Under uniformity of measurements is understood as such their implementation, which ensures the reliability and comparability of the results of homogeneous measurements, and the values ​​of the measured quantities are expressed in legalized and generally accepted units.

The entire social practice of people's activities and especially their cognitive process require the sameness, the unity of essentially similar dimensions. Therefore, various units of measurement arose - measures.

For example, from ancient times the unit of measurement for precious stones is known - carat (translated as “bean seed”, “pea”), as well as the pharmaceutical unit for measuring the weight of medicinal granules - grain (“grain”). In Rus', such units of length as vershok (“top of the finger”, i.e. the length of the terminal phalanx) were previously used index finger) and span (from the word “five”, “five” - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and index finger). There were also such Russian measures of length as arshin, equal to approximately 0.7 meters, as well as sazhen (from the word “reach”, “reach”), i.e. distance at which you can reach by hand, and equal to length three cubits; oblique fathom - the maximum distance from the sole of the left foot to the end of the middle finger extended upward right hand; fly fathom - the distance between the ends of the fingers of outstretched hands; verst (from “vert”, “turn” the plow back) is the length of the furrow of the arable land, equal to 500 to 1000 fathoms; field - the distance that a horse runs from rest to rest, equal to approximately 20 miles.

The first international General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCPM) took place in 1889. At this forum, Russia received two meter standards made of a platinum-iridium alloy. The length of 1 meter on the standards was marked with strokes.

Subsequent, regularly convened CGPM clarified the values ​​of the basic units of measurement and improved their standards - the standards of the kilogram, meter, second.

The decisions of the international CGPM were accepted for implementation by many countries on a voluntary basis. So, for example, on September 14, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted a legislative decree “On the introduction of the International Metric decimal system weights and measures."

In 1960, at the 11th CGPM, the main international standards were adopted and are still used by all countries of the world today.

nal units of measurement (SI - international system) and their standards.

The Law on the Uniformity of Measurements, adopted in our country on April 27, 1993, establishes the legal basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements in the Russian Federation, regulates the relations of government bodies of the Russian Federation with legal entities and individuals on the issues of manufacturing, production, operation, repair, sale and import of equipment measurements and is aimed at protecting the rights and legitimate interests of citizens, the established legal order and the economy from negative consequences unreliable measurement results.

For the purposes of this Law of the Russian Federation, the following basic concepts and their definitions are established:

Unity of measurements is a state of measurements in which their results are expressed in legal units of quantities and measurement errors do not go beyond established boundaries with a given probability;

Measuring instruments - a technical device intended for measurements;

A standard of a unit of quantity is a measuring instrument intended for reproducing and storing a unit of quantity (or multiple or sub-multiple values ​​of a unit of quantity) for the purpose of transferring its size to other means of measuring a given quantity;

State standard of a unit of magnitude - standard of a unit of magnitude, recognized by decision an authorized state body as the source on the territory of the Russian Federation;

Regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements - state standards, duly applied international (regional) standards, rules, regulations, instructions and recommendations;

Metrological service - a set of subjects of activity and types of work aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

Metrological control and supervision - activities carried out by the state metrological service body (state metrological control and supervision) or the metrological service of a legal entity in order to verify compliance with established metrological rules and regulations;

Checking a measuring instrument is a set of operations performed by the state metrological service bodies (other authorized bodies, organizations) in order to determine and confirm the compliance of the measuring instrument with the established technical requirements;

Calibration of a measuring instrument is a set of operations performed to determine and confirm the actual values ​​of metrological characteristics and (or) suitability for use of a measuring instrument that is not subject to state metrological control and supervision.

Ensuring the uniformity of measurements is carried out by a set of legal, organizational, technical and economic measures.

The legal basis for the implementation of uniformity of measurements is legal metrology, which creates state acts and regulatory documents various levels(for example, government and industry standards, enterprise standards, technical specifications, methods, etc.) regulating metrological rules, requirements and standards. Legal guarantee ensuring the uniformity of measurements is subject to administrative and criminal liability for violation of requirements legal metrology.

The unity of measurement is ensured by the subjects of metrology - the State Metrological Service, which is led by Rostekhregulirovanie, which links its activities with industry metrological organizations, metrological services of the federal authorities of the Russian Federation and metrological services of legal entities.

The State Metrological Service includes seven state scientific metrological centers, the All-Russian Research Institute of Metrological Service and about 100 centers.

State metrological service carries out state control and supervision in the field of metrology and supervision in the field of measurement.

Objects of state control: measuring instruments, including standards, methods for performing measurements, the number of packaged goods in packages of any type during their packaging and sale, etc.

State metrological control includes:

Measurement type approval;

Verification of measuring instruments;

Licensing of activities of legal entities and individuals for the manufacture and repair of measuring instruments.

State metrological supervision is carried out:

The number of goods alienated during trade operations;

The number of packaged goods in packages of any type during their packaging and sale;

Issue, condition and use of measuring instruments, certified measurement techniques, standards of units of quantities, compliance with metrological rules and regulations.

Measuring instruments that are not subject to state metrological control are subject to calibration.

Organizational support for the uniformity of measurements is carried out by Rostekhregulirovanie and its divisions in the regions of the country, as well as departmental metrological services.

The technical basis for the uniformity of measurements is a system for storing standards, as well as a system for reproducing and distributing prototypes or equivalents with the transfer of information about them to everyone interested in this.

The economic factor of ensuring the uniformity of measurements is objective requirements this to create the necessary products and their market exchange. Actually, all practical economics needs unity of measurements of properties, their combinations, qualities, values, etc.

The subjects of metrology include: 1) State Metrological Service of the Russian Federation (SMS); 2) metrological services of federal executive authorities and legal entities (MS); 3) international metrological organizations.

State Metrological Service is under the jurisdiction of Gosstandart and includes:

state scientific metrology centers (SSMC);

State Migration Service bodies in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation (on the territory of republics, autonomous regions, autonomous okrugs, territories, regions), as well as the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg.

State scientific metrology centers are represented by such institutes as the All-Russian Research Institute of Metrological Service (VNIIMS, Moscow), the All-Russian Research Institute of Metrology named after D. I. Mendeleev (VNIIM, St. Petersburg); NPO “VNII of physical-technical and radio-technical measurements” (VNIIFTRI, Mendeleevo village, Moscow region); Ural Research Institute of Metrology (UNIIM, Yekaterinburg), etc. These scientific centers are engaged not only in the development of scientific and methodological foundations for improving the Russian measurement system, but are also holders of state standards.

In Russia there are more than 100 CMS (respectively their metrological divisions), which perform the functions of regional HMS bodies in the territories of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Gosstandart manages three state reference services: Civil service time, frequency and determination of the parameters of the rotation of the Earth (GSVCh), the State Service for Standard Samples of the Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSO) and the State Service for Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSSD).

GSVCH carries out interregional and intersectoral coordination of work to ensure the uniformity of measurements of time, frequency and determination of the parameters of the Earth's rotation. The average resident of the country learns about this service twice a year - during the transition to summer and winter time. Consumers of GSHF measurement information are navigation and control services for aircraft, ships and satellites, the Unified Energy System, etc.

GSSO ensures the creation and application of this. topics of standard (reference) samples of the composition and properties of substances and materials - metals and alloys, petroleum products, medical preparations, soil samples, hardness samples of various materials, gas samples and gas mixtures etc. The practical value of CO is shown above.

GSSD ensures the development of reliable data on physical constants, on the properties of substances and materials, including structural materials, mineral raw materials, oil, gas, etc. Consumers of GSSD information are organizations designing equipment products, the accuracy of the characteristics of which is subject to particularly stringent requirements. Designers This technique cannot rely on conflicting information about property indicators contained in the reference literature.

Metrological services of federal executive authorities and legal entities can be created in ministries (departments), organizations, enterprises and institutions that are legal entities to carry out work to ensure the uniformity and required accuracy of measurements, carry out metrological control and supervision.

When performing work in the areas provided for in Art. 13 of the Law of the Russian Federation, the creation of MS to ensure uniformity of measurements is mandatory. Thus, MGs were created in the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Atomic Energy, the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Ministry of Defense Industry and other federal executive bodies. MS operate in RAO UES of Russia, RAO Gazprom, NK YUKOS, NK Lukoil.

The rights and obligations of the MS are determined by the provisions on them, approved by the heads of management bodies or legal entities.

If at fairly large enterprises (in legally approved areas) full-fledged MSs are organized, then at small enterprises Gosstandart recommends appointing persons responsible for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. A job description is approved for responsible persons, which establishes their functions, rights, duties and responsibilities.

International metrological organizations act with late XIX V. As noted above, in 1875, 17 states, including Russia, signed in Paris. The Metric Convention, which was essentially the first international standard. At the same time, the first international metrological institution was created - the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which is still actively functioning, coordinating the activities of metrological organizations in more than 100 countries. The BIPM is located in France, in the city of Sèvres. The BIPM stores international prototypes of the meter and kilogram and some other standards, and also organizes periodic comparisons of national standards with international ones. The management of the BIPM's activities is carried out by the International Committee of Weights and Measures (CIPM), created simultaneously with the BIPM.

On average, once every 4 years the General Conference on Weights and Measures meets, making general decisions that are most important for the development of metrology and measuring technology.

In 1956, the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OILM) was established, whose members (as of 1998) are 85 countries. OIML develops general issues of legal metrology: establishment of SI accuracy classes; ensuring uniformity of certain types, samples and systems of measuring instruments; recommendations for their testing in order to establish the uniformity of metrological characteristics of measuring instruments regardless of the country of manufacture; procedure for verification and calibration of measuring instruments, etc.

During the period 1996-1997. The metrological institutes of Gosstandart maintained 3 TCs, 12 PCs of the OIML and ISO. These TCs and PCs carried out the development of 16 draft international documents authored by Russia.

Russia participates in the Organization for Cooperation of State Metrological Institutions of Central and Eastern Europe (COOMET). Russian organizations lead or participate in the implementation of 60% of COOMET topics.

The results of many years of activity of international organizations are very effective. Thanks to their efforts, the International System of Units has been adopted in most countries of the world. physical quantities(SI) comparable terminology is in effect, recommendations have been adopted on methods for standardizing the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments, on certification of measuring instruments, on testing measuring instruments before the release of serial products.

In its activities, the State Migration Service of Russia has to take into account the documents of regional international metrological organizations, as well as foreign national metrological organizations of the USA, Great Britain, etc.

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1. Subjects of metrology

metrology standard measurement

Subjects of metrology are legal entities and individuals carrying out metrological activities. These include international and regional metrology organizations, as well as metrological services (state and legal entities).

Metrological service - a structural unit organizing and/or performing work and/or providing services to ensure the uniformity of measurements central office federal executive body and/or its territorial body, legal entity or structural unit of a legal entity or association of legal entities, employees of a legal entity, individual entrepreneur.

There are three levels of metrology subjects: international, regional and national (Fig. 1).

The international level is represented by international metrological organizations, which include representatives national organizations in metrology, and regional - by metrological organizations of the countries of a certain region globe. The national metrology level has two sublevels:

* state;

* services of legal entities.

The state sublevel of metrology includes Rostekhregulirovanie, scientific metrology centers (NMC) and standardization and metrology centers (TSSM). Each group of subjects at the national sublevel has certain functions and area of ​​competence.

Rostekhregulirovanie ( federal Service on technical regulation and metrology) carries out state management of ensuring the uniformity of measurements. His competence includes:

* submission to the Government of the Russian Federation of proposals on units of quantities allowed for use;

* establishing rules for the creation, approval, storage and use of standards of units of quantities;

* determination of general metrological requirements for means, methods and results of measurements;

* implementation of state metrological control and supervision,

* monitoring compliance with conditions international treaties Russian Federation on recognition of test results and verification of measuring instruments;

Rice. 1. Structure of metrology subjects

CIPM - International Committee of Weights and Measures, BIPM - International Bureau of Weights and Measures, OIML - International Organization of Legal Metrology, ISO - International Organization for Standardization, TC - Technical Committee, SSMC - State Scientific Metrological Centers, RKS - - Russian calibration service, MSO - metrological service of industries, SME - metrological service of enterprises, TsSM - center for standardization and metrology

* management of the activities of the State Metrological Service and other state services to ensure the uniformity of measurements;

*participation in activities international organizations on issues of ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

The State Metrological Service is under the jurisdiction of Rostechregulirovanie and includes:

* state scientific metrological centers (SSMC);

* bodies of the State Metrological Service in the regions of Russia.

SSMC is represented by the State Service for Time, Frequency and Determination of Earth Rotation Parameters (GSVP), the State Service for Standard Samples, Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSO) and the State Service for Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSSD). The management and coordination of their activities is carried out by Rostekhregulirovanie.

SSMC are responsible for the creation, improvement, storage and application of state standards of units of quantities, as well as for the development of regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements

The bodies of the State Metrological Service include CSMs that carry out state metrological control and supervision in all regions of Russia.

The metrological service of legal entities is represented by the metrological services of federal government bodies and enterprises (SMEs) that are legal entities (Law on Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements). Metrological services in government agencies and enterprises are created, if necessary, in the prescribed manner to carry out work to ensure the uniformity and required accuracy of measurements, as well as to carry out metrological control and supervision. When performing work in areas where verification of measuring instruments is necessary, the creation of metrological services and other organizational structures to ensure the uniformity of measurements is mandatory.

Metrological services of legal entities carry out metrological control by calibrating measuring instruments, monitoring the condition and use of measuring instruments, certified measurement methods, standards of units of quantities used for calibration of measuring instruments, as well as compliance with established metrological rules and norms. In addition, they check the timeliness of submission of measuring instruments for testing in order to approve the type of measuring instruments, as well as for verification and calibration.

2. Verification and calibration tools

Measuring instruments used in the areas of state metrological control are subject to verification upon release from production and repair, upon import, during operation and sale.

Verification is the establishment of the suitability of measuring instruments for use on the basis of experimentally determined metrological characteristics and monitoring their compliance with established requirements.

There are state and departmental verification, as well as primary verification (when leaving production, after repair, when importing from abroad) and periodically carried out at set intervals. Periodic verifications are established based on the serviceability of the measuring instruments between verifications. It is possible to carry out extraordinary and inspection verifications.

Extraordinary verification is carried out, regardless of the period of periodic verification, when it is necessary to ensure the serviceability of the measuring instrument. Extraordinary verification is carried out during control of the verification process, if the verification mark is damaged.

Inspection verification is carried out during a metrological audit. The check is carried out by the metrological service. Verification measurements are carried out under normal conditions, which are regulated by GOST 8.395-80 - Normal conditions during verification. General requirements. Verification is one of the links in transferring the unit size from the standard to the working measuring instruments.

The body of the state metrological service carries out accreditation for the right to conduct verification. By decision of the state standard, the right of verification may be granted to other organizations, subject to their accreditation for the right of verification. The accreditation procedure is established state standard. Verification is carried out by persons certified as verifiers by the state metrological service.

Verification is divided into 3 parts: metrological, technical and administrative. During metrological verification the following is established:

the main error of the device;

stability, repeatability and drift;

sensitivity to electromagnetic interference, resolution of reading devices, etc.

During technical verification, the following is carried out: verification general condition measuring instruments, detection of dirt, wear, correct installation of measuring instruments, assessment of the possibility of obtaining incorrect measurements due to deliberate misuse.

During administrative verification, the presence of a verification mark or verification certificate, the date of the previous verification, the integrity of brands, locks and other devices, and the availability of documents (verification protocols, repairs) are checked.

Primary verification is carried out to ensure compliance of the introduced measuring instruments with the approved type. Subsequent verification is carried out in order to establish the suitability for use of measuring instruments in operation and confirm or remove this status. Primary verification can be carried out on the territory of the manufacturer, user, state metrological service body or independent organization. The place of verification is determined by the manufacturer, trading organization or user.

Primary verification can be carried out in stages, for example: part of the verification can be carried out before installation, and part after installation of the measuring instrument at the site of operation. As a rule, each copy of the SI is subject to primary verification. For the simplest measuring instruments produced in mass production, selective verification is allowed. If the results of random verification are positive, all measuring instruments from the verified batch are marked with a verification mark. Each sample of measuring instruments or the corresponding sample of a given set of measuring instruments must undergo subsequent verification. Each measuring instrument is subjected to periodic verification after a certain number of measurements since the last verification or at certain time intervals. State metrological service bodies are obliged to take into account the results of subsequent verifications and develop recommendations for adjusting the verification interval. The result is confirmation of the suitability of the measuring instruments for use in areas subject to state metrological control, or recognition of the measuring instruments as unsuitable. If the verification results are positive, a verification mark is applied to the measuring instrument and (or) a certificate is issued - a verification certificate. For unsuitable measuring instruments, the certificate and the stamp of the verification mark are canceled and a certificate of unsuitability is issued. Bodies of the state metrological service must ensure control of the verification process. During control, the rules and methods of verification, the personnel conducting verification, standards and auxiliary equipment, verification intervals, time and place of verification, etc. are checked.

Calibration of measuring instruments is a set of operations performed to determine and confirm the actual values ​​of metrological characteristics and / or suitability for use of measuring instruments that are not subject to state metrological control and supervision. The suitability of a measuring instrument means the compliance of its metrological characteristics with previously established technical requirements, which may be contained in a regulatory document or determined by the customer. The determination of suitability is made by the calibration laboratory.

Calibration replaced the departmental verification and metrological certification of measuring instruments that previously existed in our country. Unlike verification, which is carried out by state metrological service bodies, calibration can be carried out by any metrological service (or individual) if there are appropriate conditions for the qualified performance of this work. Calibration is a voluntary operation and can also be performed by the metrological service of the enterprise itself. This is another difference from verification, which, as mentioned above, is mandatory and is subject to control by the State Migration Service.

However, the voluntary nature of calibration does not relieve the enterprise’s metrological service from the need to comply with certain requirements. The main one is traceability, i.e. mandatory “linking” of the working measuring instrument to the national (state) standard. Therefore, the calibration function should be considered as component national system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. And if we take into account that the principles of the national system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements are harmonized with international rules and regulations, then calibration is included in the global system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

Fulfillment of this requirement (“binding” to the standard) is also important from another point of view: measurements are an integral part of technological processes, i.e. they directly affect product quality. In this regard, measurement results must be comparable, which is achieved only by transferring unit sizes from state standards and compliance with the norms and rules of legal metrology. Confidence in the product seller is supported by certificates of calibration of measuring instruments issued on behalf of a reputable national metrological organization.

The introduction of calibration in Russia has its own characteristics. IN Western countries calibration work expanded and developed, growing out of the needs to increase the competitiveness of products, and at the same time, a rather limited range of measuring instruments was subject to verification (as a mandatory function). In Russia, calibration is a product of the denationalization of processes for monitoring the serviceability of devices. And, consequently, the rejection of the universal obligation of verification brought to life the function of calibration. This process of liberalization of metrological control is not welcomed by everyone and does not go smoothly. Metrologists of both the State Metrological Service and metrological services of enterprises have to move from familiar forms of interaction, worked out over decades, to new relationships, which often causes a negative reaction.

The introduction of calibration is objectively hampered by the lack of competition. There is a certain contradiction here. On the one hand, enterprises, in accordance with the law, have the right to independently organize the calibration of measuring instruments and are not interested (in the absence of competition) in being accredited by the competent accreditation bodies for the right to carry out calibration work. On the other hand, enterprises understand that isolation from the state system of transferring unit sizes from state standards according to an established scheme to working measuring instruments can lead to a loss of accuracy and reliability of measurement results.

The following options for organizing calibration work are possible:

the enterprise independently organizes calibration work and is not accredited in any system;

an enterprise interested in increasing the competitiveness of products is accredited in the Russian Calibration System (RSC) for the right to carry out calibration work on behalf of the organization that accredited it;

the enterprise is accredited by RSK for the purpose of performing calibration work on a commercial basis;

enterprises accredited for the right to verify measuring instruments simultaneously receive an accreditation certificate for the right to carry out calibration work for the same types (areas) of measurements;

metrological institutes and bodies of the State Metrological Service are registered with the RSK simultaneously as accreditation bodies and as calibration organizations;

accreditation of the enterprise as a calibration laboratory in a foreign open calibration service.

To date, the preferred options for organizing the calibration business in Russia have not yet been determined. But we can already talk about the principles of organizing the DGC. Russian system calibration is based on principles such as voluntary entry; mandatory transfer of unit sizes from state standards to working measuring instruments; professionalism and technical competence of DGC entities; self-sufficiency.

A standard of a unit of physical quantity is a measuring instrument or a set of measuring instruments intended for reproducing and storing units and transmitting its size to a measuring instrument lower in the verification scheme and approved as a standard in the prescribed manner.

A primary standard is a standard that reproduces a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy possible in a given field of measurement. modern level scientific and technical achievements. The primary standard can be national (state) and international.

The national standard is approved as the initial measuring instrument for the country by the national metrology body. In Russia, national (state) standards are approved by the State Standard of the Russian Federation.

International standards are stored and maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). The most important task The activities of the BIPM consist in systematic international comparisons of national standards of the largest metrological laboratories of different countries with international standards, as well as among themselves, which is necessary to ensure the reliability, accuracy and uniformity of measurements as one of the conditions for international economic ties. Both standards of basic quantities of the SI system and derivatives are subject to comparison. Certain comparison periods have been established. For example, meter and kilogram standards are compared every 25 years, and electrical and light standards - once every 3 years.

Secondary and working (discharge) standards are subordinate to the primary standard. The size of the reproduced unit is compared with the state standard using a secondary standard. Secondary standards (they are sometimes called “copy standards”) can be approved either by the State Standard of the Russian Federation or by state scientific metrological centers, which is due to the peculiarities of their use. Working standards receive the size of a unit from secondary standards and in turn serve to convey the size to a less accurate working standard (or standard of a lower rank) and working measuring instruments.

Verification diagram for measuring instruments - normative document, establishing the subordination of measuring instruments involved in transferring the unit size from the standard to working measuring instruments (indicating the methods and errors in the transfer).

To provide correct transmission the sizes of units of measurement from the standard to the working measuring instruments are made up of verification schemes that establish metrological subordination of the state standard, digit standards and working measuring instruments.

Verification schemes are divided into state and local. State verification schemes apply to all measuring instruments of this type used in the country. Local verification schemes are intended for metrological bodies of ministries; they also apply to measuring instruments of subordinate enterprises. In addition, a local diagram can be drawn up for the measuring instruments used at a particular enterprise. All local verification schemes must comply with the requirements of subordination, which are determined by the state verification scheme (Fig. 31.2). State verification schemes are developed by research institutes of the State Standard of the Russian Federation, holders of state standards.

In some cases, it may be impossible to reproduce the entire range of values ​​with one standard; therefore, the circuit may provide several primary standards, which together reproduce the entire measurement scale. For example, the temperature scale from 1.5 to 1*105 K is reproduced by two state standards.

State verification schemes are approved by the State Standard of the Russian Federation, and local verification schemes are approved by departmental metrological services or enterprise management.

Let's consider in general view contents of the state verification scheme.

The names of standards and working measuring instruments are usually placed in rectangles (for the state standard the rectangle is double-circuit). The metrological characteristics for this stage of the circuit are also indicated here. At the bottom of the diagram there are working measuring instruments, which, depending on their degree of accuracy (i.e., measurement error), are divided into five categories: highest accuracy; highest precision; high precision; average accuracy; lower accuracy. Highest accuracy usually commensurate with the degree of error of the measuring instrument of the state standard. At each stage of the verification scheme, the procedure (method) for transferring the unit size is regulated. The names of verification (calibration) methods are located in ovals, which also indicate the permissible error of the verification (calibration) method. The main indicator of the reliability of the transmission of the size of a unit of quantity is the ratio of the errors of the measuring instruments between the higher and lower levels of the verification scheme. Ideally, this ratio should be 1:10, but in practice it cannot be achieved, and the minimum acceptable ratio is considered to be 1:3. How larger value this ratio, the less confidence in the reliability of the readings of the measuring device.

When developing specific verification schemes, it is necessary to follow the given scheme. Strict adherence to verification schemes and timely verification of discharge standards - the necessary conditions to transfer reliable dimensions of units of measurement to working measuring instruments.

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Objects and subjects of metrology

Questions:

1. Metrology objects. Quantities, their classification and characteristics
2. Classification of physical quantities and their units of measurement
3. Types of measurements
4. Subjects of metrology, their classification and a brief description of – Practical work

1. Metrology objects: quantities, their classification and characteristics

The main objects of metrology are quantities and measurements.

Magnitude - a property of the measured object, common in a qualitative sense for all objects of the same name, but individual in a quantitative sense.

Quantities are divided into physical and non-physical.

Physical quantityone of the properties of a physical object ( physical system, phenomenon or process), common in qualitative terms for many physical objects, but quantitatively individual for each of them

Not physical quantities- properties of economic, psychological and similar objects that are not related to physical objects. Their measurement is carried out indirectly, through physical quantities.

For example, an economic characteristic - price - has a monetary expression relative to certain units of measurement (kilogram, meter, etc.). This psychological property personality, how reaction speed is expressed in units of time (for example, decision-making time).

For a long time It was believed that only physical quantities could be objects of metrology. However, recently there has been a need to measure non-physical quantities, mainly through physical quantities. Thus, the scope of metrology has expanded significantly.

At the same time, it should be noted that some authors (M.N. Selivanov, I.M. Lifits) believe that it is advisable to apply the term “evaluation” rather than “measurement” to non-physical quantities. At the same time, in the new Federal Law of OEI only the term “measurement” is used.

From the definition of the term “quantity” it follows that it has two characteristics: quality, or dimension , defined as a name, and quantitative, or size , defined as the value of the measured quantity.

Obtaining information about the size of a physical and non-physical quantity is the goal and end result any dimension.

The set of names of physical quantities and units of their measurements constitutemeasurement system.

The values ​​of the measured quantities, as noted, are individual and to a certain extent random, which is due tobasic postulate of metrology: “Any count is random.”

Despite this, in metrology it is customary to distinguish between the following values ​​of physical quantities: true, actual and the result of observation.

True value of physical quantities- the value that in an ideal way would reflect the corresponding physical quantity in qualitative and quantitative terms.

Real value of physical quantities- the value of physical quantities found experimentally and so close to the true value that for the given measurement task it can replace it.

Observation result- a single actually measured value of physical quantities.

The values ​​of physical quantities are expressed in established, accepted units of measurement.

Unit of value- a fixed value of a quantity, which is taken as a unit of a given quantity and is used for quantitative expression homogeneous quantities.

The measurement of a specific physical quantity is carried out by comparing it with the value taken as the unit of this quantity. The result of the measurement will be a certain number showing the relationship of the measured quantity with the unit of physical quantity.

2. Classification of physical quantities and units of their change

The classification of units of measurement of physical quantities is presented in Fig. 2.2.

Basic physical quantity- a quantity conventionally accepted as independent of other physical quantities. An example of a basic physical quantity is length, mass, etc. (Table 2.1).

Basic physical quantityis a physical quantity included in a system of quantities and conventionally accepted as independent of other quantities of this system (Table 2.1).

Derived physical quantity- a physical quantity determined through the basic quantities of this system. Derived quantities include volume, area, speed, relative density and etc.

Derived unit of physical quantity- unit of derivative physical quantity. Derived physical quantities can be obtained from physical quantities of the same or different names. An example of quantities of the same name can be submultiple units of mass: grams, milligrams, or multiples - ton (t), centner (c), and of opposite names - meters per second (m/s), grams per cubic decimeter (g/dm3), etc.

System of units of physical quantities -a set of basic and derived units of physical quantities, formed in accordance with the principles for a given system of physical quantities.

The first system of units of physical quantities was the metric system, which initially had two basic units: the meter, a unit of length, and the gram, a unit of weight. The metric system was first adopted in France (1840), then in Germany (1849). Subsequently, it was admitted along with national systems in Great Britain (1864), USA (1866), Russia (1899). However, along with metric system in other countries, national, historically established systems were also used, which are still used today. For example, the UK, US and Canada still use units that do not have an integer decimal relationship to the metric system.

In 1960, the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures approved the International System of Units, containing six basic physical quantities and abbreviated S.I. , in Russian transcription - SI. In 1970, this system was supplemented by the seventh main physical unit- amount of substance - mole. In 1980, SI was adopted in our country. (see table 2.1).

Units of measurement are one of the objects of the Federal Law OEI (Article 6), which regulates the requirements for units of quantities. (write off yourself)

The requirements for units of quantities are as follows:

1. In the Russian Federation, SI units of quantities are used, adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCWM) and recommended for use by the International Organization of Legal Metrology. The Government of the Russian Federation may allow non-systemic units of quantities to be used in the Russian Federation on an equal basis with SI units of quantities. The names of units of quantities allowed for use in the Russian Federation, their designations, writing rules, as well as the rules for their use are established by the Government of the Russian Federation;
2. characteristics and parameters of products supplied for export, including measuring instruments, can be expressed in units of quantities stipulated by the agreement (contract) concluded with the customer;
3. units of quantities are transferred to measuring instruments, technical systems and devices with measuring functions from standards of units of quantities and standard samples.

In Russia outside system units measurements are, for example, degrees Celsius and kilocalories along with kelvin and joule.

In accordance with the decisions of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) adopted in different years, act following definitions SI basic units.

Unit of length - meter - the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second.

Unit of mass - kilogram - mass, equal to mass international prototype of the kilogram.

Unit of time - second - duration of 9192631770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom not disturbed by external fields.

Unit of electric current- ampere - the strength of a constant current, which, when passing through two parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular section, located at a distance of 1 m from one another in a vacuum, would create a force between these conductors equal to 2·10-7 N per meter of length.

Thermodynamic temperature unit- kelvin - 1/273.16 part of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. The thermodynamic temperature can be expressed in degrees Celsius.

Unit of quantity of substance- mole - the amount of substance in a system containing the same amount structural elements, how many atoms are contained in carbohydrate nuclide-12 weighing 0.012 kg.

The unit of luminous intensity - candela - is the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source emitting monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 540·1012 Hz, energetic force of light in this direction is 1/683 W/sr.

As noted, along with system SI units, the use of non-system units is allowed. An example of non-systemic units of mass that are derivatives of the kilogram are the ton, quintal, pound, carat, spool, etc.

Derived units of physical quantities are divided into systemic and non-systemic, and in relation to the basic units - into multiples and submultiples.

A multiple unit of a physical quantity is a unit of a physical quantity that is an integer number of times larger than a systemic or non-systemic unit.

A fractional unit of a physical quantity is a unit of a physical quantity that is an integer number of times smaller than a systemic or non-systemic unit.

An example of a multiple unit of length to the basic unit - the meter - is the kilometer, and a subunit - the millimeter, centimeter, decimeter.

For ease of use of units of physical quantities, prefixes have been adopted to form multiples and submultiple units, for example, deci, centi, etc.

Practical work on units Copy tables from Sergeev pp. 21-29)

3. Types of measurements

Measurements are divided into types according to certain classification criteria(Fig. 2.3):

1) by method of obtaining information- into direct, indirect, cumulative and joint.

Direct measurements- measurements in which the desired value of a quantity is obtained directly from the measuring instrument, for example, measuring length with a ruler.

Indirect measurements - measurements in which the desired value of a quantity is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other physical quantities associated with the desired quantity by a known functional relationship, and calculation of the first through the second. For example, the starch content in potatoes and salt in brine are determined by the relative density of the tubers or brine.

Aggregate Measurements- measurements in which the actual values ​​of several homogeneous quantities are determined, and real value the desired value is established by solving a system of equations.

The number of equations of the system must be less number the desired quantities. Cumulative measurements are a more sophisticated version of direct measurements. For example, when determining the volume of an object, three lengths are measured: length (L), width ( d) and height (h ), and the volume is found using the formula V = Ldh.

Joint measurements- measurements in which the actual values ​​of inhomogeneous quantities are established in order to find the relationship between them. Joint measurements are a type of indirect. Often joint measurements are used to determine coefficients. For example, the warehouse load factor is calculated by measuring the weight of goods and the usable warehouse space they occupy;

2) by the nature of the measurement of the information received during the measurement process- into static, dynamic and statistical.

Static measurements- measurements that are carried out with practical constancy of the desired quantity, for example, measurement of mass metal object. Those. if characteristics are determined random processes, then the measurements are called static and can only be determined by repeated measurements.

Dynamic measurements- measurements during which the desired quantity changes over time. For example, when measuring the mass of a ground wet sample of a product, the mass decreases due to the constant evaporation of water.

Statistical measurements- measurements related to determining the characteristics of random processes, noise signals, etc., for example, measuring the mass of defective products during final control at the manufacturer;

3) according to the amount of measurement information - single and multiple.

Single measurements- measurements in which the number of measurements is equal to the number of measured quantities. In practice, it is recommended to consider the average result of at least two or three measurements as single. The disadvantage of single measurements is the possibility of gross, unresolved errors.

Multiple measurements - measurements in which the number of measurements ( n ) exceeds the number of measured quantities ( m ). Usually in practice n >3.

The purpose of repeated measurements is to reduce the influence of random errors on the measurement result;

4) in relation to basic units into absolute and relative.

Absolute measurements - measurements in which the result is based on direct measurements of one or more basic physical quantities, for example, measurement of length, area, volume, etc.

Relative measurements - measurements in which the actual value of the desired quantity is established as the ratio of one quantity to another homogeneous or inhomogeneous quantity. For example, the relative density of an object is stated as the ratio of mass to volume.

When measuring, the size or quantitative characteristic physical quantity. However, in a number of cases it becomes necessary to determine only the dimension of a physical quantity, i.e. its qualitative characteristics, for example, the acidity (pH) of the medium, the presence of electric current or any substance in a multicomponent medium. In such cases, detection is used.

Detection - establishment of qualitative characteristics of the desired physical quantity. When detected, the units of measurement are not set, but a zero when detected serves as confirmation of the absence of a physical quantity. For example, when an electric current is detected in the network, the device can record its absence.

Detection means are most often indicators, such as an electric current indicator; chemical indicators that detect the presence of certain substances in solutions (phenolphthalein and methyl orange are used to detect alkali in a solution; Tillmans reagent - ascorbic acid, etc.).

Thus, detection can be considered as a type of measurement of physical quantities related to its qualitative characteristics.

Requirements for measurements are established in the Federal Law OEI (Article 5) Write off yourself:

1. measurements related to the scope of state regulation of OEI must be carried out according to certified measurement techniques (methods), with the exception of measurement techniques (methods) intended for performing direct measurements, using measuring instruments of an approved type that have been verified. The measurement results must be expressed in units approved for use in the Russian Federation;
2. measurement techniques (methods) intended for performing direct measurements are included in the operational documentation for measuring instruments. Confirmation of compliance of these measurement techniques (methods) with mandatory metrological requirements for measurements is carried out in the process of approving the types of these measuring instruments. In other cases, confirmation of compliance of measurement techniques (methods) with mandatory metrological requirements for measurements is carried out by certification of measurement techniques (methods). Information on certified measurement techniques (methods) is transferred to the Federal information fund for OEI by legal entities and individual entrepreneurs conducting certification;
3. certification of measurement techniques (methods) related to the scope of state regulation of OI is carried out by those accredited in the prescribed manner in the field of OI legal entities and individual entrepreneurs;
4. the procedure for certification of measurement techniques (methods) and their application is established by the federal executive body exercising the functions of developing state policy and legal regulation in the field of OEI;
5. federal executive authorities carrying out legal regulation in regulated areas of activity, determine measurements related to the scope of state regulation of OEI, and establish mandatory metrological requirements for them, including indicators of measurement accuracy;
6. The federal executive body, which carries out the functions of providing public services and managing state property in the field of public information, maintains a unified list of measurements related to the scope of state regulation of public information.

4. Subjects of metrology- legal entities and individuals carrying out metrological activities. These include international and regional metrology organizations, as well as metrological services (state and legal entities).

Metrological service- organizing and/or performing work and/or providing services for OEI a structural unit of the central apparatus of a federal executive body and/or its territorial body, a legal entity or a structural unit of a legal entity or an association of legal entities, employees of a legal entity, an individual entrepreneur.

There are three levels of metrology subjects: international, regional and national (Fig. 24).

The international level is represented by international metrological organizations, which include representatives of national metrology organizations, and the regional level - by metrological organizations of countries in a certain region of the globe.

The national level of metrology has two sublevels: state; services of legal entities. The state sublevel of metrology includes Rostekhregulirovanie, scientific metrology centers (NMC) and standardization and metrology centers (TSSM). Each group of subjects at the national sub-level has certain functions and areas of competence,

Rostekhregulirovanie(Federal Service for Technical Regulation and Metrology) carries out state management of the OIE. His competence includes:

1. submission to the Government of the Russian Federation of proposals on units of quantities allowed for use;
2. establishing rules for the creation, approval, storage and use of standards of units of quantities;
3. determination of general metrological requirements for means, methods and results of measurements;
4. implementation of state metrological control and supervision;
5. monitoring compliance with the terms of international treaties of the Russian Federation on the recognition of test results and verification of measuring instruments;
6. management of the activities of the State Metrological Service and other state services of the OIE;
7. participation in the activities of international organizations on OEI issues.

State Metrological Serviceis administered by Rostekhregulirovanie and includes: state scientific metrology centers (SSMC); bodies of the State Metrological Service in the regions of Russia.

GSMC are presented by the State Service for Time, Frequency and Determination of Earth Rotation Parameters (GSVCh), the State Service of Standard Samples, Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSO) and the State Service of Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSSD). The management and coordination of their activities is carried out by Rostekhregulirovanie.

SSMC are responsible for the creation, improvement, storage and application of state standards of units of quantities, as well as for the development of RD for OEI

The bodies of the State Metrological Service include CSMs that carry out state metrological control and supervision in all regions of Russia.

Metrological service of legal entitiesrepresented by metrological services of federal government bodies and enterprises (SMEs) that are legal entities (Federal Law OEI). Metrological services in government agencies and enterprises are created, if necessary, in the prescribed manner to carry out work to ensure the uniformity and required accuracy of measurements, as well as to carry out metrological control and supervision. When performing work in areas where verification of measuring instruments is necessary, the creation of metrological services and other organizational structures for OEI is mandatory.

Metrological services of legal entities carry out metrological control by calibrating measuring instruments, monitoring the condition and use of measuring instruments, certified measurement methods, standards of units of quantities used for calibration of measuring instruments, as well as compliance with established metrological rules and norms. In addition, they check the timeliness of submission of measuring instruments for testing in order to approve the type of measuring instruments, as well as for verification and calibration.

Cheat sheet on metrology, standardization, certification Klochkova Maria Sergeevna

40. OBJECTS AND SUBJECTS OF METROLOGY

The object of metrology is physical quantities. The concept of “physical quantity” in metrology, as in physics, is understood as a property of physical objects (systems) that is qualitatively common to many objects, but quantitatively individual for each object, i.e. a property that can exist for one object one or another number of times greater or less than for another (for example, length, mass, density, temperature, force, speed). The quantitative content of the property corresponding to the concept of “physical quantity” in a given object is the size of the physical quantity.

A set of quantities interconnected by dependencies forms a system of physical quantities. Objectively existing dependencies between physical quantities are represented by a series of independent equations. The number of equations m is always less than the number of quantities n. Therefore, m quantities of a given system are determined through other quantities, and n – m quantities – independently of others. The latter quantities are usually called basic physical quantities, and the rest – derived physical quantities.

The presence of a number of systems of units of physical quantities, as well as a significant number of non-system units, inconveniences associated with recalculation when moving from one system of units to another, required the unification of units of measurement. The growth of scientific, technical and economic ties between different countries necessitated such unification on an international scale.

Required one system units of physical quantities, practically convenient and covering various areas measurements. At the same time, it had to preserve the principle of coherence (equality to unity of the coefficient of proportionality in the equations of connection between physical quantities).

In Russia, GOST 8.417-2002 is in force, which prescribes the mandatory use of SI. It lists the units of measurement, gives their Russian and international names and establishes the rules for their use. According to these rules, only international designations are allowed to be used in international documents and on instrument scales. In internal documents and publications, you can use either international or Russian designations (but not both at the same time).

Derived units International system units are formed using the simplest equations between quantities in which the numerical coefficients are equal to one. Thus, for linear speed, as a defining equation, you can use the expression for the speed of uniform motion v = l/ t.

With the length of the path traveled (in meters) and time t, during which this path is covered (in seconds), the speed is expressed in meters per second (m/s). Therefore, the SI unit of speed - meter per second - is the speed of a rectilinearly and uniformly moving point at which it, in time t c moves a distance of 1 m.

Subjects of metrology:

– state metrological service;

– metrological services of federal executive authorities and legal entities;

– metrological organizations.

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