miss it, and better than my homeland and not to be found.
But, still, if you face the truth, and from pleasant dreams of returning to the real world, it becomes a little sad, and maybe a lot.
After all, the reality is harsher than we try to see it.
Honestly, sometimes I think about the fact that if a war ever breaks out (God forbid), who will go to protect us? Will patriotic feelings arise in people and will they be ready to sacrifice themselves and their lives for the sake of their homeland, for the sake of their fatherland?
I'm sorry, but I can't give a positive answer. Maybe most people will run away in all directions, get scared, hide somewhere, and tremble together and wait for death?
Or, on the contrary, will all this unite their spirit, and a strong, friendly, powerful state will arise?
Nobody knows, and only time will tell. But I still want to believe in the best.
To summarize, I understand that it is now impossible to say unequivocally about patriotism. Especially for me, a second-year student who still has little life experience. This topic needs to be developed by several people, and preferably with some knowledge in this matter.
I thought about one more question. Do I consider myself a patriot?
And again, ambiguous thoughts swirled in my head.
If we consider from the point of view of all those good qualities that I described at the beginning of the essay, then according to some criteria I do not fit.
In addition, after analyzing today’s youth, of which I am to some extent, I am also not very suitable to be called a “son of the fatherland.”
However, if you look at the love for the homeland - yes, I love my homeland, but at the same time I am not always happy with what is happening in the state, in my homeland.
And sometimes I am completely depressed by the situation in our country, social inequality, an incredible amount of crimes, oppression, misunderstanding of views and much, much more...
Although if I had lived during the Second World War, I would still have stood up to defend the fatherland, my family and friends, and just people in general.
So who am I, a patriot or not? This question will most likely remain rhetorical.
In conclusion, I would like to add that it was not easy for me to include Pushkin’s epigraph at the beginning of the essay. He, like no one else, knew how to write about his homeland, and was a true patriot.
I came to the conclusion that the topic that A.N. touched on in his article. Radishchev, is still relevant in our time. But, as I said, it is impossible to consider this topic from one side and superficially. We need years of studying this issue.
And, perhaps, with each century, this problem will be studied in a new way, with different aspects, by different people.