Plan
1) Cartography (map elements, squares, snail, azimuth, position determination) and navigation (by clock, by
azimuth, issuing orders to move).
2) Determination of distance (map, steps, thousandths, optics).
3) Party structure and call signs (group, squad, platoon and their call signs)
4) Communication and gestures (methods of communication on air, reports on contact, transmission of orders, practice of using
short- and long-distance communication stations, gesture system).
5) Responsibilities of participants (responsibilities of a fighter, group leader, squad, platoon) and the basics of working in a groupCartography
What is a card? In essence, it is a schematic representation of the area.
How is a map different from a picture? The map contains landmarks, scale, north direction and squares.
Landmarks- These are easily recognizable features plotted on the map, such as towers (tower icon), buildings (small rectangles), lakes (blue spots), bridges (look like an equal sign perpendicular to the river) and even, in extreme cases, some road intersections ( black lines or dotted lines), from which you can ultimately reference yourself on the ground.
Scale– this is the correspondence of the length of the segment on the map to the distance on the ground. For example, 1:50,000 means that 1 cm on the map is 50,000 cm on the ground, that is, 500 m.
There is always an arrow on the map showing north direction along geographical meridians. However, it is worth remembering that the direction to the north pole on the map in different places on the planet deviates from the Earth’s magnetic north by several degrees. In our area it is 6°45".
The angle of deviation from the north direction is called azimuth.
For issuing an order to move You can specify the azimuth and distance from your current location.
For determining your location you can select a visible landmark, determine its azimuth, calculate the distance to it using the methods described above, plot the reverse azimuth (+ or - 180 degrees) and the resulting distance on the map, ultimately obtaining your location point.
Usually, for ease of navigation, any map is divided into squares. Squares can be: geographical, military or forest.
Geographic squares/coordinates- these are squares formed by the intersection of geographical meridians and parallels. They are the most accurate way to navigate, especially the name of the GPS device. In order to report your location, you need to name the coordinate along the meridian and parallel, for example N50° 40" 41", E30° 34" 18".
Coordinates can be in degrees, minutes and seconds (as in the example above) - it is more convenient to visually reflect the coordinates on the map in equal segments on the ground (as shown on the map above); either in thousandths of a degree (N50.678056 E30.571667) or degrees and thousandths of minutes (N50 40.6833, E30 34.3000) - it’s more convenient to count in computer programs. To convert coordinates from one number system to another you need to follow the same logic as with a clock: 1 hour 30 minutes is 1.5 hours, that is, 1 degree of latitude or longitude is 60 minutes, which in turn are each 60 seconds, that is, there are 3600 seconds in a degree. Total 50 degrees 40 minutes 41 seconds is 50 + (40 * 60 + 41) / 3600 = 50.67805(5) degrees, or is 50 degrees and 40 + 41/60 = 40.683(3) minutes. In the opposite direction, the translation is based on the same principle: 50.678056 degrees is 50 degrees and 0.678056 * 3600 = 2441 seconds = 2441 / 60 = 40.6833 minutes = 40 minutes and 60 * 0.6833 = 41 seconds.
Military squares- these are equidistant perpendicular vertical and horizontal lines randomly drawn on the map, usually at a distance equivalent to some segment of the terrain, for example 1 km, thereby forming squares. The squares are numbered vertically and horizontally with letters and/or numbers, preferably in a random (not sequential) order in order to confuse the enemy. In order to report your location, you need to name the corresponding designation vertically and horizontally. If the squares are too large, you can use the so-called snail to clarify your position.
Snail- this is a way to clarify your location, which consists of dividing the square on the map into 9 identical parts by two vertical and two horizontal lines. The resulting small squares inside the original large one are numbered, starting from the upper left corner clockwise from one, ending with nine in the center. If necessary, the resulting small square can be divided into 9 more equal parts, etc. In total, the coordinates look like “A2 by snail 63,” which means your location is at the intersection of column A and line 2 in the upper right corner of the bottom of the square.
Forest squares- these are squares formed by the intersection of forest clearings in a well-groomed forest. At each intersection there is a square column, its edges directed towards the squares. On the edges there are numbers indicating the number of the square. The squares are numbered from west to east in rows. The numbering between rows increases from north to south. For example, if the pole says 14,15,26,27, then the north is between the numbers 14,15. In order to get from one forest square to another, if the numbers differ by more than 5, you must first go south or north, depending on whether you need a larger or smaller number, respectively. Then, having reached numbers close in value, you need to move to the west or east, depending on whether you need to move in the direction of decreasing or increasing numbers. Do not forget that each square has 4 columns with its own number on each corner. That is, if you go south from the square 14,15,26,27, you will get into the square with the first numbers 26,27,..., and if you go east, you will get into the square 15,16,27,28.
IMPORTANT! Try not to call geographic and forest squares on air unless absolutely necessary! Use initially military squares with arbitrary numbering.
Determining distances
You can determine the distance in several ways: from a map, by measuring your step, by eye, by the thousandth rule, by using a sight reticle.
Determining the distance on the map
The scale on the map, for example, 1:50,000 means that 1 cm on the map displays 50,000 cm of terrain, that is, 500 m.To determine the distance in meters, you need to measure the length of the segment between two objects on the map in centimeters, multiply it by the number on the scale after the colon and divide by 100 to convert to meters.
D (distance) = L (length of the segment on the map in cm) * M (scale) / 100;
Determining distance by measuring your step
The usual step of an adult is considered to be 75 cm, that is, a pair of steps = 1.5 m. To measure the distance in meters in steps, you need to count the number of pairs of steps from point A to point B, multiply this number by 3 and divide by 2. That is :D (distance) = N (number of pairs of steps) * L (length of pairs of steps) = N * 3 / 2;
When measuring, keep in mind that the data will be accurate only if the walking path is linear.
Determining distance by eye
By eye - this is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground. When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local objects seem reduced in accordance with their distance, that is, when removed by half, the object will seem half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance. The following must be taken into account:
- the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
- the closer the object, the larger it seems;
- larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
- an object of a brighter color appears closer than an object of a dark color;
- brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
- during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
- the sharper the difference in the color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
- objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
- folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
- when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
- when observed from bottom to top - from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
- when the sun is behind the scout, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
- the fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.The accuracy of the eye gauge depends on the intelligence of the scout. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.
The thousandth rule for determining the distance to the target
Theory:
For the convenience of determining distances, a value called thousandth, which is equal to 1/6000 of a revolution = 360 degrees * 1/6000 = 0.06 degrees = 2π * 1/6000 ≈ 1/955, which in turn is approximately equal to 1/1000 of a radian.Let an object of length W be observed from a distance L at a small angle α. Then, when expressing the angle α in radian measure, the following holds:
Replacing the radian measure with thousandths, we end up with:For most practical calculations, an approximate version is used, but in some cases the resulting error of 4.5% is unacceptable and then the coefficient of 0.955 is not discarded. A simplified equality is called the thousandths formula.
The thousandths formula is applicable for angles that are not too large, when the sine of the angle is approximately equal to the angle itself in radian measure. The conditional limit of applicability is an angle of 300 thousandths (18 degrees).
In Russian, all of the above means...
Knowing the size (height or width) of the object and having available means for determining the viewing angle (see below), we can determine the distance as follows:L (object distance) = W (object size) / α (observation angle in thousandths) * 1000.
How to determine the viewing angle?
To determine the viewing angle, you can use special grids of optical instruments (binoculars, sights - see below) or use any object whose dimensions we know.
A typical adult holds an object in front of him at a distance of about 500 mm.
Based on the thousandths formula, “observation angle = size of the object * 1000 / distance to the object,” that is, every millimeter of an object that a person holds in his hand at a distance of 500 mm is observed at an angle of 1 * 1000/500 = 2 thousandths.1 mm of a handy object = 2 thousandths
Based on this, it is necessary to take in your outstretched hand such a handy object that would completely block the view of the observed object, and convert the size of the selected handy object in millimeters in proportion to the viewing angle in thousandths.
For reference:
1) Observation angle of a box of matches (size 50x36x14 mm) with 500 mm = 100 x 72 x 28 thousandths.
2) Match with 500 mm = 86 x 4 thousandths.
3) Observation angle of the fingers from 500 mm, approximately: index, middle = 40; unnamed = 35; little finger 30; big 50 thousandths.
4) If you have a ruler with you, simply measure the apparent size of the observed object at arm's length. This will be the most accurate measurement.Approximate finger measurements of the distance to a person of average height:
palm ≈ 10 m
4 fingers ≈ 12 m
uk+bm+sr ≈ 15 m
bm+sr+mi ≈ 17 m
uk+bm ≈ 22 m
bm+sr ≈ 23 m
sr+mi ≈ 27 m
1 large ≈ 35 m
1 index finger ≈ 44 m
1 unnamed ≈ 50 m
1 little finger ≈ 58 m
pencil or ball ≈ 145 mDetermining distance using optical instruments
All optical instruments usually have a scale on them. This scale displays the viewing angle in thousandths. It is enough to count the number of divisions occupied by the observed object to determine its viewing angle. And then, using the thousandth rule (see above), we get the distance.
In ordinary artillery (not sports-tourist) binoculars, the distance between two long lines = 10 thousandths, between the long and short lines - 5 thousandths:
The PSO-1 sight has a special scale.
To determine the distance on the rangefinder scale, it is necessary to point the scale at the target so that the target is located between the solid horizontal and inclined dotted lines. The scale bars located above the target indicate the distance in hundreds of meters to the target, which has a height of 1.7 m.
If the target has a height less (greater) than 1.7 m, then the distance determined on the scale must be multiplied by the ratio of the target height to 1.7 m.Example:
Determine the distance to an object having a height of 0.55 m if the upper part of the object touches the dotted line of the rangefinder scale with a stroke marked 8.Solution:
The ratio of the target height to 1.7 m is equal to rounded 1/3 (0.55: 1.7); the scale indicates a distance of 800m; the distance to the target is approximately 270m (800*1/3).The sight also has a lateral correction scale, which allows you to determine the viewing angle of the width up to 20 thousandths.
Even more convenient for determining distances is a scope with a Mil-Dot reticle.
The angular distance between points on the grid is one thousandth. The angular dimensions of the points themselves are usually 0.2 thousandths, and the angular distance between the edges of neighboring points is 0.8 thousandths.With other sights, you can also determine the distance by knowing the viewing angle between certain reticle components, for example, the distance from the crosshair to the thickening of the threads, or the distance between line breaks.
Group tactics
Structure and responsibilities
Everything described below is a theoretical ideal; in practice, deviations are possible due to the number of available fighters and the specific situation. To increase the efficiency of the unit, it is necessary to adhere to these recommendations as often as possible.
A Liberation Army platoon consists of two (sometimes three) squads and a command group.
In turn, the squad consists of two or three groups (observation/assault "Alpha", fire support "Bravo", security "Charlie") and a squad leader.
The command group consists of a platoon leader, a medic and a deputy commander.
Sometimes a platoon includes a reconnaissance group of 3-5 people, which serves as an advanced patrol.
Groups consist of 4 people (leader, machine gunner, grenadier and rifleman):
A group is the smallest unit that can be independent. Each pair of fighters can form a combat pair, but they never act independently (except in situations where there are only 2 people left on the team). Fighting pairs are created for the convenience of team management and minimizing the time for selecting fighters for a specific task. Usually, like-minded fighters who feel and understand each other well are united in fighting pairs. Ideally, the entire team should understand each other well.
Platoon
Group Center
Com. platoon (lieutenant)
Gunner-medic (private)
Deputy commander (senior sergeant)Add. elements
Sniper
Intelligence groupBranch
Group Leader
Com. squad (sergeant)Alpha Group
Senior soldier (junior sergeant)
Grenadier (private/corporal)
Rifleman (private/corporal)Bravo Group
Senior soldier (junior sergeant)
Grenadier (private/corporal)
Machine gunner (private/corporal)
Rifleman (private/corporal)The interaction scheme for combat units is as follows:
1) The platoon commander, having received an assignment from the high command, develops a strategy for completing the assigned task. For example, if the task is to find some object in the forest, the platoon commander indicates from which side which squad is entering, what the interaction of the squads should be, control points, conventional signals, etc.2) The squad leader selects the optimal (based on tactics) group arrangement and controls them during movement and combat. The radius of his authority is limited by the scope of the task assigned to him and the tactics of the unit. He should not be concerned about what is happening on the battlefield, except for the facts concerning his task, and he must always know where his groups are needed and what they are doing. Roughly speaking, the radius of authority of a squad leader is limited by the spatial size of the squad.
3) The task of the group commander is to control the firepower of the group within the framework of carrying out the current order of the squad commander. He must know where each of his fighters is, where he is looking, the state of his ammunition and physical condition. The radius of his actions is limited to the area in which he can easily control his fighters. For example, if we take into account that the length of the group is 40 meters, then the group has the right to clear a shed measuring 15 by 15 meters, if they do not have to disperse too much, but in no case can they clear a 5-story residential building alone, then the same goes for firing points. If the group can cover the firing point with its size, then it attacks it; if not, then it asks for the support of the squad leader. The group is a single entity and should not be divided into separate units, except in special emergency cases when the group is not acting as part of the unit's tactics. That is, everyone was killed, they were left alone, or there were not enough people in the platoon to cover all directions and points.
All leaders are required to report changes in the plan to achieve the goal set by high command.
There is no need to exceed authority, that is: soldiers do not think about where they enter the building (in the door, through the window, along the wall), group leaders do not think from which side they are approaching the surrender (left, right), and section leaders do not they think about what other building needs to be cleared (you need to take the neighboring fuel and lubricants, no need). In reverse order: com. platoon decides what we attack and from which sides, com. The squad decides how he attacks (one group in front, another behind, or one on the left, the other on the right), and the team leader decides which soldier attacks (closes the door, window, enters the door, looks back, forward, which soldier attacks, if the mode is not specified fire of choice, etc.)4) Soldiers are obliged to adhere to their permanent position in the ranks, according to their number (so that the group commander does not have to look around to know where his people are), unless they receive another order. If the middle soldier in the ranks is killed, the group contracts, that is, moves one place closer to the leader.
Soldiers are required to report on their condition, ammunition (if half or one clip remains), the condition of other soldiers in the group if they are not able to report themselves, as well as the condition of the visible enemy. Soldiers are required to maintain their assigned sector of fire and will move in formation to avoid obstacles unless otherwise ordered. All necessary commands and interaction tactics are described in this course. A soldier has the right in all cases to open fire if the enemy directly threatens his life, as well as the life of another soldier in the unit (if a covert mode of movement is not established). The fighter is obliged to report all visible targets and their movements to the group leader. The fighter can open fire at his discretion if the discretionary shooting mode is set, otherwise he can indicate the target and wait for further instructions.A platoon orderly is required to wear a standard medical kit, be able to provide first aid, and must also have a certain number of additional bandages to assist soldiers conditionally wounded in battle.
This is general information, if anyone has specific questions, you can ask me them in a form convenient for you, and I will answer as best I can. If you find yourself in a situation where you don’t know what to do, act as you see fit in this situation and don’t think for a long time, and then report to your higher rank about the problems that have arisen, we will expand the information field of tactical decisions as necessary.
Communication
Call signs:
So, we know that a platoon consists of 2-3 squads, and a squad, in turn, consists of 2-3 groups. What are all the structural units called when communicating?Within the group, fighters are called either by the number 1st, 2nd,... or by the nickname Suffix, Beat. Both methods are allowed.
Within the branch, the groups are called Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Leader.
Within a platoon, the squads are called the 1st squad, the 2nd squad,... (briefly: First, Second), and the leader of the platoon is the Center (“First to the center! Report the situation!”).
If there is a need for groups to communicate within a platoon, then the squad number is added to the group name. That is, the Alpha group in the second department is called Alpha 2, and the leader of the group is called Leader 2.
If, in very extreme cases, individual fighters need to communicate at the platoon level, then the number of the group and squad is added to the number of the fighter in the group (the use of nicknames in this case is prohibited). For example: This is Bravo two fourth! The 2nd squad has been destroyed! What should I do?Rules of communication:
The basic rule of communicating via walkie-talkie is not to clog up the airwaves, speak in turns and, basically, only the phrases described below. Conduct negotiations on the radio only if the information cannot be conveyed orally or it concerns those who are not nearby. Basically, only leaders communicate via radio, while fighters in groups communicate verbally or with gestures. Remember that the walkie-talkie is most likely being listened to and it is better to say it verbally or show it if you can do without the walkie-talkie!Standard call method "<Вызываемый>, <вызывающему>! Get in touch! (or Reception!)". (For example, “Suffix Bitu! Get in touch!”) - means that the calling Bit is asking the called Suffix to get in touch (Why are the call signs not reversed? Because this is an abbreviation for the phrase “Suffix, answer the Bit! Get in touch!” and is used to distinguish call for communication from giving an order (see below). That is, the phrase “Suffix Bitu!”, even without the word “Get in touch!” is perceived as a call to Suffix by Bit, and the expression “Bit to Suffix...” implies that Bit gives an order to Suffix. and everyone on the air waits until the order is pronounced). Usually the phrase “Get in touch!”/“Help!”, and even more so the word “answer”, can be skipped and used only if they don’t answer you the first time.
The callee must answer "<Вызываемый>, holy shit! (For example: “Suffix, in touch!”), then the caller communicates the order according to the principle described below.
Before each phrase on the air, you need to say your name (“Alpha, received!”, “Spartak, I comply!”), if this is the answer, or “This” + your call sign + the name of the person you are addressing + order + the word “Reception!” (Example: “This is Suffix! Bit (or Suffix Bitu), move to 22 3! Welcome!”), if this is an appeal to someone. If the broadcast is not loaded and it is clearly clear who is communicating with whom, then the phrase “This” + your call sign can be missed. The word "Welcome!" indicates the end of the request and transition to the response receiving mode. If the channel is not overloaded and it is clearly clear where the order ends, then the word “Receive!” you don't have to talk.
Examples of appeal:
At group level:
- “Leader Alpha, Second!” (- "Leader Alpha, Sufixu!")
- “Leader Alpha, in touch!”
- “This is Suffix, where are you?!”
- “Alpha Leader, Suffix, move to square B6 along snail 3!”
- “Suffix, accepted!”At the department level:
- “Alpha, to the Leader!”
- “Alpha, in touch!”
- “Alpha, move to square B5.”
- “Alpha, accepted! I’m doing it!”At platoon level:
- “Center, Second!”
....
- “Center, in touch!”
- “This is Leader 2. Center, we are under fire, we demand to cover the retreat of the 2nd squad.”
- “Center Second, retreat! We've got your back!"
- “This is the Second, I understand you!”Contact reports
It is very important to be able to clearly and concisely report enemy positions. The sooner everyone knows about the enemy, the greater the chance of survival and the more effective the response to a potential threat.
Here is an example of a very bad radio message:Ummm.... I see infantry. Umm... they're up ahead, behind the tree. No, behind the other tree over there."
Here is an example of how to speak. These are branch level messages. Descriptions of messages at the platoon level will be below.
"Contact, ahead! Infantry squad, "
Please note that if squad teams are scattered, you must identify yourself:
"(This is) Alpha 3, contact, ahead! Infantry squad, in the field, direction 210, three hundred meters!"
There are also some things to remember when you report a contact over the radio. First, the details should be proportionate to the amount of time available and the type of threat. If you see an enemy squad far away, but it cannot see you and does not pose much of a threat, you can describe in detail where it is. If you see a squad literally 50 meters behind a small hill and it is heading straight towards you, then you must be as quick and concise as possible.
By the way, the word “This” theoretically need not be spoken at all at the department level. In this situation, there is no address specifically to someone, so it is clear that this is the call sign of the one who is talking about contact.
Step by step
ATTENTION - almost always this word is “Contact!” or “Move!”, depending on the degree of confidence that the enemy is in front of you. It should be the first one (not counting your call sign) when you notice the enemy. Everyone should know that this is an attention signal and they need to prepare.
DIRECTION - general direction. In the example, the word "ahead" was used. You can speak ahead, left, right or behind only if everyone understands the meaning of these directions. In other cases, the word "ahead" means nothing, except if you are moving towards a known waypoint, in which case "ahead" will mean the direction of travel and everyone should know it. Use relative directions, a compass (north, northwest, south) or a specific azimuth (250, etc.).
DESCRIPTION - what did you see? Is it an enemy patrol, a tank or something else? You must be brief and clear. Examples: “3 soldiers”, “armored personnel carrier”, “infantry squad”, “enemy infantry”.
DETAILS - if there is time, opportunity and you think it is necessary to provide additional information. You can tell the distance to the target, the specific azimuth, what the target is doing ("They're going around us"; "They can't see us"), how they are positioned ("two on the roof, one in the building, the rest are patrolling around"), etc.More examples:
"Contact, north, northwest, sniper, he's on the second floor of a building with white walls and a brown roof at the intersection."
"Contact, direction 085, T-72, hidden behind a hill, 200 meters from us, he is looking in the other direction."
"Contact, left! Machine gun, between the palm trees near the river, west, 400 meters."Notes
If the element leader reports contact, he must give the order at the very end to engage, if necessary. Otherwise, the element must wait for a command.
Only the squad leader has the right to give the command to open fire if the squad is in “stealth” mode.
However, team leaders should only give such an order if they are under imminent threat. Everyone should only open fire if they are in danger and need to protect themselves or others.Status reports
After the battle, team leaders must notify the squad leader about losses, the need for a medic, ammunition, etc.
Example:
"Leader, this is Alpha, we have one wounded!"
"This is the Third, the Second is killed!"
"Bravo to the Leader! There are no losses, the machine gunner is out of ammunition."If a platoon leader wants a report, he usually must give a specific order to the squad or the entire platoon.
Example: "Everyone to the leader! Report the situation!"IMPORTANT! If the leader of the group is killed, then the next in rank in the battle is obliged to report to the squad channel his call sign and information that he is taking command of the group. For example: “This is Alpha 2 3rd, Leader Alpha 2 has been killed! I am taking command!”
Location reports:
Each fighter must be able to determine and report his position on the ground and the position of the enemy, as well as give orders to move. Here I will not (yet) describe the details of how to determine locations (read that in the relevant books), but I will cover the essence of how to communicate it correctly.You can tell your location by indicating the square on the map where you are located. Usually the map is marked out into squares and numbered with letters horizontally and numbers vertically. In order to add your location, it is enough to name the corresponding letter and number (Example: Alpha is the Leader, I am in square B4).
If the squares are too large and it is necessary to report the position in more detail, then use the so-called snail. To do this, divide the square in your mind into 9 even pieces and number them along the snail in such a way that the top left square is 1, the top center is 2, the top right is 3, the middle right is 4, the bottom right is 5, the bottom middle is 6 , lower left - 7, middle left - 8 and middle - 9. Thus, if you are in the lower right corner of square B4, then the position is “Square B4 along cochlea 5”.The enemy's position or movement order can be communicated by indicating a direction in geographic degrees or hours, relative to some landmark plus a distance in that direction (the so-called spherical coordinate system).
The essence of the system for indicating direction in geographic degrees is that the cardinal directions are divided into 360 degrees; beyond zero degrees (aka 360), the generally accepted direction is north. To report an object or place to which you need to move, some landmark is selected (by default, the leader of the group to which the order is given), the direction in degrees and distance to the object (place) is indicated from it.
The essence of the system for indicating direction in a clock is that a landmark is selected to report an object (as in the previous case, by default this is the leader of the group to which the order is given), the space around the landmark is divided into 12 sectors (the so-called clock, by analogy with a dial ; in the 1st hour 15 degrees), 12 hours is the direction of the last movement of the landmark (that is, the group to which the order is given) or the direction of the front of the object if the landmark is not moving (for example, the facade of a building). Next, the number of the sector in which the object is located and the distance from the landmark to the object are called.
The system for determining direction in geographic degrees is more accurate due to a more detailed scale and because it does not require taking into account the direction of the landmark, but is less convenient for quick understanding, since it requires the presence of a compass and diverting attention to it or a clear knowledge of the cardinal directions at the moment.
The clock determination system also has its drawbacks. Firstly, the direction of the reference point (the group or fighter to whom you are giving the order) is not always known, and secondly, the direction can change over time. Thus, the direction spoken at the moment is only relevant at that moment, that is, an order to move for 3 hours at the current moment becomes a move for 12 hours after the group begins to move.
It follows that the clock direction should always be used, except in cases where it is impossible to know the direction of the person to whom you are giving the order, or it is necessary to indicate a more precise direction.
Important! When specifying an angle in degrees and a distance, the least significant digit is discarded, but two digits are always given in degrees. That is, 254 degrees will sound like “two five,” 68 degrees will sound like “zero seven,” and 57 meters will sound like “six.” And yet, it is very important that if you are counting the position of the object not from the group to which you are giving the order, but from some other landmark, you must name this landmark in the message (For example, “...move 22 5 from the bridge...” or “Bit , from you for 3 hours...").
Examples of using both message systems:
"Bravo, move forward two two one five." Means that the Bravo group should move 220 degrees from the north to 150 meters.
"Suffix, you're 2 o'clock civilian 50 meters away." Means that the civilian is in the second of 12 sectors (15-30 degrees to the right) from the direction of the Suffix's last movement, 50 meters away.Distance is measured in meters or steps. Orders are given in meters, but when moving, it is more convenient for a fighter to calculate the distance traveled in steps (two steps are usually considered equal to 1.5 meters, that is, 1 step = 75 centimeters). The distance is estimated by eye (for this they train to navigate in distance), or they use geometric techniques for calculating distance using landmarks (see books on orienteering).
List of basic commands
Select all: "All! …", "Attention!" - means that the following command or combination of commands will apply to everyone. Action: Everyone must pay attention to (further commands) the one giving the commands. Gesture: “Everything...”
Select specific: “You and you...” - indicates that the next command or combination of commands will apply to specific team members. Action: The selected fighters must pay attention to the leader's further commands. Gesture: “You...”
Select any: “N person...” means that the group leader is lower in the hierarchy, or the group members must select N fighters and the next team or combination of teams will refer to the selected members. It is better to use this command less, as it introduces an element of confusion. If possible, use the Select Specific command. Action: The selected fighters must pay attention to the speaker's further commands. Gesture: Indicating the number N.
View direction: "...look at N-clock/object (from object)" - means that the selected fighters must look in the specified direction or take on the specified object until receiving the next direction order, object order, or Scan the Horizon order. In the case of a verbal order, number of hours indicates the direction relative to the movement of the squad leader, if we assume that 12 o’clock is in front, and 6 is behind. If the phrase “from<объекта>", then the clock is counted from the specified object. If an object has been specified, then after completing pointing at it, you need to say Ready to shoot (see below). Gesture: “...look” + “... there” / “... at that object.”
Scan the horizon, Stay alert: “Scan the horizon” - means that the selected fighters must search for the enemy in all directions. It is used only when searching for an enemy, but under no circumstances during battle! Action: rotate around its axis and report a visible enemy or suspicious objects. Gesture: “...look” + “...horizon.”
Enemy Alert: “At N hours I see (hear) M<объектов>X meters” - means that at N hours M objects were detected at a distance of X meters. Action: The group leader must take note of the enemy's location, develop tactics to destroy him, indicate specific targets to all his subordinates and give the order for their destruction. Targets are distributed by pointing to an object. For the command to begin destruction, see below Open fire. If the command to attack by choice was given in advance, then you can shoot immediately after receiving notification of the target. Confirmation of receipt of information: Accepted (see below). Gesture: Indicating the viewing direction + “...I see...” + Indicating the number N + Indicating the distance + Indicating the number N.
Allow fire: “I authorize fire!” – means that the selected fighters can begin to attack the target. Action: Destroy the target if possible. Confirmation: Can't shoot, ready (see below). Gesture: “...fire...” + “Accepted!”
Prohibit fire:"Do not shoot!" – prohibits firing, except in emergency situations that threaten the life of a soldier or unit. Action: do not fire until ordered to Allow Fire. Gesture: “...fire...” + “I can’t!”
Fire: “Fire!”, “Cover!” - means that the selected fighters are required to begin laying barrage fire on the target, even if this does not lead to its destruction or they have not yet chosen a suitable position. Used to cover a maneuver or in other emergency situations. Action: begin firing at the target until further instructions or until the enemy is completely destroyed. Gesture: “...fire...” several times, but it’s better to convey it with your voice.
Attack by choice:"Attack by choice!" – means that the selected fighters can attack any visible targets at any time without an order. Action: Destroy as many targets as possible. Gesture: “...fire...” + “...by choice.”
Join the battle: “Forward!”, “Into battle!” - means that the selected fighters must begin to put pressure on the enemy and move the front forward. Action: Begin to move forward in a coordinated manner using unit tactics. Gesture: “Fight!”
Retreat: “Back!”, “Retreat!” - means that the selected fighters must retreat behind the front line. Action: move back in a coordinated manner, according to the unit's tactics (facing the front). Gesture: “Retreat!”
Moving to a point: “Move to xx yy”, “Move to B2” - means that you must move in the specified direction to the specified distance or to the specified square. In the case of a verbal order, B2 indicates the square number; xx denotes the azimuth divided by 10, that is, 23 = 230 degrees, where 0 degrees is the direction north; yy represents the distance in meters divided by 10, so 3 means movement of 30 meters (0 is movement of up to 10 meters). Example: “Moving at 23 30” means moving in an azimuth of 230 degrees for a distance of 300 meters. Confirmation: Accepted. Gesture: Indicating the direction of movement + Indicating the distance + Indicating the number H.
Will return to duty: “Get back on track!” – means that the selected fighters must return to formation. If they are already in formation, it means that they should approach the speaker. Action: return to formation or approach the speaker. Gesture: “...back to duty!”
Patrol forward, guard back, to the left flank, to the right flank:“...come forward”, “...move back”, “...to the left flank”, “...to the right flank” - means that the selected fighters must move in front of the formation, behind the formation, on the right flank of the formation, on the left flank of the formation or in a certain construction. Action: move to the indicated flank, change formation. Gesture: Indicating the movement position relative to the unit.
Bypass: “Go around on the left”, “Go around on the right” - means that it is necessary to bypass the enemy from the specified side. Action: Perform a bypass of the enemy, according to the unit's tactics. Gesture: “...go around to the left (right)!”
Stand, Wait: “Stop!”, “Wait for me!” – means that the specified fighters must stop moving. If the leader is not in line, it means that you need to wait for the leader. The action will stop in place, respecting the formation, until the next instructions. Gesture: “Stop!”
To the shelter:“To cover!!!” - means that it is necessary to disperse and take up defense. Action: Immediately disperse and find cover. Gesture: “For cover!!!”
In places:“In places!!!”, “In position!!!” - means that it is necessary to immediately take previously discussed positions. Gesture: “Get to your places!!!”
Lay low: "Quiet!" – means that you need to stop and not make unnecessary movements and sounds. Action: freeze in place. Gesture: “Quiet!”
Crouch:- “Bend down!” means that you need to move in a half-squat. Action: immediately bend down and continue moving in a half-squat. Gesture: “Bend down!”
Lie down:"Lie down!" - means that you need to crawl. Action: immediately lie down and crawl. Gesture: “Lie down!”
Stand up:"Get up!" - means you need to get up. Action: stand up and move while standing. Gesture: “Get up!”
Report the situation:“Report the situation!” - means that subordinates must report their position, condition and visible enemy. Action: report your coordinates (square) on the map, report if you are wounded or have little ammunition (see below), report the enemy you can see (see above). Gesture: “Report the situation!”
Repeat:"Repeat!" - means a request to repeat the order if you have forgotten it. Action: The leader must immediately repeat the order. Gesture: “Repeat!”
I don’t hear, I didn’t receive it!:“I don’t hear!”, “I didn’t accept!” - means that you did not hear or did not understand the order. Action: The speaker must immediately repeat the phrase to you. Gesture: “I didn’t accept it!”
Ready, Waiting, Clean: “Ready!”, “Waiting!”, “Clear!” - means that you have completed an order to move, destroy a target, etc. and now you are waiting for the next order. When reporting the status, if you do not see the enemy, it means “Clear!” Action: be sure to report after executing such orders. Gesture: “Ready!”
Accepted:“I got it!” - means that you understood the order and began to carry it out. Action: Try to confirm all orders as often as possible so that it is easier for the leader to command and he knows whether the order has reached you. Gesture: “Accepted!”
I can not:"I can not!" – means that you heard the order, but are unable to carry it out due to physical obstacles. Action: If you are unable to carry out the order in any way, you must report. Gesture: “I can’t!”
Ready to shoot:"Ready to shoot!" – means that you have the ability to open fire at the target indicated to you. Action: After receiving an order to monitor a specific target, if you have already chosen a convenient position and can open fire, you must inform. Gesture: “Ready to shoot!”
Can't shoot:“I can’t shoot!” - means that you can not open fire on the target indicated to you, due to the fact that the target is too far away or outside your line of sight, and you cannot eliminate this interference. Action: If you cannot open fire for the above reasons, be sure to inform. Gesture: “I can’t shoot!”
Low ammo:“Not enough cartridges!” – means that you have the last clip left. Action: The leader should analyze the situation and promptly give you the order to reload the clips or give you a set of cartridges. Before this, you do not have the right to fully reload if you have at least a couple of shots left. If there are no shots left, you shout “Full reload!” and reload in a secluded place.
Under fire:"Under fire!" - means that you are being fired upon. Action: Team members must react and cover the retreat if necessary. Gesture: Point at yourself + “...under fire!”
Injured:“Wounded” means that you are injured. Action: notification that you cannot fully fight and you need to be evacuated and given assistance. Gesture: Point at yourself + “...wounded!”
Minus N:“Minus N!” – means that N enemies have been destroyed. Gesture: Indicating the number H + “...killed!”Gestures
Selecting everyone, attracting everyone’s attention: “Everyone...”, “Attention!”- swing your right hand clockwise in front of your face, palm facing forward.
Selecting a team member (object): “You...”, “...to that object.”- use your index finger (preferably with an outstretched arm) to point to an object, a team member, or yourself.
Indication of viewing direction (movement): “...there”- extend the arm with the palm straightened away from the head in the indicated direction so that the palm is perpendicular to the ground.
Indication of the position of movement relative to the detachment, indication of the formation (if followed after “All ...”): “... in front ...” (in patrol), “... behind ...” (in column), “... on the left flank ...” (in line ), “...on the right flank...” (in a line), “...diagonally...” (into a wedge, reverse wedge) - raise your arm from the “at the seams” position in the indicated direction (Can be done several times).
Indication of the number N: “...two...”, “... three...”- the arm is raised at shoulder level and bent at the elbow so that the hand is directed upward.
0 - fingers depict the number 0.
1 - index finger up, all others into a fist.
2 - index and middle fingers up, all others into a fist.
3 - index, middle and thumb up, all others in a fist.
4 - index, middle, ring and little fingers up, all the rest into a fist.
5 - all thumbs up.
6 - thumb and little finger into a fist, all the rest up.
7 - thumb and ring finger into a fist, all others up.
8 - thumb and middle finger into a fist, all the rest up.
9 - thumb and index finger into a fist, all others up.
To show a number greater than nine, you need to display the digits of the number one by one, starting with the most significant digit.
Do not forget that when indicating direction in degrees and distance, the number is divided by 10 and rounded. That is, 214 meters is “two one”.
Indicating the distance: "Distance:..."- with your palm facing you, fingers spread, extend your hand in the direction of the enemy and bring it to your chest several times.
“...I see...”, “...look...”- pointing your middle and index fingers at your eyes.
“...I hear...”, “I don’t hear!”, “I didn’t accept!”, “Repeat the order!”- place and remove your palm from your ear.
"...everywhere...", "...horizon", "...by choice"- With your arm extended forward parallel to the ground, describe a small sector.
“...fire...”, “...under fire!”, “...wounded!”, “...killed!”- rub the edge of your palm, from the side of the thumb, across your throat.
“Forward!”, “Into battle!”- wave your hand from behind your back forward.
“Back!”, “Retreat!”- hand from an extended position in front behind the back.
“...back to duty!”, “Come to me!”- a gesture with your hand, as if you are calling a person to you.
“...go around on the left (right)!”- movement of the corresponding hand perpendicular to the ground from the shoulder along a circular path to the side, as if you want to hug someone.
"Stop!"- The arm is raised at shoulder level and bent at the elbow so that the hand is pointing upward. The palm is clenched into a fist.
“To cover!!!”- swing your arm above your head; the palm is straightened and directed downward, supposedly depicting a roof over your head.
“In position!!!”- palm folded into a fist, index finger extended, rotate the hand above the head.
“Quiet!”, “Hide!”- place your index finger to your lips.
"Duck down!"- bring the hand to the shoulder and lower it, palm down, with the palm parallel to the ground.
"Lie down!"- perform the “Bend Down” gesture twice.
"Get up!"- Raise your lowered hand to the side to shoulder level, palm parallel to the ground, pointing upward.
“Report the situation!”- waving his head from bottom to top, supposedly asking “what’s the matter?”
“Ready!”, “Waiting!”, “Clear!”- draw the OK symbol with your hand.
“I got it!”, “I’m doing it!”, “Ready to shoot!”- show a fist with the thumb pointing up.
“I can’t!”, “I can’t shoot!”- fist with thumb pointing down.
“Not enough cartridges!”- place your palm on the magazine several times.
"...leader!"- attach the hand folded as when displaying the number “six” to the patch on the shoulder. In combination with the gesture “I”, “You” means who takes command of the group.
"...ally", "...civilian"- the arm is raised at shoulder level and bent at the elbow so that the hand is directed upward. We make oscillatory movements with the palm to the right (An analogue from life - the “hello” gesture.)
"...hostage"- take yourself by the throat with your hand.
"...enemy"- We depict a pistol with our hand.
"...unknown"- we shrug our shoulders.Most of the gestures can be seen in the picture below.
To practice communicating with gestures, it is useful to play broken telephone, when the leader speaks a phrase into the ear of the first fighter, and the fighters take turns conveying with gestures what the leader said. At the same time, all subsequent fighters do not look at how they showed gestures to the one going ahead. Then the last fighter is asked to say the phrase, since he understood it. If the phrase does not match what the leader said, then the leader asks which fighter in the chain lost the meaning of the phrase. In this way, you can find out who is not fluent in gestures and learn how to use them.
1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE.. 4
1.1. Purpose of military topography. 4
2. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF TOPOGRAPHIC... 5
2.1 General provisions. 5
2.2 Classification of topographic maps. 5
2.3 Purpose of topographic maps. 6
2.4 Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. 7
2.4.1. Layout of topographic maps. 7
2.4.2. Nomenclature of topographic map sheets. 8
2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. 10
3. MAIN TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS CARRIED OUT ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP. 10
3.1. Design of topographic maps. 10
3.2.Measurement of distances, coordinates, directional angles and azimuths. 12
3.2.1. Topographic map scale. 12
3.2.2. Measuring distances and areas. 13
3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. 14
3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationships on the map. 16
3.2.5. Determination of geographic coordinates of points using a topographic map. 18
3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points from a topographic map. 19
3.2.7.Measurement of directional angles and azimuths. 19
4. READING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS. 20
4.1. System of symbols on a topographic map. 20
4.1.1. Elements of the symbol system. 20
4.2. General rules for reading topographic maps. 21
4.3. Image on topographic maps of the area and various objects. 21
5. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS AND DISTANCES WHEN ORIENTING. 23
5.1. Determining directions. 23
5.2 Determination of distances. 23
5.2 Movement along azimuths. 23
6. WORKING WITH THE CARD.. 24
6.1.Preparing the card for work. 24
6.2. Basic rules for maintaining a work card. 25
7. DRAFTING TERRAIN DIAGRAMS. 28
7.1. The purpose of terrain maps and the basic rules for their preparation. 28
7.2. Conventions used on terrain diagrams. 29
7.3. Methods for drawing up terrain maps. thirty
RECORDING SHEET FOR CHANGES.. 33
The actions of units and units when performing assigned tasks are always associated with the natural environment. Terrain is one of the constantly operating factors influencing combat activity. The terrain properties that influence the preparation, organization and conduct of combat operations, and the use of technical means are usually called tactical.
These include:
cross-country ability;
· orientation conditions;
· observation conditions;
· firing conditions;
· masking and protective properties.
Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain ensures the most effective use of weapons and technical means, secrecy of maneuver, etc. Every soldier must be able to competently use the tactical properties of the terrain. This is taught by a special military discipline - military topography, the fundamentals of which are necessary in practical activities.
The word topography comes from Greek and means description of the area. Thus, topography is a scientific discipline, the subject of which is a detailed study of the earth's surface in geometric terms and the development of methods for depicting this surface.
Military topography is a military discipline about the means and methods of studying terrain and its use in preparing and conducting combat operations. The most important source of information about the area is a topographic map. It should be noted here that Russian and Soviet topographic maps have always been higher in quality than foreign ones.
Despite the technical backwardness of Russia, by the end of the 19th century, in 18 years, the best three-verst map (in 1 inch - 3 versts) on 435 sheets was created in the world at that time. In France, 34 sheets of a similar map took 64 years to create.
During the years of Soviet power, our cartography took first place in the world in terms of technology and organization of topographic map production. By 1923, a unified system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps was developed. The scale series of the USSR has an obvious advantage over those in the USA and England (England has 47 different scales that are difficult to coordinate with each other, the USA has its own coordinate system in each state, which does not allow joining sheets of topographic maps).
Russian topographic maps have twice as many symbols as maps of the USA and England (maps of the USA and England do not have symbols for the qualitative characteristics of rivers, road networks, and bridges). In the USSR, since 1942, a unified coordinate system has been in force based on new data on the size of the earth. (In the USA, data on the size of the Earth are used, calculated back in the last century).
The map is the commander's constant companion. According to it, the commander performs a whole range of work, namely:
· understands the task;
· conducts calculations;
· assesses the situation;
· makes a decision;
· assigns tasks to subordinates;
· organizes interaction;
· conducts target designation;
· reports on the progress of hostilities.
This clearly demonstrates the role and significance of the map as a means of managing departments. The main unit commander map is a 1:100,000 scale map. It is used in all types of combat operations.
Therefore, the most important tasks of the discipline are the study of topographic maps and the most rational ways of working with them.
An image of the earth's surface with all its characteristic details can be constructed on a plane using certain mathematical rules. As already noted in the introductory lecture, the enormous practical significance of maps is due to such features of the cartographic image as clarity and expressiveness, purposefulness of content and semantic capacity.
A geographic map is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, constructed in a certain cartographic projection.
A map projection should be understood as a mathematical method of constructing a grid of meridians and parallels on a plane.
· general geographical;
· special.
General geographic maps include those on which all the main elements of the earth's surface are depicted with completeness, depending on the scale, without specially highlighting any of them.
General geographical maps, in turn, are divided into:
· topographical;
· hydrographic (sea, river, etc.).
Special maps are maps that, unlike general geographic maps, have a narrower and more specific purpose.
Special maps used at headquarters are created in advance in peacetime or during preparation and during combat operations. Of the special cards, the most widely used are the following:
· survey-geographical (for studying theater of operations);
· blank cards (for the production of information, combat and intelligence documents);
· maps of communication routes (for a more detailed study of the road network), etc.
Before considering the principles by which topographic maps are classified, we will give a definition of what should be understood by topographic maps.
Topographic maps are general geographic maps at scales of 1:1,000,000 and larger, depicting the terrain in detail.
Our topographic maps are national. They are used both for the defense of the country and in solving national economic problems.
This is clearly displayed in Table No. 1.
Table No. 1.
Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the terrain and are one of the most important means of command and control.
Based on topographic maps the following is carried out:
· study of the area;
· orientation;
· calculations and measurements;
· a decision is made;
· preparation and planning of operations;
· organization of interaction;
· setting tasks for subordinates, etc.
Topographic maps have found very wide application in command and control (working maps of commanders of all levels), and also as a basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Now we will take a closer look at the purpose of topographic maps of various scales.
Maps at scales of 1:500,000 – 1:1,000,000 are used to study and assess the general nature of the terrain during the preparation and conduct of operations.
Maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are used to study and assess the terrain when planning and preparing combat operations of all types of troops, controlling them in battle, and performing marches. A special feature of a map of this scale is that on its back there is printed detailed information about the area depicted on it (settlements, relief, hydrography, soil diagram, etc.).
The 1:100,000 scale map is the main tactical map and is used for a more detailed study of the terrain and assessment of its tactical properties, command of units, target designation, and carrying out the necessary measurements compared to the previous map.
Topographic maps of scales 1: 100,000 – 1: 200,000 serve as the main means of orientation on the march.
The 1:50,000 scale map is used primarily in defense environments.
A map of scale 1: 25,000 is used for a detailed study of individual areas of the terrain, making accurate measurements, and calculations during the construction of military facilities.
Coordinates are called angular and linear quantities (numbers) that determine the position of a point on any surface or in space.
In topography, coordinate systems are used that make it possible to most simply and unambiguously determine the position of points on the earth's surface, both from the results of direct measurements on the ground and using maps. Such systems include geographic, flat rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates.
Geographical coordinates(Fig. 1) – angular values: latitude (j) and longitude (L), which determine the position of an object on the earth’s surface relative to the origin of coordinates – the point of intersection of the prime (Greenwich) meridian with the equator. On a map, the geographic grid is indicated by a scale on all sides of the map frame. The western and eastern sides of the frame are meridians, and the northern and southern sides are parallels. In the corners of the map sheet, the geographical coordinates of the intersection points of the sides of the frame are written.
Rice. 1. System of geographical coordinates on the earth's surface
In the geographic coordinate system, the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates is determined in angular measure. In our country and in most other countries, the point of intersection of the prime (Greenwich) meridian with the equator is taken as the beginning. Being thus uniform for our entire planet, the system of geographic coordinates is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at significant distances from each other. Therefore, in military affairs, this system is used mainly for conducting calculations related to the use of long-range combat weapons, for example, ballistic missiles, aviation, etc.
Plane rectangular coordinates(Fig. 2) - linear quantities that determine the position of an object on a plane relative to the accepted origin of coordinates - the intersection of two mutually perpendicular lines (coordinate axes X and Y).
In topography, each 6-degree zone has its own system of rectangular coordinates. The X axis is the axial meridian of the zone, the Y axis is the equator, and the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator is the origin of coordinates.
Rice. 2. System of flat rectangular coordinates on maps
The plane rectangular coordinate system is zonal; it is established for each six-degree zone into which the Earth’s surface is divided when depicting it on maps in the Gaussian projection, and is intended to indicate the position of images of points of the earth’s surface on a plane (map) in this projection.
The origin of coordinates in a zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator, relative to which the position of all other points in the zone is determined in a linear measure. The origin of the zone and its coordinate axes occupy a strictly defined position on the earth's surface. Therefore, the system of flat rectangular coordinates of each zone is connected both with the coordinate systems of all other zones, and with the system of geographical coordinates.
The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for carrying out calculations both when working on the ground and on a map. Therefore, this system is most widely used among the troops. Rectangular coordinates indicate the position of terrain points, their battle formations and targets, and with their help determine the relative position of objects within one coordinate zone or in adjacent areas of two zones.
Polar and bipolar coordinate systems are local systems. In military practice, they are used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of the terrain, for example, when designating targets, marking landmarks and targets, drawing up terrain diagrams, etc. These systems can be associated with systems of rectangular and geographic coordinates.
2. Determining geographic coordinates and plotting objects on a map using known coordinates
The geographic coordinates of a point located on the map are determined from the nearest parallel and meridian, the latitude and longitude of which are known.
The topographic map frame is divided into minutes, which are separated by dots into divisions of 10 seconds each. Latitudes are indicated on the sides of the frame, and longitudes are indicated on the northern and southern sides.
Rice. 3. Determining the geographic coordinates of a point on the map (point A) and plotting the point on the map according to geographic coordinates (point B)
Using the minute frame of the map you can:
1 . Determine the geographic coordinates of any point on the map.
For example, the coordinates of point A (Fig. 3). To do this, you need to use a measuring compass to measure the shortest distance from point A to the southern frame of the map, then attach the meter to the western frame and determine the number of minutes and seconds in the measured segment, add the resulting (measured) value of minutes and seconds (0"27") with the latitude of the southwest corner of the frame - 54°30".
Latitude points on the map will be equal to: 54°30"+0"27" = 54°30"27".
Longitude is defined similarly.
Using a measuring compass, measure the shortest distance from point A to the western frame of the map, apply the measuring compass to the southern frame, determine the number of minutes and seconds in the measured segment (2"35"), add the resulting (measured) value to the longitude of the southwestern corner frames - 45°00".
Longitude points on the map will be equal to: 45°00"+2"35" = 45°02"35"
2. Plot any point on the map according to the given geographical coordinates.
For example, point B latitude: 54°31 "08", longitude 45°01 "41".
To plot a point in longitude on a map, it is necessary to draw the true meridian through this point, for which you connect the same number of minutes along the northern and southern frames; To plot a point in latitude on a map, it is necessary to draw a parallel through this point, for which you connect the same number of minutes along the western and eastern frames. The intersection of two lines will determine the location of point B.
3. Rectangular coordinate grid on topographic maps and its digitization. Additional grid at the junction of coordinate zones
The coordinate grid on the map is a grid of squares formed by lines parallel to the coordinate axes of the zone. Grid lines are drawn through an integer number of kilometers. Therefore, the coordinate grid is also called the kilometer grid, and its lines are kilometer.
On a 1:25000 map, the lines forming the coordinate grid are drawn through 4 cm, that is, through 1 km on the ground, and on maps 1:50000-1:200000 through 2 cm (1.2 and 4 km on the ground, respectively). On a 1:500000 map, only the outputs of the coordinate grid lines are plotted on the inner frame of each sheet every 2 cm (10 km on the ground). If necessary, coordinate lines can be drawn on the map along these outputs.
On topographic maps, the values of the abscissa and ordinate of coordinate lines (Fig. 2) are signed at the exits of the lines outside the inner frame of the sheet and in nine places on each sheet of the map. The full values of the abscissa and ordinate in kilometers are written near the coordinate lines closest to the corners of the map frame and near the intersection of the coordinate lines closest to the northwestern corner. The remaining coordinate lines are abbreviated with two numbers (tens and units of kilometers). The labels near the horizontal grid lines correspond to the distances from the ordinate axis in kilometers.
Labels near the vertical lines indicate the zone number (one or two first digits) and the distance in kilometers (always three digits) from the origin, conventionally moved west of the zone’s axial meridian by 500 km. For example, the signature 6740 means: 6 - zone number, 740 - distance from the conventional origin in kilometers.
On the outer frame there are outputs of coordinate lines ( additional mesh) coordinate system of the adjacent zone.
4. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points. Drawing points on a map by their coordinates
Using a coordinate grid using a compass (ruler), you can:
1. Determine the rectangular coordinates of a point on the map.
For example, points B (Fig. 2).
To do this you need:
- write down X - digitization of the bottom kilometer line of the square in which point B is located, i.e. 6657 km;
- measure the perpendicular distance from the bottom kilometer line of the square to point B and, using the linear scale of the map, determine the size of this segment in meters;
- add the measured value of 575 m with the digitization value of the lower kilometer line of the square: X=6657000+575=6657575 m.
The Y ordinate is determined in the same way:
- write down the Y value - digitization of the left vertical line of the square, i.e. 7363;
- measure the perpendicular distance from this line to point B, i.e. 335 m;
- add the measured distance to the Y digitization value of the left vertical line of the square: Y=7363000+335=7363335 m.
2. Place the target on the map at the given coordinates.
For example, point G at coordinates: X=6658725 Y=7362360.
To do this you need:
- find the square in which point G is located according to the value of whole kilometers, i.e. 5862;
- set aside from the lower left corner of the square a segment on the map scale equal to the difference between the abscissa of the target and the bottom side of the square - 725 m;
- From the obtained point, along the perpendicular to the right, plot a segment equal to the difference between the ordinates of the target and the left side of the square, i.e. 360 m.
Rice. 2. Determining the rectangular coordinates of a point on the map (point B) and plotting the point on the map using rectangular coordinates (point D)
5. Accuracy of determining coordinates on maps of various scales
The accuracy of determining geographic coordinates using 1:25000-1:200000 maps is about 2 and 10"" respectively.
The accuracy of determining the rectangular coordinates of points from a map is limited not only by its scale, but also by the magnitude of errors allowed when shooting or drawing up a map and plotting various points and terrain objects on it
Most accurately (with an error not exceeding 0.2 mm) geodetic points and are plotted on the map. objects that stand out most sharply in the area and are visible from a distance, having the significance of landmarks (individual bell towers, factory chimneys, tower-type buildings). Therefore, the coordinates of such points can be determined with approximately the same accuracy with which they are plotted on the map, i.e. for a map of scale 1:25000 - with an accuracy of 5-7 m, for a map of scale 1:50000 - with an accuracy of 10- 15 m, for a map of scale 1:100000 - with an accuracy of 20-30 m.
The remaining landmarks and contour points are plotted on the map, and, therefore, determined from it with an error of up to 0.5 mm, and points related to contours that are not clearly defined on the ground (for example, the contour of a swamp), with an error of up to 1 mm.
6. Determining the position of objects (points) in polar and bipolar coordinate systems, plotting objects on a map by direction and distance, by two angles or by two distances
System flat polar coordinates(Fig. 3, a) consists of point O - the origin, or poles, and the initial direction of the OR, called polar axis.
Rice. 3. a – polar coordinates; b – bipolar coordinates
The position of point M on the ground or on the map in this system is determined by two coordinates: the position angle θ, which is measured clockwise from the polar axis to the direction to the determined point M (from 0 to 360°), and the distance OM=D.
Depending on the problem being solved, the pole is taken to be an observation point, firing position, starting point of movement, etc., and the polar axis is the geographic (true) meridian, magnetic meridian (direction of the magnetic compass needle), or the direction to some landmark .
These coordinates can be either two position angles that determine the directions from points A and B to the desired point M, or the distances D1=AM and D2=BM to it. The position angles in this case, as shown in Fig. 1, b, are measured at points A and B or from the direction of the basis (i.e. angle A = BAM and angle B = ABM) or from any other directions passing through points A and B and taken as the initial ones. For example, in the second case, the location of point M is determined by the position angles θ1 and θ2, measured from the direction of the magnetic meridians. System flat bipolar (two-pole) coordinates(Fig. 3, b) consists of two poles A and B and a common axis AB, called the basis or base of the notch. The position of any point M relative to two data on the map (terrain) of points A and B is determined by the coordinates that are measured on the map or on the terrain.
Drawing a detected object on a map
This is one of the most important points in detecting an object. The accuracy of determining its coordinates depends on how accurately the object (target) is plotted on the map.
Having discovered an object (target), you must first accurately determine by various signs what has been detected. Then, without stopping observing the object and without detecting yourself, put the object on the map. There are several ways to plot an object on a map.
Visually: A feature is plotted on the map if it is near a known landmark.
By direction and distance: to do this, you need to orient the map, find the point of your standing on it, indicate on the map the direction to the detected object and draw a line to the object from the point of your standing, then determine the distance to the object by measuring this distance on the map and comparing it with the scale of the map.
Rice. 4. Drawing the target on the map with a straight line from two points.
If it is graphically impossible to solve the problem in this way (the enemy is in the way, poor visibility, etc.), then you need to accurately measure the azimuth to the object, then translate it into a directional angle and draw on the map from the standing point the direction at which to plot the distance to the object.
To obtain a directional angle, you need to add the magnetic declination of a given map to the magnetic azimuth (direction correction).
Straight serif. In this way, an object is placed on a map of 2-3 points from which it can be observed. To do this, from each selected point, the direction to the object is drawn on an oriented map, then the intersection of straight lines determines the location of the object.
7. Methods of target designation on the map: in graphic coordinates, flat rectangular coordinates (full and abbreviated), by kilometer grid squares (up to a whole square, up to 1/4, up to 1/9 square), from a landmark, from a conventional line, in azimuth and target range, in the bipolar coordinate system
The ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground is important for controlling units and fire in battle or for organizing battle.
Targeting in geographical coordinates used very rarely and only in cases where targets are located at a considerable distance from a given point on the map, expressed in tens or hundreds of kilometers. In this case, geographic coordinates are determined from the map, as described in question No. 2 of this lesson.
The location of the target (object) is indicated by latitude and longitude, for example, height 245.2 (40° 8" 40" N, 65° 31" 00" E). On the eastern (western), northern (southern) sides of the topographic frame, marks of the target position in latitude and longitude are applied with a compass. From these marks, perpendiculars are lowered into the depth of the topographic map sheet until they intersect (commander’s rulers and standard sheets of paper are applied). The point of intersection of the perpendiculars is the position of the target on the map.
For approximate target designation by rectangular coordinates It is enough to indicate on the map the grid square in which the object is located. The square is always indicated by the numbers of the kilometer lines, the intersection of which forms the southwest (lower left) corner. When indicating the square of the map, the following rule is followed: first they call two numbers signed at the horizontal line (on the western side), that is, the “X” coordinate, and then two numbers at the vertical line (the southern side of the sheet), that is, the “Y” coordinate. In this case, “X” and “Y” are not said. For example, enemy tanks were detected. When transmitting a report by radiotelephone, the square number is pronounced: "eighty eight zero two."
If the position of a point (object) needs to be determined more accurately, then full or abbreviated coordinates are used.
Work with full coordinates. For example, you need to determine the coordinates of a road sign in square 8803 on a map at a scale of 1:50000. First, determine the distance from the bottom horizontal side of the square to the road sign (for example, 600 m on the ground). In the same way, measure the distance from the left vertical side of the square (for example, 500 m). Now, by digitizing kilometer lines, we determine the full coordinates of the object. The horizontal line has the signature 5988 (X), adding the distance from this line to the road sign, we get: X = 5988600. We define the vertical line in the same way and get 2403500. The full coordinates of the road sign are as follows: X=5988600 m, Y=2403500 m.
Abbreviated coordinates respectively will be equal: X=88600 m, Y=03500 m.
If it is necessary to clarify the position of a target in a square, then target designation is used in an alphabetic or digital way inside the square of a kilometer grid.
During target designation literal way inside the square of the kilometer grid, the square is conditionally divided into 4 parts, each part is assigned a capital letter of the Russian alphabet.
Second way - digital way target designation inside the square kilometer grid (target designation by snail ). This method got its name from the arrangement of conventional digital squares inside the square of the kilometer grid. They are arranged as if in a spiral, with the square divided into 9 parts.
When designating targets in these cases, they name the square in which the target is located, and add a letter or number that specifies the position of the target inside the square. For example, height 51.8 (5863-A) or high-voltage support (5762-2) (see Fig. 2).
Target designation from a landmark is the simplest and most common method of target designation. With this method of target designation, the landmark closest to the target is first named, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in protractor divisions (measured with binoculars) and the distance to the target in meters. For example: “Landmark two, forty to the right, further two hundred, near a separate bush there is a machine gun.”
Target designation from the conditional line usually used in motion on combat vehicles. With this method, two points are selected on the map in the direction of action and connected by a straight line, relative to which target designation will be carried out. This line is denoted by letters, divided into centimeter divisions and numbered starting from zero. This construction is done on the maps of both transmitting and receiving target designation.
Target designation from a conventional line is usually used in movement on combat vehicles. With this method, two points are selected on the map in the direction of action and connected by a straight line (Fig. 5), relative to which target designation will be carried out. This line is denoted by letters, divided into centimeter divisions and numbered starting from zero.
Rice. 5. Target designation from the conditional line
This construction is done on the maps of both transmitting and receiving target designation.
The position of the target relative to the conditional line is determined by two coordinates: a segment from the starting point to the base of the perpendicular lowered from the target location point to the conditional line, and a perpendicular segment from the conditional line to the target.
When designating targets, the conventional name of the line is called, then the number of centimeters and millimeters contained in the first segment, and, finally, the direction (left or right) and the length of the second segment. For example: “Straight AC, five, seven; to the right zero, six - NP.”
Target designation from a conventional line can be given by indicating the direction to the target at an angle from the conventional line and the distance to the target, for example: “Straight AC, right 3-40, one thousand two hundred – machine gun.”
Target designation in azimuth and range to the target. The azimuth of the direction to the target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it is determined using an observation device or by eye in meters. For example: “Azimuth thirty-five, range six hundred—a tank in a trench.” This method is most often used in areas where there are few landmarks.
8. Problem solving
Determining the coordinates of terrain points (objects) and target designation on the map is practiced practically on training maps using previously prepared points (marked objects).
Each student determines geographic and rectangular coordinates (maps objects according to known coordinates).
Methods of target designation on the map are worked out: in flat rectangular coordinates (full and abbreviated), by squares of a kilometer grid (up to a whole square, up to 1/4, up to 1/9 of a square), from a landmark, along the azimuth and range of the target.
Military topographers are responsible not only for current tasks in their field, but are also in charge of the advance preparation of the territories of continental regions in a topographic and geodetic sense, using for this purpose structures that are, to one degree or another, engaged in geodetic and cartographic activities. dedicated specifically to the work of military topographers. Journalist Alexey Egorov will have access to information previously virtually inaccessible to the general public. How a practical survey of areas is carried out, who creates terrain models and what real risks are involved in carrying out this, at first glance, purely paper work - look at all this in the new program from the “Military Acceptance” series. Points on the map The fact that the territory that may become a battlefield is first studied by topographers in uniform is known to everyone who is at least a little familiar with military affairs. In 2012, the 543rd Center for Geospatial Information and Navigation was created within the Russian Ministry of Defense - a unique formation designed to provide a wide range of topographic and geodetic services in the interests of the Russian military department in the South of Russia. Topographic geodesists of this Center solve their problems primarily by the method of practical study of the area. To do this, they are armed with original technical and transport means that allow them to carry out various types of surveys in real time - from photographic to topographic and geodetic. 
It was with this kind of equipment, mounted on the basis of a KamAZ off-road vehicle, that the Center’s specialists carried out a survey of the territory of Crimea last year. The capabilities of the technology made it possible to draw up or verify maps right along the route and transfer them to the base. However, topographic and geodetic work on the peninsula was little reminiscent of a vacation walk in the resort area. Specialists had to install special towers that act as reference points for the coordinate grid. These towers, by the way, are quite large in size - the height of a 12-story building. Military topographers had to install them themselves, without the involvement of third-party organizations. 
...Yes, such trips may, for the ignorant, resemble the expeditions of geologists from the middle of the last century. However, there is not much romance in the work of military surveyors. The specialists of this service are faced with a complex and responsible task - to accurately determine the plan-altitude justification of given areas, to determine and fix the coordinates and heights of “points”, to create a basis for geodetic reference in the interests of the troops. At the same time, the area where military surveyors are often sent by command assignments bears little resemblance to walking. Mountain cliffs, canyons, impassable gorges, narrow caves - these and other obstacles constantly await the specialists of this service. Combat use coordinates The head of the Military Topographic Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia - the head of the Topographic Service of the entire Russian Army and Navy, Colonel Alexander Zaliznyuk, has been in this field of activity for decades and was awarded the honorary title “Honored Worker of Geodesy and Cartography of the Russian Federation.” According to him, today modern technical means are increasingly becoming part of the work system of top service specialists. For example, the theodolite - a measuring device for determining horizontal and vertical angles during topographic surveys - is giving way to space geodesy tools. 
“Space geodesy forms and defines a geocentric coordinate system, the center of which is at the center of mass of the Earth,” notes Colonel Zaliznyuk. “This center of mass is static, but it must be known with high accuracy.”Possession of such information makes it possible to carry out, say, missile launches with high accuracy, specifying the coordinates of targets with an accuracy of up to a centimeter. By the way, this allows you to fire with less ammunition, saving costs on their purchase, saving the military budget. It is based on materials from space photography that topographic maps are created in electronic form. According to the head of the 946th Main Center for Geospatial Information of the Russian Ministry of Defense, Colonel Vladimir Kozlov, digital information about the terrain is processed by a software and hardware complex, and the accuracy with which these maps are created also does not exceed a centimeter.
“We can make such maps throughout the entire globe,” the officer proudly reports.It is worth noting that space technologies are also improving, moving away from the techniques adopted back in the 1980s. At that time, a satellite was also used, but the shooting was carried out on ordinary photographic film, and when it came to an end, the satellite dropped a capsule from space to Earth, after which the photographs taken were transferred to paper manually. Special purpose surveyors True, where you can’t see from space, the topographer’s main companion was and remains that same theodolite. And also electronic total stations, laser tape measures, levels, plus standard equipment and equipment that military personnel have to carry. The work of top service specialists, as already mentioned, is not always romantic... Moreover, at times it even resembles extreme sports, it is so difficult here, and even downright dangerous. Cable car crossings, parachute jumping, horseback riding. And also - performing tasks practically on the front line. The former head of the 543rd Center, Alexander Goncharuk, recalls that his specialists had to carry out tasks during both counter-terrorism operations in the North Caucasus, as well as during the “five-day” war in August 2008. In 1996, the officer had the opportunity to draw up a cartographically accurate layout of Grozny: in the future, all operations of our troops were worked out precisely on this unique map. By the way, that model with an area of 4 by 6 meters, as Alexander Goncharuk recalls, was made hastily, from scrap material. But we managed it, completed the task.
Fortunately, surveyors don’t have to risk their lives and health so often. Technology comes to the aid of man. The above-mentioned mobile navigation complex based on KamAZ, which in turn is part of the digital topographic system, will reduce months of painstaking work to several hours. The data collected by surveyors is combined on a computer with photographs from satellites and aircraft, “linked” to the coordinates of the area and displayed in analog form; maps are printed here, on the basis of the mobile printing house included in the complex. 
An important aspect: the coordinates are transmitted in encoded form. That is, every military topographer also acts as a cryptographer - a cryptographer. As the head of the 946th Main Center, Colonel Vladimir Kozlov, notes, the map of landmarks allows you to transmit information via communications using the conventional names of objects. By the way, during the Great Patriotic War, our intelligence officers often confused the Nazis by giving German cities their own conventional names. So the city of Wormen became Vasya, Arnstein - Koley, Tiffenzein - Petey. And before the Battle of Borodino in 1812, our scouts managed to plant completely fake maps at Napoleonic headquarters, where they changed the names of many settlements. As a result, getting confused on the ground, the French lost several days. By the way, in the storage of the cartographic center you can find materials dating back to 1812 - the same year when a topographic service was created in Russia by imperial decree. According to Syrian patterns The experience of the current military operations in Syria has shown that it is too early to abandon maps in their usual form. The commander may not always have a computer at hand. But paper maps are also becoming more advanced. For example, they are already made with protection from water, with the ability to apply information with special markers. Maps have been created... on silk! Such products are initially absolutely compact; they can be crumpled up and put in your pocket without compromising subsequent use. 
Three-dimensional models can be considered a new word in military cartography. The head of the Military Topographical Directorate, Colonel Alexander Zaliznyuk, emphasizes that such maps are used both by headquarters and by military personnel individually. “We have equipment with which we make these circuits,” says Colonel Zaliznyuk. “First, a three-dimensional virtual model is created, then the matrix is cut out using a special machine, and the map is printed on a special plotter.”It is worth noting that officers of the Military Topographical Directorate took part in the creation of three-dimensional digital maps of Syrian Aleppo and Palmyra. They provided mathematical support and carried out geodetic work. The model turned out to be such that it can be used to accurately measure distances, areas, and heights. The first launches of the famous “Calibers”, which carried out attacks on terrorist targets in Syria, were also calculated on our maps. According to information that was prepared by specialists from the top service of the Russian General Staff, flight missions were prepared using the electronic topographic map they created for the successful use of these high-precision weapons.
3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography.
Coordinates are angular or linear quantities that determine the position of points on any surface or in space. There are many different coordinate systems that are used in various fields of science and technology. In topography, they are used that make it possible to most simply and unambiguously determine the position of points on the earth's surface. This lecture will cover geographic, plane rectangular, and polar coordinates.
Geographic coordinate system.
In this coordinate system, the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates is determined in angular measure.
The origin of coordinates in most countries (including ours) is taken to be the point of intersection of the prime (Greenwich) meridian with the equator. Being uniform for our entire planet, this system is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at a considerable distance from each other.
The geographic coordinates of a point are its latitude (B, φ) and longitude (L, λ).
The latitude of a point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid passing through this point. Latitudes are counted from the equator to the poles. In the northern hemisphere, latitudes are called northern; in the southern hemisphere, latitudes are called southern. The longitude of a point is the dihedral angle between the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian of a given point.
Counting is carried out in both directions from the prime meridian from 0º to 180º. The longitude of points to the east of the prime meridian is eastern, to the west is western.
The geographic grid is depicted on maps by lines of parallels and meridians (in full only on maps of scale 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000). On larger scale maps, the internal frames are segments of meridians and parallels; their latitude and longitude are written on the corners of the map sheet.
System of plane rectangular coordinates.
Plane rectangular coordinates are linear quantities, abscissa X and ordinate Υ, which determine the position of points on a plane (on a map) relative to two mutually perpendicular axes X and Υ.
The positive direction of the coordinate axes is taken to be north for the abscissa axis (axial meridian of the zone), and east for the ordinate axis (equator).
This system is zonal, i.e. it is established for each coordinate zone (Figure 8), into which the Earth’s surface is divided when depicting it on maps.
The entire earth's surface is conventionally divided into 60 six-degree zones, which are counted from the prime meridian counterclockwise. The origin of coordinates in each zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator.
The origin of coordinates occupies a strictly defined position on the earth's surface in the zone. Therefore, the plane coordinate system of each zone is connected both with the coordinate system of all other zones and with the geographic coordinate system. With this arrangement of coordinates of the axes, the abscissa of points south of the equator and the ordinate west of the middle meridian will be negative.
In order not to deal with negative coordinates, it is customary to conventionally consider the coordinates of the starting point in each zone to be X = 0, Υ = 500 km. That is, the axial meridian (X axis) of each zone is conditionally moved to the west by 500 km. In this case, the ordinate of any point located to the west of the axial meridian of the zone will always be positive and in absolute value less than 500 km, and the ordinate of a point located to the east of the axial meridian will always be more than 500 km. Thus, the coordinates of point A in the coordinate zone will be: x = 200 km, y = 600 km (see Figure 8).
To connect ordinates between zones, to the left of the ordinate record of a point, the number of the zone in which this point is located is assigned. The coordinates of a point obtained in this way are called complete. For example, the full rectangular coordinates of a point are: x=2,567,845, y=36,376,450. This means that the point is located 2567 km 845 m north of the equator, in zone 36 and 123 km 550 m west of the axial meridian of this zone (500 000 - 376,450 = 123,550).
A coordinate grid is constructed in each zone on the map. It is a grid of squares formed by lines parallel to the coordinate axes of the zone. Grid lines are drawn through an integer number of kilometers. On a map of scale 1: 25,000, the lines forming the coordinate grid are drawn every 4 cm, i.e. after 1 km on the ground, and on maps of scale 1: 50,000-1: 200,000 – after 2 cm (1, 2, and 4 km on the ground).
The coordinate grid on the map is used to define rectangular
coordinates and plotting points (objects, targets) on a map according to their coordinates, measuring directional angles of directions on a map, target designation, finding various objects on a map, approximate determination of distances and areas, as well as when orienting a map on the ground.
The coordinate grid of each zone has digitization, which is the same in all zones. The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for carrying out calculations when working on the ground and on the map.
Figure 8. Coordinate zone of the plane rectangular coordinate system.
Polar coordinates
This system is local, and is used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of terrain, for example, during target designation, marking landmarks and targets, and determining data for movement along azimuths. Elements of the polar coordinate system are shown in Fig. 9.
OR – polar axis (it can be the direction to a landmark, a meridian line, a vertical line of a kilometer grid, etc.).
θ – position angle (will have a specific name depending on the direction taken as the initial one).
OM – direction to the target (landmark).
D – distance to the target (landmark).
Figure 9. Polar coordinates.
3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationships on the map.
When working with a map, there is often a need to determine the direction to some terrain points relative to the direction taken as the initial one (the direction of the true meridian, the direction of the magnetic meridian, the direction of the vertical line of the kilometer grid).
Depending on which direction will be taken as the initial one, there are three types of angles that determine the direction of the points:
True azimuth (A) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the north direction of the true meridian of a given point and the direction to the object.
Magnetic azimuth (Am) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the northern direction of the magnetic meridian of a given point and the direction to the object.
Directional angle (DU) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the north direction of the vertical grid line of a given point and the direction to the object.
To transition from one angle to another, you need to know the direction correction, which includes magnetic declination and the convergence of meridians (see Fig. 10).
Figure 10. Diagram of the relative position of the true, magnetic meridians, vertical grid line, magnetic declination, meridian convergence and direction correction.
Magnetic declination (b, Sk) - the angle between the northern directions of the true and magnetic meridians at a given point.
When the magnetic needle deviates to the east from the true meridian, the declination is eastern (+), to the west - westerly (-).
Meridian convergence (ﻻ, Sat) - the angle between the northern direction of the true meridian and the vertical grid line at a given point.
When the vertical line of the coordinate grid deviates to the east from the true meridian, the convergence of the meridians is eastern (+), to the west - western (-).
Direction correction (DC) is the angle between the north direction of the vertical grid line and the direction of the magnetic meridian. It is equal to the algebraic difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians.
PN = (± δ) – (± ﻻ)
PN values are taken from the map or calculated using a formula.
The graphical relationship between angles has already been considered, and now let’s look at several formulas that determine this relationship:
Am = α - (±PN).
α = Am + (± PN).
Practical application of these angles and direction correction is found in terrain orientation, for example, when moving along azimuths, when on a map using a protractor (officer's ruler) or an artillery circle, directional angles are measured to landmarks located on the route of movement, and they are converted into magnetic azimuths, which measured on the ground using a compass.
3.2.5. Determination of geographic coordinates of points using a topographic map.
As previously noted, the topographic map frame is divided into minute segments, which in turn are divided by dots into second divisions (the division price depends on the scale of the map). Latitudes are indicated on the sides of the frame, longitudes are indicated on the northern and southern sides.
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Figure 11. Determination of geographic and rectangular coordinates on a topographic map.
Using the minute frame of the map you can:
1. Determine the geographic coordinates of any point on the map.
To do this you need (example for point A):
draw a parallel through point A;
determine the number of minutes and seconds between the parallel of point A and the southern parallel of the map sheet (01’ 35”);
add the resulting number of minutes and seconds to the latitude of the southern parallel of the map and get the latitude of the point, φ = 60º00′ + 01′ 35″ = 60º 01′ 35″
draw the true meridian through point A
determine the number of minutes and seconds between the true meridian t.A and the western meridian of the map sheet (02′);
add the resulting number of minutes and seconds to the longitude of the western meridian of the map sheet, λ = 36º 30′ + 02′ = 36º 32′
2.Place the point on a topographic map.
For this it is necessary (example for t.A. φ = 60º 01′ 35″, λ = 36˚ 32́׳).
on the western and eastern sides of the frame, identify points with a given latitude and connect them with a straight line;
on the northern and southern sides of the frame, identify points with a given longitude and connect them with a straight line;
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