The capital of the country is Afghanistan. The most famous cities of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is located in South-West Asia, between 60°30` and 75°E and 20°21` and 38°30` northern latitude, mainly within the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau. Afghanistan borders Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, and China and India to the far northeast.

The state is divided into 29 provinces (wilayats) and 2 districts of central subordination. In the mid-1980s, approx. 20% of the country's population. Refugees from villages swelled the population of a number of large cities, primarily Kabul and Jalalabad. However, due to hostilities in the 1990s, which broke out in the immediate vicinity of some major cities, there was an outflow of population, primarily from Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif. As a result of heavy fighting in 1992, the population of the capital and its environs decreased and, according to 1996 estimates, amounted to only 647.5 thousand people compared to 2 million in the early 1990s. In other most significant cities, according to available data, they lived (thousands of people): in Kandahar - approx. 225.5, Herat - 177.3, Mazar-i-Sharif - 130.6, Jalalabad - 58.0 and Kunduz - 57.

Relief of Afghanistan

Mountains and plateaus occupy 80% of the territory; most of the country is home to rocky deserts and dry steppes. Afghanistan occupies the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau, which includes high ridges and intermountain valleys. The eastern regions of the country from southwest to northeast are crossed by the high massive ridges of the Hindu Kush with a height of more than 4000–5000 m, and within the Wakhan Range - more than 6000 m. Here, on the border with Pakistan, is the highest point of the country, Mount Naushak (7485 m). In the upper tier of the mountains, especially in the northeast, modern glaciation with various types of glaciers is widespread.

To the west of the Hindu Kush there is a large, highly dissected, inaccessible Hazarajat highland with a height of more than 3000 m (some peaks reach 4000 m). In these mountains, physical weathering actively occurs, as a result of which rocks are destroyed, and their fragments accumulate in the form of screes (hyraxes) along the slopes and at their feet. From Hazarajat to the west and southwest, systems of lower ridges fan out. The Paropamiz Mountains are approx. 600 km, up to 250 km wide and consisting of two main ridges: Safedhok - in the north and Siahkok - in the south, separated by the valley of the Harirud River, located in the north-west of Afghanistan. The Safedkoh ridge is approx. 350 km and reaches an altitude of 3642 m in the east and 1433 m in the west.

In the north of Afghanistan there is the vast Bactrian Plain, which slopes towards the Amu Darya Valley. The surface of the plain in the foothills of the Hindu Kush and Paropamiz is composed of loess deposits and is dissected by numerous rivers. To the north it turns into a sandy desert.

In the southwest of Afghanistan there are endorheic hilly plateaus with a height of 500 to 1000 m. Vast areas are occupied by the sandy Registan desert and the clayey-gravelly desert of Dashti-Margo.

In the southeast of the country there is a weakly dissected plateau less than 2000 m high, which is associated with several oases. The largest of them is in the vicinity of the city of Kandahar.

Minerals of Afghanistan

Afghanistan contains a lot of mineral resources, but their development is limited. Afghanistan has reserves of such important energy resources as oil (Sari-Pul), natural gas (Shibirgan), and coal (Karkar, Ishpushta, Darayi-Suf, Karoh). In the north of the country, salinity structures are pronounced near Talikan. Rock salt is mined near Anahoy and in other places. There are industrial deposits of copper (south of Kabul), iron (north and west of Kabul), beryllium (north of Jalalabad), manganese, lead-zinc, and tin ores. Afghanistan is famous for its deposits of high-quality lapis lazuli (in the northeast of the country in the Kokchi River basin). There are placer gold deposits. It is possible to extract high-quality marble, talc, granite, basalt, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, kaolin, asbestos, mica, emeralds, amethysts, and jasper.

Afghanistan Statistical Indicators
(as of 2012)

Afghanistan is the only major supplier of lapis lazuli to the world market. There is a large natural gas field in the Shibergan area (136 billion cubic meters)

Afghanistan Climate

subtropical continental (with significant temperature ranges), dry. Average January temperatures on the plains are from 0° to 8°C (absolute minimum –20 – –25°C). Average July temperatures in the plains are 24–32°C, and the recorded absolute maximum temperature is 45°C (at Girishk, Helmand Province). In Kabul average temperature July 25° C, January – 3° C. The weather is usually clear and sunny during the day, and cool or cold at night.

Average annual precipitation is low: on the plains approx. 200 mm, in the mountains up to 800 mm. The rainy season on the plains of Afghanistan lasts from October to April. A specific moisture regime manifests itself in the southeast of the country, where the summer monsoons penetrate, bringing rainfall in July-August. Thanks to the monsoons, the annual rainfall reaches 800 mm. In the southwest, in Sistan, in some places there is no precipitation at all.

Water resources of Afghanistan

The main rivers are Amu Darya, Murghab, Harirud, Helmand, Kabul. With the exception of the Kabul River, which flows into the Indus, and the left tributaries of the Panj (upper reaches of the Amu Darya), the rivers of Afghanistan end in drainless lakes or are lost in the sand. Main source Large rivers are fed by mountain snow and glaciers. Floods occur in spring and summer. Due to large water withdrawals for irrigation and strong evaporation, even large rivers become shallow in the second half of summer. On the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush, the Kabul and Helmand rivers, which are glacially fed, originate. The most fertile and densely populated region of Afghanistan is confined to the Kabul basin. The Helmand River crosses a large part of the country in a southwestern direction and is lost within the desert clay plain of Sistan in Iran. There are a number of oases in its valley. The Harirud River (Tedjen in the lower reaches of Turkmenistan) originates in the Hindu Kush and flows west, and then turns sharply north, forming the Iran-Afghan border. Its waters irrigate the fertile Herat oasis. The rivers of the Bactrian Plain in the north have variable flows and dry out greatly in summer. Many of them do not reach the Amu Darya and are lost in the sands, forming vast deltas. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential and, as a rule, are not navigable. The Kabul River is navigable for approx. 120 km.

There are few lakes in Afghanistan. In the Hindu Kush mountains, the largest and most picturesque lakes are Sarykul, Shiva and Bandi-Amir. In the west and southwest of the country there are salt lakes that dry up in summer - Sabari, Namaksar, Dagi-Tundi.

Soils. The foothills and valleys are characterized by chestnut soils, brown soils and gray soils, formed in the north on loess deposits, and in the south – on clayey-crushed stones. On the most humidified mountain slopes There are chernozem and mountain meadow soils. Largest part arable land is concentrated in the northern regions and intermountain basins (on alluvial, more fertile soils). In the south and southwest of the country, gray soils are common desert soils and salt marshes. The fertile soils of the oases are largely the result of centuries of peasant labor.

Natural areas. Flora and fauna of Afghanistan

The plains of Afghanistan are dominated by deserts. The plateaus are occupied by steppes. Forests (about 5% of the territory) are concentrated in the mid-mountain belt of the Hindu Kush in the east of the country. At an altitude of 2400-3500 m, coniferous forests dominate. Tugai forests are common in river valleys.

In Afghanistan, dry steppe and desert landscapes predominate; dry steppes are common on the foothill plains and in intermountain basins. They are dominated by wheatgrass, fescue and other grasses. The lowest parts of the basins are occupied by takyrs and salt marshes, and in the southwest of the country - sandy and rocky deserts with a predominance of wormwood, camel thorn, tamarix, and saxaul. The lower slopes of the mountains are dominated by thorny subshrubs (astragals, acantholimons) in combination with juniper woodlands, groves of wild pistachio, wild almond and rose hips.

In the Indo-Himalayan region in the east and southeast of the country at altitudes from 750 to 1500 m above sea level. steppes alternate with tree tracts of Indian palm, acacia, figs, and almonds. Above 1500 m there are deciduous forests of evergreen balut oak with an undergrowth of almond, bird cherry, jasmine, buckthorn, sophora, and cotoneaster. Walnut forests sometimes grow on the western slopes, pomegranate groves on the southern slopes, and Gerard pine at altitudes of 2200–2400 m, which above (up to 3500 m) is replaced by Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and Western Himalayan fir. In more humid habitats, spruce-fir forests are common, in the lower tier of which ash grows, and in the undergrowth - birch, pine, honeysuckle, hawthorn, and currants. Juniper forests grow on dry, well-warmed southern slopes. Above 3500 m thickets of dwarf juniper and rhododendron are common, and above 4000 m there are alpine and subalpine meadows.

In the Amu Darya valley, tugai forests are widespread, dominated by turanga poplar, jidda, willow, comb, and reed. In the tugai forests of mountain rivers Pamir, white and laurel-leaved poplars, elk, tamarix, sea buckthorn grow, and in the south - oleander.

Fauna In the open spaces of desert and steppe plains and plateaus, spotted hyenas, jackals, wild donkeys, goitered gazelle and saiga antelopes are found, in the mountains - leopard-irbis, mountain goats, argali sheep. In the tugai thickets along the river valleys one can find wild boar, jungle cat, and Turanian tiger. Afghan fox, stone marten and wolves are widespread, causing considerable damage to sheep flocks, especially in winter. In deserts and dry steppes, the world of reptiles is richly represented: monitor lizards (up to half a meter long), agamas, steppe python, poisonous snakes (viper, cobra, efa, copperhead). Deserts abound in rodents (marmots, gophers, voles, gerbils). There are many poisonous and harmful insects: scorpions, karakurts, phalanges, locusts, etc. The avifauna is rich. Typical birds of prey are the kite, the vulture, the kestrel, the golden eagle, the Himalayan vulture, and the Indian laggar falcon. Wheatears, larks, and desert chickens are widespread in deserts. For the south eastern regions Characteristic species include the Bengal roller, snipe, southern dove, Himalayan jay, pika, and Indian mynah starling. The rivers abound with commercial fish such as barbel, catfish, carp, trout, and asp.

Population of Afghanistan

Number and national composition. According to the first general census in 1979, the population of Afghanistan was 15,540 thousand people, including 2,500 thousand nomads. In the 1980s, the rate of annual natural population growth was estimated at 2.2% with a birth rate of 4.9% and a death rate of 2.7%, and in 2000 they were respectively 3.54% (taking into account the return of refugees from Iran), 4. 2% and 1.8%. According to estimates for 2003, 28,717 thousand people lived in the country.

Afghanistan is a multinational country. The country's population is 38% made up of representatives of Pashtun tribes professing orthodox Sunni Islam. They are settled mainly in the southeastern and southern regions bordering Pakistan. The founding of Afghanistan as an independent state (Durrani state) in 1747 big role played by Ahmad Shah Durrani, a native of the powerful Pashtun Durrani tribe. In this regard, the recent capture of Kabul by the Taliban and their rise to power is considered by them as historical revenge, since the Durranis predominate among the Taliban. President Najibullah, executed by the Taliban, belonged to another Pashtun tribe - the Ahmedzais.

All Pashtuns speak Pashto, a language close to Persian (Farsi). Among the Pashtun tribes there are sedentary and nomadic ones. Both are distinguished by belligerence; many disputes are still resolved on the basis of the traditional code of honor - Pashtunwali, which is based on the protection of personal dignity and blood feud.

In second place in number (25%) are Tajiks living in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, behind the Hindu Kush. Being a people of Iranian origin, they use the Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli) language, which is similar to Persian. Among Tajiks, Sunni Muslims predominate, but there are also many Ismailis. The main occupations of Tajiks are agriculture and trade. Many of them, having received education, became officials and statesmen.

Turkmens (3% of the population) live in the north-west of Afghanistan, and Uzbeks live in the north (9%). Both of them are also Sunni Muslims. Their main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding; the Turkmen are known as skilled carpet weavers. Uzbek leader Rashid Dostum heads the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan, which counters the Taliban.

The Hazaras, a people of Mongolian origin who practice Shia Islam, number approx. 19% of Afghanistan's population. They are concentrated in the central part of the country: farmers and sheep breeders predominate among them; in the cities they form a large layer of hired workers. Their main political organization is the Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan (Hezbe Wahdat).

In the western regions of the country live Persian peoples who profess Shiite Islam. Other nationalities (Nuristanis, Wakhans, Kirghiz, Charaimaks, Brahuis, Kazakhs, Pashais, etc.) are few in number. The Nuristanis, including the Kati, Paruni, Vaigali and Ashkuni tribes, were called kafirs (“infidels”) before their forced conversion to Islam by the Afghan emir in 1895–1896. They lead a very secluded lifestyle in the high mountains north of the Kabul River valley. Several thousand Wakhan people are concentrated within the narrow Wakhan corridor, and the Kyrgyz are concentrated in the extreme northeast of the country, on the Pamir Plateau. Charaimaks, or aimaks (about 600 thousand people), a mixed people ethnic origin, live in the mountains in the west of the country, along the Afghan-Iranian border. Baluchis and Brahuis inhabit some areas in the southwest of the country.

Before the outbreak of hostilities in the 1980s, approximately 76% of Afghanistan's population was primarily engaged in sedentary agriculture, while 9% were pastoralists and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.

Languages. According to the latest constitution, the official languages ​​of Afghanistan were Pashto and Dari (or Farsi-Kabuli, an Afghan dialect of Persian). Dari serves as a lingua franca almost everywhere, except in Kandahar province and the eastern parts of Ghazni province, where Pashto dominates. Uzbeks, Turkmen and Kyrgyz are Turkic-speaking peoples. The Hazaras use one of the archaic dialects of the Persian language, with which Baluchi and Tajik are also associated. Nuristanis speak languages ​​that represent a separate ancient branch that emerged from Iranian and Indian language groups. The Brahuis speak a language belonging to the Dravidian family, similar to the languages ​​of the peoples of South India.

Afghanistan (Afghanistan) - a mountainous country: approximately ¾ of the territory is occupied by mountains and hills, located in southwest Asia or, for those who prefer, in the Middle East. In the north, Afghanistan borders Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; in the east - with China, India (the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir) and Pakistan; in the south - with Pakistan; in the west - with Iran. The name of the country comes from the name of the legendary ancestor of the Afghans - Avgana .

Islamic State of Afghanistan

1. Capital

Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan, as well as political, economic and Cultural Center countries, administrative center Kabul province. The capital is located on the Kabul River and is located at an altitude of 1800 m above sea level.

This is the largest industrial center of Afghanistan, where various fabrics, ammunition, sugar, furniture and much more are produced. Thanks to its history Kabul received a multinational appearance. A large number of nationalities and nationalities live here.

2. Flag

Afghanistan flag- rectangular panel with proportions 7:10. On the canvas flag three vertical stripes, where black is the color of historical and religious banners, red is the color supreme power king and a symbol of the struggle for freedom, and green is the color of hope and success in business. In the central part of the red stripe on the cloth there is a white color (the coat of arms can also be black and yellow), which depicts a mosque with a mihrab and a minbar. The shahada is written above the mosque “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet” .

3. Coat of arms

Coat of arms of Afghanistan completely made in gold color, it depicts a mosque, which is framed by ears of wheat intertwined with a ribbon. There are two flags attached to the mosque - Afghanistan flags. On coat of arms of Afghanistan two inscriptions in Arabic are presented. The inscription on top of the coat of arms is shahada, and is translated as “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet”. Below - the name of the state and the date of declaration of independence of the country (according to Afghan calendar 1919). Coat of arms of Afghanistan also presented on Afghanistan flag.

4. Anthem

listen to the Afghan anthem

5. Currency

The monetary unit of Afghanistan is the Afghani., equals 100 pula (international designation - AFN, dram symbol - ؋, code - Af). There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 Afghanis, as well as coins in denominations of 1, 2 and 5 Afghanis. The exchange rate of the Afghan currency to the ruble is approximately 0.65 rubles per 1 Afghani.

Coins Afghanistan

BanknotesAfghanistan

Afghanistan- a state in South-West Asia. It is landlocked and bordered by Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, China and India to the far northeast. Afghanistan is a mountainous country, 3/4 of the territory is occupied by mountains and hills.

In the north there are only a few valleys, in the south and southwest there are desert regions of Registan. The main mountain system of the country, the Hindu Kush, stretches for almost 965 km. from the spurs of the Pamirs in the northeast to the border with Iran in the west. The area of ​​Afghanistan is 647,500 km2.

7. How to get to Afghanistan?

8. What's worth seeing

Sights of Afghanistan. Afghanistan- enough ancient country, attracting the attention of a large number of travelers who want to see with their own eyes a wide variety of historical monuments. The country's mountain ranges are some of the most beautiful and majestic in the world and provide an excellent area for mountaineering and hiking.

Here's a small one list of attractions, which you should pay attention to when planning excursions around Afghanistan:

• Bamiyan Buddha statues
• Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)
• Blue lakes Bande Amir
• Jam minaret
• Juma Mosque in Herat
• Bala Hissar Fortress
• Eid Gah Mosque
• Panjshir Gorge
• Kabul River
• Panj River
• Lake Shiva
• Herat Citadel

9. 10 Largest cities in Afghanistan

• Kabul (capital)
• Herat
• Kandahar
• Mazar-i-Sharif
• Jalalabad
• Ghazni
• Kunduz
• Charikar
• Puli-Khumri

10. What’s the weather like here?

Afghanistan Climate.Climatic conditions in Afghanistan are quite different in different parts of the country. Climate- subtropical continental, mountainous, arid. This type of climate is characterized by cold winters and hot summers. Average temperatures in winter range from +8 C° to -20 C°, in summer they reach +32 C°.

The amount of precipitation on the plateaus is 200-250 mm, on the slopes of the Hindu Kush - 400-600 mm, in the southeast it reaches 800 mm. The main amount of precipitation falls in winter and spring.

11. Population

Afghanistan has a population of 34,126,629 (as of February 2017). Afghanistan is a multinational country inhabited by over 20 peoples. The national composition of the country is represented by: Tajiks, Pashtuns and Hazaras, as well as Uzbeks, Turkmen, Charaimaks. Approximately 20% population of Afghanistan are nomads and semi-nomads Urban population- 18%; most of it is concentrated in large cities: Kabul, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat.

12. Language

National language of Afghanistan— Pashto and Dari. Dari is spoken by about 50% of the population, Pashto by 35%. Uzbek is also quite common, spoken by about 15% of the population. However, in reality, almost three dozen languages ​​are spoken in the territory.

13. Religion

Islam is the official religion of Afghanistan. 85% of believers are Sunnis, 15% are Shiites.

14. What about something to eat?

National cuisine of Afghanistan- - one of the most ancient on the planet. The most common and recognizable dish of Afghan cuisine is pilaf. Distinguish the following types pilaf: “palau-e-shahi” (pistachios, raisins, rice, lamb, fat tail, cloves), “kabuli-pilav” (raisins, lamb, rice and carrots). Among the first courses, popular soups are “shorbu” (soup with rice), “shormu” (soup with vegetables), “mushavu” (soup with yogurt and legumes).

For dessert, be sure to try halva, “bichak” (pie with jam and other fillings), “firni” (milk pudding with pistachios), and candied nuts. The national drink is without a doubt tea, both black and green, which is consumed in incredible quantities.

15. Holidays

List of holidays in Afghanistan:

• March 21 - Nowruz (Persian New Year)
• April 18 — Liberation Day
• April 28 - Islamic Revolution Day
• May 1 - Labor Day
• May 4 - Day of Remembrance of Martyrs and Disabled Persons
• August 19 — Afghan Independence Day

16. Souvenirs

Here's a small one list most common souvenirs which tourists usually bring from Afghanistan:

• Carpets
• Handmade goods - forged candlesticks, figurines, plates
• Jewelry - possible necklaces, earrings, chains, pendants, pendants, rings and bracelets
• Skin dressing

17. “Neither nail nor rod” or customs rules

Import and export foreign currency to Afghanistan allowed in unlimited quantities, but it is strictly prohibited to import and export Israeli money. A mandatory declaration is required for such events. Local currency allowed import and export within the limits of no more than 500 AFA.

Tobacco (up to 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 500 grams of tobacco) and alcoholic beverages within the limits necessary for personal use, as well as perfumes and perfumes are imported duty free. Import of film cameras is possible only with a special license (this license is also used for the export of previously imported devices).

Prohibited import of drugs, pornography, film and video materials discrediting the government system or contrary to Islamic norms, firearms, plants, fruits and vegetables. Prohibited removal of antiques, carpets and furs. The export of many arts and crafts products is possible only on the basis of an export license, which the seller must provide.

Pets are imported only with a special international veterinary certificate.

What about sockets?

Electrical voltage Afghanistan: 220 V, at a frequency of 50 Hz. Socket type: Type C, Type F.

18. Afghanistan dialing code and domain name

Code of the country: +93
Geographic first level domain name: .af

Dear reader! If you have been to this country or have something interesting to tell about Afghanistan . WRITE! After all, your lines can be useful and educational for visitors to our site "Across the planet step by step" and for all travel lovers.

The city of Kabul is the largest city in Afghanistan and the capital of the country. It is located on the banks of the river of the same name as the city, at an altitude of about 1.8 kilometers above the sea. In past centuries, it was Kabul that was the magnificent cultural world of the entire Arab world, and today it is just a city destroyed by military operations, in which instead of green lawns and trees there are checkpoints. In addition, the serene waters of Kabul have disappeared, which dried up over several decades, gradually turning into a mountain of garbage.

History of Kabul

The very first mentions of the city of Kabul date back to chronicles that sunk into oblivion back in the 2nd century AD. Then this city was known as Karur and Kabul. In the 9th century, the city was captured by the Saffarids and was in power until its destruction by Genghis Khan.

Several centuries later, the lands were received by Babus, who was the wisest Timurid commander and ruler, as well as the greatest poet and writer of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was during this century that the city achieved prosperity, becoming the great capital of the Mongol state. That is why Babur’s grave is located on the territory of the modern city of Kabul. Visit. The holiday there is wonderful.

In subsequent centuries, the city became part of the Durrani state, was captured by the British and became the center of the Afghan state. Throughout 1996 - 2001, Afghanistan was almost completely in the grip of the Taliban, who carried out massacres against the inhabitants, trying to recreate the Middle Ages in Afghanistan. They cut off people's limbs and executed local residents. In 2001, NATO troops were brought in, after which terrorist attacks and military clashes occur only periodically in Kabul.

The best ways to get to Kabul

There is an international airport in the city of Kabul. You can fly to it both from the CIS and from Russia. It is possible with several transfers in cities in Asia or Europe, as well as the UAE. The most optimal flight is to use Turkish airlines via Istanbul. Land transport can be used to get to Kabul from Tajikistan, Iran, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and China.

Since there are no railways in the city, the main means of transportation within and outside the city are taxis, buses and minibuses. By the way, most private cars do not have license plates. Traffic on trolleybus tracks is planned to begin soon. Tourists can move around the city independently only by public transport, since other transport is not safe.

Prices in restaurants and shops

Due to the fact that today the city is not at all pampered with the attention of tourists, local restaurants do not offer the highest level of service. But this does not make them any less colorful, since they offer visitors very expensive alcoholic drinks and traditional meat dishes for the city.

The city's markets sell a large number of different goods, such as cheap carpets, modern mobile phones, Jewelry, as well as products, for the distribution of which you can get a sentence under the criminal code in European countries.

Modern Kabul is the most mysterious city in the world, which is mainly due to its reputation and closedness. Fans of thrilling adventures have a special craving for unpredictable adventures, which is why they go to visit the capital of Afghanistan.

What to see in Kabul

We can safely say that there are almost no architectural objects left in the city that have been preserved in this capital of Afghanistan. Its heart is the trading area on Maiwand Avenue, where all the main bazaars of the city are located. Among all of them, the market called Char-Chata stands out. Some streets of this city still have carpets on which paint was applied, made from the roots of the madder plant.

The most important religious building in the city is the mosque called Idkah, which was built in the 18th century. In addition to this mosque, the city has several 10 houses of prayer and 100 mosques. The Historical and Ethnographic Museum is also a cultural institution, which displays unique exhibits that, unfortunately, were stolen.

Climate in Kabul

Kabul mainly has a semi-desert climate, characterized by temperature fluctuations. During the day, in summer time year, the thermometer sometimes reaches 40 degrees above zero, and at night it even drops below 25 degrees above zero. But in the winter season, snow is not uncommon here, as well as cold weather.

Precipitation in the form of rain most often falls in the spring season. That is why the best time of year to visit Afghanistan and the city of Kabul is considered to be early spring or autumn.

The official name is the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan - a state in the Middle East, landlocked. One of the poorest countries in the world. Over the past 30 years (since 1978), there has been a civil war in the country.

It borders with Iran in the west, Pakistan in the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the easternmost part of the country.

Afghanistan lies at the crossroads between East and West and is an ancient center of trade and migration. Its geopolitical location is between South and Central Asia on the one hand and the Middle East on the other, which allows it to play an important role in the economic, political and cultural relations between the countries of the region.

Etymology

The name "Afghanistan" is translated into Russian as "country of Afghans."

origin of name

The first part of the name is "Afghan", "Afghani" is another name for the Pashtuns - the largest ethnic group in the country. It is assumed that it may be of Persian origin: "Afghan" means "cry, slurred speech." The Pashtun language is incomprehensible to speakers of Persian, and the speech of Afghans seems to them like an inarticulate scream. In fact, Afghan is a reduced Turkic word Augan - refugee (Hidden). Indeed, the territory of Afghanistan is difficult to access and convenient for tribes who, for one reason or another, maintained their independence from various types of conquerors in Central Asia. This is the so-called external name of the people, in contrast to the self-name (an analogue in the Russian language can be considered the words “German”, “Germans”, i.e. those who cannot speak “in our way”, dumb. This is what all foreign residents were called. And also word barbarians in Greek). the last part names, the suffix “-stan”, goes back to the Indo-European root “*sta-” (“to stand”) and in Persian means “place, country”. In modern Persian, the suffix “-istan” is used to form toponyms - geographical names of places of residence of tribes, peoples and various ethnic groups.

The term "Afghans" as a name for a people has been in use since at least the Islamic period. According to some scholars, the word "Afghan" appears for the first time in history in 982; then it meant Afghans of various tribes who lived on the western border of the mountains along the Indus River.

The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited Kabul in 1333, writes:

“We traveled through Kabul, formerly a huge city, the site of which is now home to a tribe of Persians who call themselves Afghans.”

The Encyclopedia Iranica says:

“From an ethnological point of view, “Afghan” is the term used to refer to Pashtuns in the Persian language of Afghanistan. This term is spreading more and more outside Afghanistan, since the Pashtun tribal union is by far the most significant in this country, numerically and politically.”

In addition, she explains:

“Under the name “Avagana”, this ethnic group was first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varaha Mihira in the early 6th century AD in his work “Brihat-samhita”.

This information is also supported by traditional Pashtun literature, for example, in the works of the 17th century poet Khushal Khan Khattak, who wrote in Pashtun:

“The Arabs know it, and the Romans know it: Afghans are Pashtuns, Pashtuns are Afghans!”

The term “Afghanistan” was mentioned in his memoirs by Emperor Babur in the 16th century: at that time this word denoted the lands south of Kabul, where Pashtuns mainly lived.

Until the 19th century, the name was used only for the traditional lands of the Pashtuns, while the entire state as a whole was known as the Kingdom of Kabul. In other parts of the country, independent states existed at certain periods in history, such as the Kingdom of Balkh in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Finally, with the expansion and centralization of power in the country, Afghan rulers adopted the name "Afghanistan" for the entire kingdom. "Afghanistan" as the name of the entire kingdom was mentioned in 1857 by Friedrich Engels, it became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after gaining full independence from Great Britain, and was approved as such in the 1923 Afghan Constitution.

Geographical data

Relief

The territory of Afghanistan is located mainly within the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, with the exception of the Bactrian Plain, which belongs to the southern edge of the Turanian platform. In the north of the country, within the Bactrian Plain, lies a sandy-clayey desert, which is a continuation of the Karakum Desert. In the south and east it is bordered by the Paropamiz and Hindu Kush mountain systems. To the south are the Central Afghan Mountains and the Ghazni-Kandahar Plateau. In the west, along the border with Iran, lie the Naomid plateau and the Sistan depression. The extreme south of the country is occupied by the Gaudi-Zira depression, the clay-gravel rock desert of Dashti-Margo and the sandy deserts of Garmser and Registan.

Climate

The climate of Afghanistan is subtropical continental, cold in winter and dry, hot in summer. Average temperatures and precipitation vary with altitude: in winter from +8 to -20°C and below, in summer from +32 to 0°C. In the deserts, 40-50 mm of precipitation falls per year, on the plateaus - 200-250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush 400-600 mm, in the south-east of Afghanistan, where the monsoons from the Indian Ocean penetrate, about 800 mm. Maximum precipitation occurs in winter and spring. At an altitude of 3000-5000 m, snow cover lasts 6-8 months, higher there are glaciers.

Rivers and reservoirs

All rivers, with the exception of Kabul, which flows into the Indus, are drainless. The largest of them are the Amu Darya, which flows along northern border country, Gerirud, dismantled for irrigation and Helmand, flowing together with the Farah Rud and Harut Rud rivers into the Sistan depression and forming a group of freshwater lakes there, Hamun. The rivers are fed mainly by meltwater from mountain glaciers. Lowland rivers experience high water in the spring and dry up in the summer. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential. In many areas, the only source of water supply and irrigation is groundwater.

History of Afghanistan

For many centuries Afghanistan has been eastern part Persian Empire. Since then it has been part of the Iranian cultural space

Even though the first unified state in Afghanistan was created in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, the land of Afghanistan has an ancient history and various civilizations. Excavations indicate that people lived on this land at least 50,000 years ago, and that the rural communities of this region were among the first in the world.

Afghanistan is unique country, associated with, interacted with and often fought with Indo-European civilization, and is one of the most important early historical regions. For centuries, this country was home to various tribes, among them the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, such as the Bactrians, Pashtuns, etc. In addition, this land was conquered and occupied by the empire of Alexander the Great, the Indo-Greeks , Turks, Mongols.

In modern and recent history, this land was invaded by Great Britain, the USSR, and in Lately USA. On the other hand, local tribes also invaded the surrounding regions, Iran, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

It is speculated that Zoroastrianism may have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BC, with Zoroaster living and dying in Balkh. Ancient eastern Iranian languages, such as Avestan, were spoken in this region during the heyday of Zoroastrianism. By the mid-6th century BC, the Achaemenids incorporated Afghanistan into their Persian Empire. Alexander the Great conquered Afghanistan after 330 BC. After the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, Afghanistan was part of the Seleucid state, which controlled the region until 305 BC. Buddhism became the dominant religion in the region.

The Greco-Bactrian kingdom at its peak

The region then became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks were defeated by the Scythians and driven out of Afghanistan by the end of the 2nd century BC. The Greco-Bactrian kingdom lasted until 125 BC.

In the 1st century AD The Parthian Empire conquered Afghanistan. In the mid to late 2nd century AD. The Kushan Empire, centered in modern Afghanistan, became a great patron of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the 3rd century. Although various rulers calling themselves the Kushans (as the Sassanids are known) continued to rule at least part of this region. Ultimately, the Kushans were defeated by the Huns, whose place, in turn, was taken by the Hephthalites, who created their own state in the region in the first half of the 5th century. The Hephthalites were defeated by the Sasanian king Khosrow I in 557. However, the Hephthalites and descendants of the Kushans managed to create a small state in Kabulistan, which was subsequently captured by Muslim Arab armies and finally conquered by the Ghaznavid state.

Islamic and Mongol period

Afghanistan - East End Arab Caliphate in 750

The Durrani Empire was founded in Kandahar in 1747 by the military commander Ahmad Shah Durrani. It became the first unified Afghan state. However, under his successors, the empire broke up into a number of independent principalities - Peshawar, Kabul, Kandahar and Herat.

Modern history

Due to its strategic position in the center of Eurasia, Afghanistan becomes the arena of struggle between the two powerful powers of the time: British and Russian empires. This struggle was called the “Great Game”. The British Empire fought a series of wars to control Afghanistan, but was eventually forced to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919.

It has diplomatic relations With Russian Federation(established with the RSFSR in 1919).

Republic of Afghanistan (Daoud Dictatorship)

In 1973, a coup d'état took place in Afghanistan. The monarchy was abolished and a republic was proclaimed to the country. This period of history is characterized by extreme political instability. President Mohammed Daoud tried to reform and modernize the country, but ultimately failed. After the next revolution in April 1978, the president and his family members were executed, and the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) came to power.

Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and Civil War

In April 1979, after the Saur (April) Revolution, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was proclaimed. Nur Mohammed Taraki became the head of state, and Hafizullah Amin became the chairman of the Revolutionary Council. The government began to carry out radical reforms, in particular secularization, which caused mass protests in traditional Afghan society. A civil war began in the country. Soon the ruling PDPA party split into two factions - Khalq and Parcham, which entered into a struggle for power. Nur Muhammad Taraki was killed, and Hafizullah Amin became head of state. In the USSR, Amin was considered an unreliable person, capable of reorienting himself to the West at any moment. Therefore, the Soviet leadership decided to eliminate Amin and send troops into the country to help the communist government cope with the rebels. As a result, the USSR was drawn into a civil war that continues to this day. Soviet troops withdrew from the country in 1989.

Taliban rule

After the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, the civil war did not end, but flared up with renewed vigor. In the north of the country a group field commanders formed the Northern Alliance. In April 1992, rebels entered Kabul and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ceased to exist. Meanwhile, the Taliban movement was gaining strength in the south of the country. The majority of the Taliban were Pashtuns by nationality and declared themselves defenders of the interests of the Pashtun people. Their goal was to build a radical Islamic state in Afghanistan. By 1996, most of the country came under their control, Mohammed Najibullah was executed, and the Northern Alliance was pushed into remote northern border provinces. The rule of the Taliban is characterized by a high level of religious intolerance towards people of other faiths (for example, despite protests from the world community, the Taliban blew up architectural monuments - statues of Buddha, which they declared “pagan idols”) and medieval cruelty - for example, thieves had their hands cut off, women and girls were prohibited from attending schools and being on the street unless accompanied by a man, etc. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, international terrorist Osama bin Laden found refuge in Taliban Afghanistan. The United States demanded the immediate extradition of bin Laden, to which the Taliban government refused. After rejecting the ultimatum, the US launched an invasion of Afghanistan. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the Taliban regime fell by early 2002.

Republic of Afghanistan

After the fall of the Taliban, the modern Republic of Afghanistan was proclaimed. Hamid Karzai became president in 2002, and a new Constitution was adopted in 2004. However, the civil war is still ongoing in the country, but with the participation of the United States and its NATO allies.

On August 20, 2009, the next presidential elections took place. Besides Hamid Karzai, the main contenders were former Finance Minister Ashraf Ghani and former Foreign Minister Abdullah Abdullah. To avoid repeated or multiple voting, each voter, after participating in the elections, had to dip his finger in a special dye that could not be washed off during the day. The dark-colored fingertip has become a kind of symbol in Afghanistan of universal suffrage and the emerging civil society. Taliban leaders unsuccessfully called on Afghans to boycott the elections. Reportedly Western media, the Taliban, in order to intimidate the population and punish those who participated in them, cut off the fingers of those who they found traces of dye on their fingers.

Politics and government

According to the 2004 Constitution, Afghanistan is an Islamic republic with a presidential form of government.

The President is Supreme Commander The armed forces of the country form the government and are elected (no more than two consecutive terms) for four years by universal secret ballot. The current president of Afghanistan is Hamid Karzai, elected in the 2004 elections but under foreign occupation.

Executive branch

The head of the Government is the President, who appoints cabinet members with the approval of Parliament. The Government is in charge of the budget, bills, regulations, instructions, etc. The government consists of 27 people.

Legislature

The highest legislative body is the Parliament (in Afghanistan it is called the Majles-e Melli, consisting of the upper (Mishranu Jirga) and lower (Wolesi Jirga) houses. The upper house consists of 249 deputies elected through direct general and secret elections for a four-year term.

Judicial system

In Afghanistan, the judiciary is an independent branch of government. Currently, as part of the implementation of the Bonn Agreements of 2001, Afghanistan has temporarily returned to the 1964 judicial system, which combines traditional Sharia law with elements of European legal systems. Although it does not provide clear guidance on the role of Sharia, it does note that laws should not conflict with the basic principles of Islam.

Loya Jirga

In structure higher authorities State administration also has a traditional body of representative power - the Loya Jirga ("Great Assembly", "High Council"), which includes members of both houses of parliament and chairmen of provincial and district councils.

Domestic and foreign policy

Currently, the country is in a civil war with the participation of US and NATO troops. In late 2001, the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). These are units within NATO troops that are involved in assisting the government of President Hamid Karzai, as well as rebuilding key infrastructure in the country. In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic agreement on partnership between both countries and long-term relations. At the same time, several billion dollars were provided by the international community to rebuild the country.

Economy

Afghanistan is an extremely poor country, heavily dependent on foreign aid. GDP per capita in 2008 was $700 (at purchasing power parity, 219th in the world). 80% of workers are in agriculture, 10% each in industry and the service sector.

Agricultural products - opium, grain, fruits, nuts; wool, leather.

Industrial products - clothing, soap, shoes, fertilizers, cement; carpets; gas, coal, copper.

Exports - $0.33 billion (in 2007): opium, fruits and nuts, carpets, wool, astrakhan fur, precious and semi-precious stones.

The main buyers in 2008 were India 21.1%, Pakistan 20.1%, USA 18.8%, Netherlands 7.9%, Tajikistan 6.7%.

Imports - $4.85 billion (in 2007): industrial goods, oil and petroleum products, textiles, food.

The main suppliers in 2008 are Pakistan 35.8%, USA 9.2%, Germany 7.5%, India 4.8%.

Afghanistan and drugs

At the end of August 2008, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) published its annual report on opium poppy production in Afghanistan, which states: “No country in the world, except China in the mid-19th century, produced as many drugs as modern Afghanistan.” "

According to UNODC, Afghanistan already produces more than 90% of the opium entering the world market. The area of ​​opium plantations is 193 thousand hectares. The income of Afghan drug lords in 2007 exceeded $3 billion (which, according to various estimates, ranges from 40% to 50% of Afghanistan’s official GDP). The area under opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan now exceeds that of coca plantations in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia combined.

At the same time, only 20% of Afghan opium poppy is produced in the north and center, controlled by the government of Hamid Karzai, and the rest is produced in the southern provinces on the border with Pakistan - the zone of operation of NATO troops and the Taliban. Main center drug production - Helmand province, where the planting area amounted to 103 thousand hectares. .

Afghanistan is officially under the patronage of NATO (to which the United States transferred this responsibility after the official end of military operations), but international forces were never able to take control of the entire territory of Afghanistan, limiting their real influence mainly to Kabul and the surrounding area.

According to the UN, about 90% of drugs entering Europe are of Afghan origin. NATO, for its part, verbally declares that its troops are conducting a peacekeeping operation in Afghanistan and are ready to help the Afghan government in solving the drug problem, but this is primarily and mainly its own task.

Poppy cultivation is often the only source of income for Afghan farmers. Russian journalist Georgy Zotov quotes the words of one of them: “We are constantly in drought, grain is dying - during the Taliban times there was famine every now and then. And poppy seeds need almost no water. In addition, wheat on the market is much cheaper - the maximum you can earn from a year’s harvest is only $250. And how can you live on that?” When Zotov asked if they knew how many people die from drugs in Russia, he received the answer: “We don’t care - the main thing is that our families don’t die of hunger.”

Afghanistan is the world's largest opium producer; poppy cultivation fell to 22% and 157,000 hectares in 2008, but remains at historically high levels; unfavorable growing conditions in 2008 reduced the amount harvested to 5,500 tons, down 31 percent from 2007; If the entire crop were processed there would be approximately 648 tons of pure heroin; The Taliban and other anti-government groups are directly involved in opium production and profit from the opium trade. Opium is a key source of income for the Taliban in Afghanistan. Widespread corruption and instability in the state hamper existing anti-drug efforts; Most heroin sold in Europe and East Asia is produced from Afghan opium (2008).

Demography

Population - 28.4 million (estimate as of July 2009).

Annual growth - 2.6%;

Birth rate - 45.5 per 1000 (4th highest in the world);

Mortality - 19.2 per 1000 (8th highest in the world);

Fertility - 6.5 births per woman (4th highest in the world);

Infant mortality - 247 per 1000 (1st place in the world; UN data at the end of 2009);

Average life expectancy is 44.6 years (214th in the world);

Urban population - 24%;

Literacy - 43% men, 12% women (2000 estimate).

Cities

The only city in Afghanistan with a population of more than one million is the capital Kabul. Other major cities in the country are Herat, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad, Kunduz and Ghazni.

Population

Afghanistan is a multinational state. Its population consists of various ethnic groups. Since systematic censuses have not been carried out in the country for several decades, accurate data on the size and composition of various ethnic groups is not available. In this regard, many figures are approximate:

Based on official censuses from the 1960s to the 1980s, as well as information from mostly scientific sources, the Iranica Encyclopedia gives the following list:
39.4% Pashtuns
33.7% Tajiks
8.0% Hazaras
8.0% Uzbeks
4.1% Aimaki
3.3% Turkmens
1.6% Baloch
1.9% others

The approximate distribution of ethnic groups based on the CIA World Factbook is as follows:
Pashtuns: 42%
Tajiks: 27%
Hazaras: 9%
Uzbeks: 9%
Aimaks: 4%
Turkmens: 3%
Baloch: 2%
Others: 4%

According to a representative of the study entitled "Afghan Population Survey - Afghanistan 2006", a joint project of the Asia Foundation, India, the Center for the Study of Developing Countries (CDS) and the Afghan Center for Socio-Economic and Research Surveys (ACSOR), the distribution of ethnic groups as follows:
40.9% Pashtuns
37.1% Tajiks
9.2% Hazaras
9.2% Uzbeks
1.7% Turkmens
0.5% Baloch
0.1% Aimaki
1.3% others

According to another representative of the study, entitled "Afghanistan: When It Matters", the result of a joint effort on the part of the American television channel ABC News, the British BBC, and the German ARD (from 2004 to 2009) released on February 9, 2009, ethnic composition country population (approximately):
41% Pashtuns
38% Tajiks
10% Hazaras
6% Uzbeks
2% Turkmens
1% Nuristani
1% Baloch
1% others

Culture

Afghanistan has an ancient history and a culture that has survived to this day in the form of different languages and monuments. However, many historical monuments were destroyed during the war. Two famous Buddha statues in Bamiyan province were destroyed by the Taliban, who viewed them as “idolatrous” and “pagan.” Other famous architectural monuments are located in the cities of Kandahar, Ghazni and Balkh. Jam Minaret, in the valley of the Khari River, is included in the List of objects World Heritage UNESCO. Muhammad's cloak is kept inside the famous Khalkha Sharif in the city of Kandahar.

Sport

Buzkashi is national species sports in Afghanistan. The riders are divided into two teams, playing in a field; each team tries to capture and hold the skin of a goat. Afghan Shepherds also originated in Afghanistan.

Literature

Although the literacy rate is very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the main pillars of education in Iran and Afghanistan, to the extent that it has incorporated culture. Persian culture still has a major influence on Afghan culture. Private poetry competition events known as "musha"era" are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every homeowner owns one or more collections of poetry of the sort, even if they don't read it more often.

An eastern dialect of Persian, commonly known as Dari. The name itself comes from "Parsi-e Darbari", meaning "Farsi of the royal courts". The ancient name Dari - one of the original names of the Persian language - was revived in the Afghan Constitution of 1964 and was intended "for Afghans to consider their country as the cradle of the language. Thus, the name Farsi, the language of Fars, is strictly avoided."

Religion

The dominant religion is Islam - it is professed by over 90% of the population. Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism are also widespread, and various autochthonous pagan cults and syncretic beliefs (Yazidis, etc.) are numerous.

AFGHANISTAN
state in Asia. It borders Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, China and India in the far northeast.

NATURE
Surface structure and river network. The basis of the relief of Afghanistan is made up of massive highlands, intersected by high ridges and intermountain valleys. In the center and east of the country, this highland is called the Hindu Kush. The peaks of the ridges rise to 5000-6000 m, and within the Wakhan corridor - above 6000 m. Here, on the border with Pakistan, is the highest point of the country, Mount Naushak (7485 m). Modern glaciation with various types of glaciers is widely developed in the upper tier of the mountains. The Helmand and Kabul rivers originate on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush. The most fertile and densely populated region of Afghanistan is located in the Kabul basin, confined to two large intermountain basins. Connections with neighboring Pakistan are maintained through the Khyber Pass. From the Hindu Kush to the west and southwest, systems of lower ridges fan out. One of them - Paropamiz - is approx. 600 km stands out in the north-west of Afghanistan, where the largest ridge is Safedkoh with heights of up to 3642 m in the east and 1433 m in the west. To the south of it flows the Gerirud River, which originates in the Hindu Kush, in the west it irrigates the fertile Herat oasis and then goes into Turkmenistan. In the north of Afghanistan there is the vast Bactrian Plain, descending to the Amu Darya Valley. The surface of the plain in the foothills of the Hindu Kush and Paropamiz is composed of loess deposits and is dissected by numerous rivers. To the north it turns into a sandy desert. Rivers dry up greatly in summer. Many of them do not reach the Amu Darya and are lost in the sands, forming wide deltas. Significant population clusters are confined to them. In the southwest of Afghanistan there are endorheic hilly plateaus with altitudes of 500-1000 m. Vast areas are occupied by the sandy Registan desert and the clayey-gravelly desert of Dashti-Margo. The large transit river Helmand flows in this area, which irrigates a number of oases and is lost in the central basin of Sistan, occupied by shallow and drying lakes. In the southeast of the country, between the Hindu Kush and the Suleiman Mountains, a weakly dissected plateau (altitudes up to 2000 m) is developed. There are a number of significant oases here, the largest of which is near the city of Kandahar. The climate of Afghanistan is subtropical continental with significant temperature ranges. Average temperatures in January on the plains are from 0° to 8° C. Average temperatures in July on the plains are 24-32° C, and the absolute maximum temperature reaches 53° C. In Kabul, the average temperature in July is 22° C, in January - 0° C. During the day, usually The weather is clear and sunny, but at night it is cool or cold. The average annual precipitation is low: on the plains it is about 200 mm, in the mountains up to 800 mm, and there a significant part of the precipitation falls in the form of snow. The rainy season on the plains of Afghanistan lasts from October to April. A specific moisture regime manifests itself in the southeast of the country, where the summer monsoons penetrate, causing heavy rainfall in July-August. Thanks to this, the annual rainfall there also reaches 800 mm. But in the southwest, in some areas of Sistan, there is no precipitation at all, and there is virtually no population there.
Rivers. With the exception of the Kabul River, which flows into the Indus, and the left tributaries of the Panj (the upper reaches of the Amu Darya), the rivers of Afghanistan end in drainless lakes or are lost in the sands. Due to large water withdrawals for irrigation and strong evaporation, even large rivers become shallow in the second half of summer. The soils in Afghanistan are predominantly gray soils, formed in the north on loess deposits, and in the south - on clayey-gravelly deposits. The largest part of arable land is concentrated in the northern regions and intermountain basins (on alluvial soils). The fertile soils of the oases are largely the result of centuries of peasant labor. The vegetation is characterized by a predominance of desert and steppe species. At altitudes up to 1500-1800 m, wormwood and camel thorn grow, and in sandy deserts - saxaul. Pistachio woodlands are developed on the slopes of the foothills. At altitudes up to 2200-2500 m, steppe vegetation of wormwood and grasses dominates, above 2500 m - steppes with feather grass and fescue, and spiny upland xerophytes-pillows are found. In the upper tier of the mountains, productive alpine meadows are expressed in some places. Forests grow only in the mountains in the southeast and east of the country. With increasing altitude, oak forests are replaced by coniferous forests - deodar, spruce and fir. The total forested area is estimated at 1.9 million hectares. The fauna of Afghanistan is striking in its diversity. Spotted hyenas, kulans, saigas live in the open spaces of plains and plateaus; in rocky areas - leopards, mountain goats, and mountain sheep. In the tugai thickets along the river valleys one can find foxes, wild boars, and jungle cats. Wolves are widespread and cause considerable damage to sheep flocks, especially in winter. The world of reptiles is richly represented: monitor lizards, steppe pythons, poisonous snakes (viper, cobra, efa). There are many poisonous and harmful insects: scorpions, karakurts, locusts, etc.
POPULATION
Size and national composition of the population. According to the first general census of 1979, the population of Afghanistan was 15,540 thousand people, including 2,500 thousand nomads. In the 1980s, the rate of natural population growth was estimated at 2.2% annually, with a birth rate of 4.9% and a death rate of 2.7%. According to 1998 estimates, the country has 24,792 thousand inhabitants. Afghanistan is a multinational country. Pashtun tribes, professing orthodox Sunni Islam, make up 55% of the country's population. They are settled mainly in the southeastern and southern regions adjacent to the border with Pakistan. In the founding of Afghanistan as an independent state in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, a native of the powerful Pashtun Durrani tribe, played a major role. In this regard, the recent capture of Kabul by the Taliban and their rise to power is considered by them as historical revenge, since the Durranis predominate among the Taliban. President Najibullah, executed by the Taliban, belonged to another Pashtun tribe - the Ahmadzai. All Pashtuns speak Pashto, a language close to Persian (Farsi). Among the Pashtun tribes there are sedentary and nomadic. Both are distinguished by belligerence; many disputes are still resolved on the basis of the traditional code of honor - Pashtunwali. It is based on the protection of personal dignity up to and including blood feud. In second place in number (19% of the population) are Tajiks living in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, behind the Hindu Kush. Being a people of Iranian origin, they use a language very similar to Persian. Among Tajiks, Sunni Muslims predominate, but there are many Islamic sectarians - Ismailis. The main occupations of Tajiks are agriculture and trade. Many of them, having received an education, became officials and statesmen. The President of Afghanistan Burkanuddin Rabani and the commander of government troops Ahmad Shah Massoud (who was nicknamed the “lion of Panjisher”) are Tajiks. Turkmens (3% of the population) live in the north-west of Afghanistan, and Uzbeks live in the north (9% of the population). Both of them are also Sunni Muslims. The main occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding; the Turkmens are famous as skilled carpet weavers. Uzbek leader Ramid Dostum heads National movement Afghanistan, countering the Taliban. The Hazaras, a people of Mongolian origin who practice Shia Islam, make up 9-10% of Afghanistan's population. They are concentrated in the central part of the country. Among them, farmers and sheep breeders predominate; in the cities they form a large stratum of hired workers. Their main political organization is the Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan (Hezbi-Wahdat). In the western regions of the country live Persian peoples who profess Shiite Islam. Other nationalities (Nuristani, Wakhan, Kyrgyz, Charaimak, Brahui, Kazakh, Pashak, etc.) are few in number. The Nuristanis, including the Kati, Paruni, Vaigali and Ashkuni peoples, were called kafirs (“infidels”) before converting to Islam in 1895-1896, and lead a very secluded lifestyle in the high mountains north of the Kabul River valley. Several thousand Wakhan people are concentrated within the narrow Wakhan corridor, and the Kyrgyz are concentrated in the northeastern corner of the country on the Pamir Plateau. The Charaimak (Aimak), a people of mixed ethnic origin, live in the mountains of western Afghanistan, their numbers are still unknown. Baluchis and Brahuis inhabit some areas in the southwest of the country. Before the outbreak of hostilities in the 1980s, approximately 76% of Afghanistan's population were primarily sedentary farmers, while 9% were pastoralists and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.
Languages. The official languages ​​of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari (or Farsi-Dari, an Afghan dialect of the Persian language). Dari serves as an international language of communication almost everywhere, except in Kandahar province and the eastern regions of Ghazni province, where Pashto dominates. Uzbeks, Turkmen and Kyrgyz are Turkic-speaking peoples. The Hazaras use one of the archaic dialects of the Persian language, with which Balochi and Tajik are also related. Nuristanis speak languages ​​that represent a separate ancient branch that emerged from the Iranian and Indian language groups. The Brahuis speak a Dravidian language similar to the languages ​​of the peoples of South India.
Cities. In the mid-1980s, approx. 20% of the country's population. Refugees from villages swelled the population of a number of large cities, primarily Kabul and Jalalabad. However, hostilities in the 1990s, which broke out in close proximity to some big cities, caused an outflow of population, primarily from Kabul and Mazar-i-Sharif. As a result of heavy fighting in 1992, the population of the capital and its environs decreased and, according to 1996 estimates, is only 647.5 thousand people compared to 2 million at the beginning of the 1990s. Other leading cities have a population of (thousands of people): Kandahar approx. 225.5, Herat approx. 177.3, Mazar-i-Sharif 130.6, Jalalabad 58.0 and Kunduz 57.0.
POLITICAL SYSTEM
Afghanistan like public education is a community of tribes over which national political institutions have been built over the past 100 years. Afghan rulers enjoyed international prestige and had an army that allowed them to control clan structures, given the rivalry between the Russian and British empires and their successors in the area. Until the early 1960s, the king and his relatives held a dominant position in the country. But the monarch had to reckon with tribal leaders, religious leaders and the army, which was built on a tribal basis until 1956, when its modernization began with the help of the USSR. In the aftermath of World War II, the king came under pressure from a small but expanding group of urban intellectuals who demanded liberalization of the regime. In 1963, a person who did not belong to the royal family was appointed prime minister for the first time. The constitution adopted in 1964 ensured the division of power between the government and the popularly elected legislative body In July 1973, a small group of officers led by General Muhammad Daoud, the king's cousin and former prime minister, removed the monarch from power and declared Afghanistan a republic. Daoud ruled single-handedly, suppressing both right and left opposition. In April 1978, after the arrest of the leaders of the far-left People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), military units stationed in Kabul overthrew the dictator, freed the PDPA leaders and put them in power. PDPA leader Nur Muhammad Taraki took the posts of chairman of the Revolutionary Council and prime minister of the new government, which began to implement radical reforms. Of primary importance among them were agrarian reforms aimed at eliminating landlordism and a far-reaching campaign to combat illiteracy. The implementation of these events caused army mutinies in almost all provinces and caused a flow of refugees into Pakistan. In September 1979, Taraki was forcibly removed by Hafizullah Amin, who was even more revolutionary and was not inclined to political compromises. Anti-government protests in the country intensified, and attempts by the Soviet leadership, which helped the new regime, to persuade the Kabul authorities to a less radical policy were unsuccessful. In December 1979, the USSR sent a contingent of Soviet troops to Afghanistan. Amin was replaced by Babrak Karmal, who tried to reach agreement with his opponents and expand the social base of his administration. A manifestation of this course was, in particular, the departure from conducting agrarian reform. However, reconciliation could not be achieved, and Karmal found itself completely dependent on Soviet military, technical and financial assistance. The rebel groups enjoyed the support of the United States and a number of other states. Fighting erupted throughout Afghanistan in the 1980s. A contingent of Soviet troops numbering approx. 130 thousand military personnel and 50 thousand soldiers of the Afghan army were opposed by approximately 130 thousand rebels, called “Mujahideen” (“fighters for the faith”). In 1986, Najibullah Ahmadzai, as a result of a coup, took Karmal's place and negotiated a ceasefire with the rebels. However, these initiatives were rejected. In April 1988, the USSR and the USA came to an agreement on non-interference in Afghan affairs, which created the conditions for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from May 1988 to February 1989. After the collapse of the USSR in December 1991, the Najibullah government fell (April 1992). The leaders of the rebel groups managed to form a provisional government in 1992, first under the leadership of Sibghatullah Mojadidi and then Burhanuddin Rabbani. Soon the victors were drawn into internecine armed clashes. In 1994, a group of religious students and mujahideen, who became known as the Taliban, took control of Kandahar, and in September 1996, Kabul. In 1999, the Taliban controlled all major cities of the country and 75-90% of its territory.
Central authorities. The Taliban rule Afghanistan based on Muslim legal norms - Sharia law. The country was declared an emirate in October 1997, headed by Emir Mullah Omar. He has a 40-member advisory council known as the Supreme Shura. They also function approx. 20 ministries. The Department for the Promotion of Piety and Combating Vices has been created under the Ministry of Justice, which is designed to implement the Taliban’s tough social policy. In particular, women are prohibited from studying and working outside the home and must wear a veil in public. Men are required to grow a beard. The 1987 Constitution was repealed, the law in the country is based on Sharia law and the decrees of Mullah Omar. Those parts of the country that are not captured by the Taliban are ruled by different factions that, at least nominally, remain loyal to the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani, recognized by most states and international organizations as the legitimate authority of Afghanistan. The country was considered a revolutionary republic from April 1978 to April 1992. According to the 1987 constitution, the highest legislative body was declared to be a bicameral National Assembly, consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate, whose members were partly elected and partly appointed by the president. The parliamentarians, along with senior officials and leaders from various communities and sectors of the population, formed the Great Jirga, which had the power to determine who would become Afghanistan's president for a seven-year term and to amend the constitution. Executive power carried out by the President with the help of the Cabinet of Ministers.
Political parties and movements. The support of the Taliban movement was the students of theological schools-madrassas from rural areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan. It originated in the southeastern part of Afghanistan in the summer of 1994 among the Durrani Pashtuns, but then became more widespread. In 1998 there were approx. 110 thousand Taliban, including people from the Ghilzai and other eastern Pashtun tribes, former members the Khalq faction of the PDPA, Pakistani youth and warlords who joined the Taliban. Ethnically, the region is characterized by a predominance of Pashtuns. Several parties opposed to the Taliban formed a fragile Northern Alliance. The most authoritative among them are the Tajik Jamiati Islami ("Islamic Society") organization of Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud, the Uzbek Jumbush-e-Milli militia led by Rashid Dostum, and Hezbi-Wahdat, or the Hazara Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan, led by Abdul Karim Khalili. The organization of Rabbani and Massoud arose from one of the seven mujahideen parties, which had a residence in the Pakistani city of Peshawar in the 1980s. Many of these parties still exist, at least nominally. Hezbi-Wahdat, designed to protect the interests of the Hazaras, emerged in 1989 through the merger of many Shiite political groups based in the Iranian capital Tehran in the 1980s. From April 1978 to April 1992, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ruled the country. Created in 1965, it adhered to Marxist-Leninist ideology, and in 1967 it split into rival factions Khalq ("People") and Parcham ("Banner"). In 1976 they united again, but the split between the more radical Khalqists and the relatively moderate, pro-Soviet oriented Parchists was not overcome. Ethnic and social heterogeneity had an impact: Khalq had a strong position in the Pashto-speaking mountainous regions of eastern Afghanistan, and Parcham among the Farsi-speaking urban intelligentsia. After the PDPA seized power, Taraki and Amin, both Khalqists, began to purge the leadership of the party opposition. With the assassination of Amin in December 1979 and the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, the situation changed fundamentally: Karmal and Najibullah belonged to the Parchists. In 1988, the PDPA had 205 thousand members, but it relied on the more massive organization of the National Front (NF). The national and tribal associations that were part of it supported the government, and the PDPA was the dominant force. In 1987, it was allowed to form other political parties, provided that they join the NF. In the ranks of the latter in 1987 there were approx. 800 thousand people. Currently, its activities have ceased. In 1978-1992, dozens of armed partisan formations waged an active struggle against the Kabul authorities. Their fragmentation reflected the deep regional and ethnic differentiation of the country, differences between Sunnis and Shiites, and ideological contradictions between moderate and extremist Islamists. In May 1985, three traditional and four fundamentalist factions, whose residences were in Peshawar, created a united front called the Islamic Unity of the Afghan Mujahideen and in February 1989 announced the formation of an interim government in exile. However, the commonality of views was manifested in only one thing - a negative attitude towards the PDPA and the USSR. Attempts by opposition forces entering various coalitions to reach a lasting agreement collapsed with the fall of Najibullah's regime in April 1992. Opposing guerrilla formations received military and monetary assistance from the United States and Saudi Arabia, as well as from China, Iran and Egypt. The flow of weapons was directed through the channels of the army intelligence service Pakistan. Afghanistan's judicial system operated on the principles set out in the 1987 constitution, but was modified under the Taliban. The "Religious Police" under the Office for the Promotion of Piety and Counteraction to Vices patrols the streets and monitors compliance social institutions, prescribed to the population by the Taliban movement. Cases before Taliban judges are decided based on local interpretations of Islamic law, with traditional Muslim punishments applied (for example, cutting off the hand of thieves). The Taliban's armed forces are approximately estimated at 110 thousand fighters. Fundamentalist opposition forces in the north are divided into three factions. Before the successful Taliban offensive in northern Afghanistan in the early fall of 1998, Tajik troops under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Massoud included 60 thousand, Uzbek troops under the command of General Dostum - 65 thousand, and the Hezbi-Wahdat party, led by Abdul Karim Khalili, - 50 thousand people. In 1979, the Afghan army consisted of approximately 110 thousand soldiers. A significant part of them deserted over the next two years and even joined the ranks of the Mujahideen, which created a threat to the very existence of the official government. The USSR, which supplied the Afghan government forces with weapons and ammunition and provided military advisers, at the end of 1979 sent a military contingent of more than 130 thousand people to this country. They were finally withdrawn from Afghanistan in February 1989. The army units subordinate to the Kabul authorities in 1988 numbered 50 thousand military personnel, in addition to aviation units with a personnel of 5 thousand, as well as security and police officers numbering more than 200 thousand people. During this period, at least 130 thousand Mujahideen fought in resistance units in different parts of the country.
International relationships. Before the Second World War, British influence predominated, but shortly before the outbreak, Germany, Italy and Japan began trade negotiations with Afghanistan and proposed a number of development programs. The penetration of the Axis powers was stopped in 1941 thanks to the joint political pressure of Great Britain and the USSR. During World War II, Afghanistan maintained a policy of neutrality. In those years, diplomatic relations were established with the USA and China, and in 1946 relations with the USSR noticeably improved. The border between both countries was established in the middle of the Amu Darya channel, and Afghanistan received the right to use the waters of this river for irrigation needs. In 1946 Afghanistan joined the UN. In July 1947, as Britain prepared to withdraw from India, the Afghan government proposed that the people of the North West Frontier Province, once controlled by the Afghan authorities, be allowed to decide for themselves whether to become part of Afghanistan or Pakistan, or to form an independent state. . Afghan side stated that the eastern borders of Afghanistan, established in 1893 (the so-called “Durand Line”), were never truly a state border, but rather served as a dividing zone, the task of which was to maintain law and order. Some tribes in northwestern Pakistan continued to seek independence or autonomy, and border incidents arose that marred Afghan-Pakistani relations, and the situation almost reached war in 1955. That year, the Afghan government spoke in favor of the formation of an independent state of Pashtunistan, which was to include a significant part of the territory of the then West Pakistan. This proposal was supported by the USSR. After World War II, Afghanistan did not join any of the blocs. However, when revolutionary events took place in the country in 1978, a friendship treaty was signed with the USSR. At first, only weapons were supplied from the USSR to the Afghan authorities to fight the Islamist rebels. However, this did not lead to the desired results, and advisers were sent from the USSR, and then Soviet troops were brought in in December 1979. The government in Kabul became dependent on the USSR, which provided it with $36-48 billion in military aid from 1978 to the early 1990s. Meanwhile, the rebels established contacts with Pakistan and the United States, and also received widespread support from Saudi Arabia, China and a number of other states, which together provided the Mujahideen with weapons and other military equipment worth $6-12 billion. Thus, in the 1980s, the civil war turned Afghanistan into an arena of superpower rivalry. In the 1990s, this war was fueled, at least in part, from outside. Diplomatic recognition of the Taliban in 1997 came only from Pakistan, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. The Rabbani government expelled from Kabul is recognized as legitimate by most states and the UN. Rabbani and other political forces in northern Afghanistan enjoy favorable treatment from Russia, Iran, India, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. After Iranian diplomats were killed in Mazar-e-Sharif captured by the Taliban in August 1998, Iran concentrated its military units numbering approx. 200 thousand people along the border with Afghanistan. In August 1998, US warplanes launched guided missile attacks on training camps believed to be funded by Arab extremist Osama Bin Laden.
ECONOMY
Agriculture forms the backbone of Afghanistan's economy. Approximately 12% of its territory is arable, another 1% is dedicated to permanent crops and 9% is used as permanent pasture. In the 1980s, the irrigated area was approximately 2.6 million hectares. They are irrigated primarily by ditches fed by rivers and springs, as well as by underground drainage galleries with observation wells (kariz in Pashto, or qanats in Farsi). In the 1980-1990s, military actions caused great damage to irrigation structures, and the cultivation of fields became dangerous occupation due to the millions of mines scattered throughout the countryside. Most of the cultivated land belongs to small peasant farms. Mineral fertilizers are rarely used, half arable land fallow for a year or more to prevent soil depletion. Close relationships developed between nomads and landowners. The villagers allow the herds of nomads to graze the stubble, since the animals fertilize the fields with manure; however, two decades of war have disrupted these traditional contacts. Main agricultural areas. Given the significant differences in topography, climate and soils, eight agricultural regions can be distinguished. Wheat is actively grown in all regions of the country. Peasants cultivate grain crops at altitudes up to 2700 m. Crops change with increasing altitude: the leading role passes from rice to corn, then to wheat and even higher to barley. The most productive lands are located on the plain north of the Hindu Kush, where the tributaries of the Amu Darya have formed wide and fertile valleys, on the plateau in Kabulistan, where the Kabul, Logar, Sarobi and Laghman valleys stand out, in the central part of the country - Hazarajat, as well as in the valleys of Gerirud (near Herat) and Helmand.
Agricultural crops. Arable land in Afghanistan is devoted mainly to grain crops. The main one is wheat. Corn, rice and barley are also important. Other cultivated crops include sugar beet, cotton, oilseeds and sugar cane. All kinds of fruit crops are grown in the gardens: apricots, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, pomegranates and citrus fruits. Several varieties of grapes, different varieties of melons, almonds and walnuts are common. Fresh and dry fruits, raisins and nuts are exported. Agricultural production declined markedly in the 1980s as many farmers fled the countryside to escape dangers guerrilla warfare. In the 1980s and 1990s, opium poppy became the leading cash crop of Afghanistan, which became the world's main supplier of opium (1,230 tons in 1996).

Animal husbandry. Sheep are kept for meat, milk, wool and sheepskins. The Karakul breed of sheep, bred in northern Afghanistan, produces the famous Karakul smushki. Goats, horses, cattle and camels are also bred.
Forestry. Forests are concentrated primarily in the eastern provinces of Afghanistan. Pine, Himalayan cedar, oak, olive and nut trees grow there. Afghanistan has a chronic shortage of timber, but some of it is exported because it is often easier to float down rivers to Pakistan than to export it to other parts of the country.
Mining industry. A large gas basin explored in the north has been developed with Soviet assistance since 1967. In the 1980s, natural gas was transported in large quantities to the USSR. Coal deposits are also being exploited. Oil, also discovered in the northern regions, is not mined, as is iron ore, large reserves of which have been discovered west of Kabul. To the southeast of Fayzabad in Badakhshan there is the only deposit of high-quality lapis lazuli in the world.
Manufacturing industry. Until the 1930s, industry in Afghanistan remained at a low level of development. After 1932, the private Afghan National Bank, or Bank-i-Melli, began construction of a number of industrial facilities. These included cotton ginneries in the northern regions, a cotton factory in Puli Khumri, sugar factory in Baghlan and a wool weaving factory in Kandahar. In a series of five-year plans beginning in 1956, the emphasis was on stimulating primarily the public rather than the private sector. Hydroelectric power stations were constructed or upgraded at Sarobi, Puli Khumri, Naglu, Darunta, Mahipara and other places. Cement factories were built in Jabal-us-Siraj and Puli-Khumri. Many new industries emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s industrial production, including the primary processing of raisins and the production of canned meat, the manufacture of textiles and the manufacture of medicines. Tourism has become an important source of foreign exchange, with more than 100,000 foreigners visiting Afghanistan in 1978. The civil war that broke out after the 1978 revolution interrupted the progress of industrialization and blocked the flow of tourists. After 20 years of war, virtually all industries were destroyed. In 1998, the country's entire economy, except agriculture, depended on transit trade. The construction of a gas pipeline from Turkmenistan through western Afghanistan to Pakistan was frozen at the end of 1998 due to the unstable political situation in Afghanistan.
Transport and communications. The country has only 25 km of railway tracks and almost no navigable rivers. The road network exceeded 18,750 km, of which 2,800 km were paved. However, due to military operations, the condition of these roads has deteriorated greatly, and road repair work is almost non-existent. In winter and spring, some roads become impassable. In many areas, camels and donkeys remain the most important means of transport. An important ring road has become important, starting in Kabul, running north through the Salang Pass Tunnel to Khulm (Tashkurgan), then turning west to Mazar-e-Sharif, then on to Meymaneh and Herat, before heading southeast to Kandahar. and finally northeast to Kabul. The country's main roads connect to Pakistan's transport network at Torkham, located directly at the Khyber Pass, and at Chaman in Pakistan's Balochistan; another highway runs from Herat to Iran. Goods from Russia, the Central Asian republics and those delivered in transit through their territory from European countries travel by rail to state border in Termez, where the highway to Herat and one of the four ports on the Amu Darya begins. Crossing the river is carried out on ferries and barges pulled by tugs. A trolleybus service has been organized in the capital of the country. There are international airports in Kabul and Kandahar. 30 airfields were built to service local lines. In Afghanistan in 1998 there were 1.8 million radios. In 1978, a color television center was created in Kabul with the help of Japan. State radio and television broadcasting was conducted in the 1980s in Dari, Pashto and ten other languages. The Taliban banned television broadcasts as contrary to the tenets of Islam and, having captured Kabul in 1996, began destroying televisions. The telephone network is low-power: in 1996 there were 31.2 thousand subscribers, and the number of cell and satellite phones is growing.
International trade. Until recently, Afghanistan had limited trade relations with other states. At the same time, imports constantly exceeded exports. Even before the entry of Soviet troops in 1979, the USSR was the main trading partner, a trend that intensified further in the 1980s. The main exports are heroin, natural gas and dried fruits, as well as carpets, fresh fruits, wool, cotton and astrakhan skins. The country is forced to import a wide range of industrial goods, including cars, petroleum products and textiles. When the economy collapsed due to war in the 1980s and peasants began fleeing villages, there was a sharp decline in agricultural production and a corresponding increase in dependence on external food supplies. Wheat, rice, vegetable oils, sugar and dairy products were delivered to Afghanistan from abroad. The war and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 predetermined the extreme instability of Afghanistan's foreign trade. In 1998, cargo from Turkmenistan and Pakistan was transported in transit through the country.
Money circulation and banking system. Monetary unit An Afghani equal to 100 pula serves in the country. The Central Bank of Afghanistan regulates monetary circulation. From 1992 to 1998, the government that established control over the northern part of Afghanistan and was based in Mazar-i-Sharif issued its own banknotes. All banks were nationalized in 1975. There are no foreign banks in the country.
Public finances. The Taliban government receives current revenue primarily from indirect taxes, especially import duties and sales taxes, income taxes, incl. "heroin", as well as outside help. Forces hostile to the Taliban are also counting on similar assistance. Both sides spend these funds mainly to meet the direct and indirect costs associated with the ongoing armed conflict.
SOCIETY AND LIFESTYLE OF THE POPULATION
Social structure. Until 1973, members of the royal clan (Durrani Pashtuns) traditionally occupied the top rung of the social hierarchy. The main line was formed primarily by the descendants of Dust Muhammad and his half-brother and rival Sultan Muhammad, who dominated the political arena since 1826. The next most important layer consisted of high-ranking officials close to the regime, religious leaders, leaders of influential tribes, senior officers, and wealthy merchants. This amorphous group was supported by a social environment with growing weight in society: young administrators who were educated abroad and who, thanks to their knowledge and personal merit, managed to qualify for positions in the cabinet. Below were shopkeepers, doctors, petty traders, village clerics (mullahs), provincial officials and other local officials. At the foot of the pyramid there were ordinary peasants and nomadic herders. In the 1980s and 1990s, amid a protracted civil war, the social status of individuals and groups began to depend directly or indirectly on their relationships with armed groups. Soldiers, officials, tribal leaders, mullahs - all those who supported April revolution 1978, gained access to Soviet weapons and money. Their opponents who opposed the revolutionary coup could count (regardless of whether they remained in Afghanistan itself or took refuge in refugee camps in Pakistan) on the military and financial assistance from the United States and Saudi Arabia to various rebel groups. With the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, the fighting between these factions did not stop, and they continue to receive help from abroad.
The influence of religion. Islam remains powerful force in Afghanistan, where almost the entire population adheres to the Muslim faith. Approximately 84% of the residents are Sunni Hanafi. However, among the Hazaras there are many Shiites, and there is also an Ismaili community. There are a number of large Sufi orders operating in the country - Chishtiyya, Naqshbandiyya and Qadiriyya.
The status of women. In the past, women in Afghanistan did not participate in public life. Attempts to change the situation “from above”, made before the Second World War, met with strong resistance. In 1959, the government called for a voluntary abolition of the veil in cities. The energetic efforts of the Marxist leadership to further pursue the path of emancipation became one of the reasons for mass unrest in conservative circles of the population. In areas where the Taliban have gained the upper hand, strict control has been established over women's compliance with traditional norms of behavior. In Afghanistan, girls' schools have been closed, and women are being forced to refuse to work outside the home and are required to wear veils when going out. The "women's issue" poses a serious obstacle to the Taliban's attempts to achieve official recognition from Western states.
Social Security. After World War II, noticeable positive changes occurred in medical care population. Hospitals and clinics were built in many cities, and the emphasis shifted from preventive medicine—campaigns against malaria, smallpox, and typhoid—to curative medicine. However, the healthcare system collapsed due to the fighting, and modern Afghanistan has one of the highest child mortality rates in the world (15.6 per 1000 inhabitants), remains extremely low average duration life (45 years).
Dwellings. The population of Afghanistan lives mainly in large families in villages. The predominant houses are rectangular in plan with flat roofs, built of mud brick and coated with clay. The estate is surrounded by a wall. Stone buildings are also erected in the high mountains, and buildings have appeared in the main cities modern type. Nomads carry tents and yurts with them.
Nutrition of the population. Common dishes include pilaf with meat or vegetables, fried meat (kebab), flour products (ashak, or manti) and unleavened flatbreads baked in traditional tandoor ovens. Vegetables - tomatoes, potatoes, peas, carrots and cucumbers - are present in significant quantities in the diet, especially since the majority of residents cannot afford to regularly consume meat. Green or black tea, fermented milk products, fresh and dried fruits and nuts complement the daily diet.
Cloth. The main elements of the costume of almost all ethnic communities of Afghanistan are a long, knee-length shirt and wide trousers (kamis) tightly belted with a sash. Over the top, men wear a jacket or a robe covering their trousers. The nature of a headdress, such as a turban, often reflects a man's affiliation with a particular national group and geographic area. Many people are growing a beard, especially since the Taliban banned shaving.
Family customs. The extended family is the basis of life, and kinship relationships provide the background for the manifestation of social, economic and political activities. Marriages often concluded between cousins and sisters, usually organized by the eldest women in their families. The set of procedures for matchmaking and engagement includes agreement on the bride price, dowry and arrangement of the wedding feast. Divorces are rare.
CULTURE
Public education. The most remarkable feature of the cultural life of Afghanistan in the 20th century. was the expansion of the network of educational institutions. Previously, they were limited to traditional village schools (maktabs), where local mullahs taught in accordance with the established canons of Islam. Modern primary and secondary schools, based on Western models, emerged particularly rapidly in the 1970s. At the same time, Kabul University, founded in 1932, noticeably strengthened. Long years of war destroyed the established educational system in Afghanistan. In 1990, 44% of men and 14% of women were considered literate.
Literature and art. In February 1979, the Afghan Academy of Sciences (AHA) was founded, modeled after the USSR Academy of Sciences. It included the Afghan Academy of Language and Literature "Pashto Tolyna", the Historical Society and related research institutions. Most publications from 1978-1992 were of a propaganda nature, speaking out in defense of the ruling regime. Large prose works are rare in Afghan fiction, but poetry has reached a high level of development. The country's main book depositories are the Kabul Public Library and the Kabul University Library. The National Museum in the capital has a rich collection of archaeological and ethnographic exhibits - from the Paleolithic to the Muslim era. Particularly valuable were materials from the primitive, ancient Greek and Buddhist periods. However, in 1993 the museum fell into the fighting zone, and in the next two years over 90% of the collections were looted. Folk music accompanies singing and dancing and also acts as an independent art form. String (dombra), wind (flute and surna) and percussion (drum) instruments are popular.
Press and mass culture. The main printed organ of the Taliban movement is Sharia (The Path to Allah). Opposition organizations, including emigrant ones, have their own publications locally. During the years of PDPA rule, several government-controlled daily newspapers were published with a total circulation of approx. 95 thousand copies. Among them, the leading ones were the "Voice of the Saur [[April 1978]] Revolution", published in Dari, "Anis" ("Interlocutor") and "Khiwad" ("Fatherland") - both in Dari and Pashto, as well as "Kabul New Times" on English language. Also published, under the supervision of administrative departments, was the women's weekly Zhvandun and a number of provincial newspapers, mostly weekly. Ministries, faculties of Kabul University and institutions such as banks published their periodicals once a month or quarterly. In 1979 all publishing houses were nationalized. The official Taliban radio, Voice of Sharia, broadcasts news, religious programs and educational programs in local languages. Loudspeakers in large cities convey information to large sections of the population. The television station, built in Kabul with the help of the Japanese, was put into operation in 1978 and was primarily engaged in broadcasting propaganda and religious nature. Punitive actions of the Taliban movement have a negative impact on popular culture. Popular music was banned, many audio cassettes were destroyed, as well as various types of video equipment. Music was also banned from weddings and holiday events, and cinemas were closed in 1996.
Sports and holidays. The Taliban initially banned sports but later eased restrictions. Afghans are fond of football, field hockey, volleyball and especially pakhlavani, a form of classical wrestling carried out according to local rules. Buzkashi, practiced primarily in the north, is a game in which teams of riders fight to carry the carcass of a calf over a line. In areas south of Kabul, a local version of the equestrian competition is common. Gambling is practiced by all groups of the population, and almost every Afghan is familiar with chess. Fighting is popular among teenagers kites. National holidays are Victory Day of the Muslim People (April 28), Martyrs' Remembrance Day (May 4) and Independence Day (August 19). Islamic festivals are numerous. Among them are Ramadan (the month of fasting) and Eid-ul-Fitr, associated with the end of Ramadan. Navruz (March 21 - New Year and the first day of spring), according to custom, is celebrated with general noisy fun.
STORY
The history of Afghanistan was largely determined by its geographical location and surface structure. Situated between the plains of Central Asia in the north and the fertile lands of India and Iran in the south and west, Afghanistan found itself at the crossroads of military campaigns and invasions. The fate of the country was also influenced by the features of the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush, Pamir and Himalaya systems: they directed successive streams of conquerors rushing to northwestern India, the Gangetic Plain and other important areas of South Asia. During this process, some peoples interrupted the migration movement and settled in Afghanistan. The foothill plains in the north of the country may be among those areas of the world where the first domestication of plants and animals occurred. Archaeological studies indicate that the history of primitive man in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic, judging by the finds of cultural monuments, and continues until the middle of the 1st millennium BC.
Early historical period. The name "Afghanistan" appeared only in the mid-18th century. Modern Afghan scholars view this country as ancient Ariana. The first reliable mention of these lands refers to several provinces of the ancient Persian Achaemenid state, founded by Cyrus the Great in the mid-6th century. BC. Alexander the Great defeated this power during his campaign in India in 327 BC. He captured the province of Bactria, founded the city of Alexandria-Ariorum there, near present-day Herat, and married the Bactrian princess Roxana. After his death, the first Seleucids and the rulers of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom successfully ruled over Bactria, after which they were replaced by the Parthians. Subsequently, this area was subjugated by the Yuezhi tribes during their migration from Central Asia to the south in the 2nd century. BC, who created a vast kingdom ruled by the Kushan dynasty and flourished in the 1st century. AD The Kushan kingdom established trade relations with Rome, and its missionaries spread Buddhism to China. The northern Kushana province of Gandhara became famous for the creation of a remarkable style of sculpture, in which Buddhist subjects were executed using the canons of Hellenistic art. The western and northern regions of this kingdom were first conquered by the Persian rulers of the Sassanid dynasty, and then, in the 7th and 8th centuries, by Muslim Arabs, although Islam could not fully establish itself among the local population for several more centuries. During this period, different parts of Afghanistan fell under the rule of different dynasties and rulers, including the Samanids (819-1005) and Safarids (867-1495). In the 10th century the strengthening of the Turkic peoples led to the formation of the Ghaznavid Empire (962-1186) with its capital in Ghazni. This state extended from the shores of the Arabian Sea to Central Asia and from India almost to the Persian Gulf. Mahmud Ghazni (997-1030) was an experienced ruler, and under him Ghazni became a center of education. The dynasty was overthrown in 1148 by the Ghurids, who ruled until 1202. In the 13th century. Mongol troops under the leadership of Genghis Khan and in the 14th century. The Turko-Mongols, led by Tamerlane, invaded from the north and, causing enormous damage, captured Persia, part of India and the main agricultural regions of Afghanistan. Architecture and art flourished during the Timurid reign (1369-1506). A descendant of Tamerlane, Babur made Kabul the capital of his state, from where it was moved to Delhi in 1526 for the convenience of managing the vast Mughal empire. Shahs from the Safavid dynasty (1526-1707) entered into a struggle with them for control of Afghanistan. In 1738, after the Ghilzai Pashtuns overthrew the Persian rulers and came to power, the Persian military leader Nadir Shah took control of Kandahar. After his assassination in 1747, the young Pashtun Ahmad Khan was elected head of an independent Afghan state by the tribal nobility. Having declared himself Shah, he took the title Dur-i-Durrani ("pearl of pearls") and made Kandahar the capital of his state, which included most of the Indus basin.
"Big game". After the death of Ahmad Shah in 1773, the Afghan state faced considerable difficulties. In 1776, Kabul became the capital of the state. While England and France competed for influence in the Persian Gulf and Russia advanced south, the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh captured Punjab and Sindh, and Persian troops temporarily captured Herat. In 1837, a British mission arrived in Kabul with the aim of preventing Persian aggression and strengthening Russian influence in the country. Emir Dust Muhammad, the founder of a dynasty that ruled Afghanistan for a century, initially favored the British, but they refused to help him recapture Peshawar, which his half-brother Sultan Muhammad had given to the Sikhs in 1834. In 1839, British troops invaded Afghanistan and a war broke out. I am the Anglo-Afghan War. Dust Muhammad was restored to the throne in 1842. He remained neutral during the Sepoy Mutiny in India in 1857-1858. In 1873, under the rule of Dust Muhammad's son Sher Ali Khan, Russia recognized the Amu Darya as the southern border of its sphere of influence and sent a mission to Kabul. The English advance to the north was stopped at the Khyber Pass, and the 2nd Anglo-Afghan War began. It ended in 1879 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Gandamak, according to which this pass and the Kurram, Pishin and Sibi districts ceded to Great Britain, which also received the right to control the foreign policy of Afghanistan. The murder of a newly arrived English resident in Kabul once again revived mutual suspicions between the two countries. British troops moved to Kabul and Kandahar, and in 1880 Great Britain recognized Abdur Rahman, the nephew of Sher Ali Khan, as emir. Abdurrahman, nicknamed the "iron emir", established his rule over Kandahar and Herat in 1881, Hazarajat in the 1880s, Afghan Turkestan in 1888 and Kafiristan in 1895. Abdurrahman combined firmness with domestic policy with friendly but uncompromising relations with Russia and British India. The northern borders of Afghanistan were determined as a result of the work of the Anglo-Russian demarcation commission in 1885, and in the Pamirs - by an agreement in 1895. Similarly, in 1893 the so-called. Durand's agreement established the southern and eastern borders of Afghanistan - at the junction with British India, although, as in the case of the agreement between Afghanistan and Persia reached thanks to McMahon's mission on the division of the Helmand drainage in Sistan, disputed sections of the state border remained. In the east, the position of the border also subsequently caused discord between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Satisfied with the fruits of its policy in north-west India, Britain supported Abdur Rahman in his attempts to consolidate the state after resolving fundamental border differences with Persia, Russia and India. After the death of Abdurrahman in 1901, the throne was inherited by Habibullah, who continued his father’s policies aimed at strengthening the prestige of the dynasty. In line with this policy, Habibullah visited British India to get acquainted with the British strategy for using the resource potential of the colony. During the First World War, the emir adhered to a policy of strict neutrality despite internal opposition and external pressure. On February 20, 1919, three months after the victory of the Entente countries, he was killed. Habibullah was succeeded by his third son Amanullah, who came to power with the help of the army. To strengthen his authority and unite the conflicting factions, Amanullah declared the end of British control over foreign policy and sent troops across the Indian border during the short 3rd Anglo-Afghan War (spring 1919). The preliminary peace treaty signed in Rawalpindi recognized Afghanistan's independence in all areas, including foreign policy. In 1925 Russian influence increased again. After the incident in Urtatugay (Yangi-Kala), when Soviet troops ousted the Afghan garrison from there, the controversial situation was resolved by signing a non-aggression pact in August 1926. Its content included the premise that new document should in no way conflict with the friendship treaty concluded in February 1921 between Russia and Afghanistan, when both sides recognized the existing borders and pledged to respect each other’s sovereignty. The Treaty on Neutrality and Mutual Non-Aggression between the USSR and Afghanistan (Paghman Pact) of 1926 also declared mutual renunciation of aggression against neighboring state and non-interference in its internal affairs. The 1927 agreement provided for the organization of air traffic between Kabul and Tashkent.
Modernization of the country. In 1926 Amanullah took the title of king. Upon returning from a trip to Europe in 1928, he tried to speed up the Westernization of Afghanistan. The seclusion of women was abolished, a group of girls were sent to study in Turkish schools; Contacts between mullahs and military units were prohibited. The active implementation of these measures caused discontent among the clergy. Opposition from the clergy and negative attitude population to Western innovations resulted in the revolution of 1928 and led to Amanullah's abdication of the throne and his expulsion from the country in 1929. The Tajik adventurer Bachaya Sakao ("son of the water-carrier") defeated the troops sent against him and took Kabul by storm. Although Amanullah, before leaving the capital with his family, proclaimed his brother Inayatullah as his successor, Bachayi Sakao took control of the situation in the country, taking the name Habibullah Ghazi and proclaiming himself emir. However, General Nadir Khan, a relative of the ruling royal family, received the support of the Pashtun tribes of Wazirs and Mohmands and, together with his enterprising brothers, captured Kabul, after which Habibullah Ghazi was executed. In October 1929, Nadir Khan was enthroned under the name of Nadir Shah. Great Britain recognized the new monarch, providing him with weapons and money in exchange for comparative peace on the border. Nadir Shah carried out reforms less decisively than Amanullah. The mutinies in the army, inspired by agitators from Punjab, Bengal and the USSR, were severely suppressed. New roads were being built and trade was flourishing. In November 1933, Nadir Shah unexpectedly died at the hands of an assassin. Nadir Shah's heir was his son Muhammad Zahir Shah, who relied on his father's brothers to lead the country. One of them, Muhammad Hashim, served as prime minister until 1947, and the other, who replaced him, Mahmud Shah, headed the government until 1953. Then Muhammad Daoud, Nadir Shah's nephew, became prime minister. He intensified efforts to modernize Afghanistan and relied on economic and especially military assistance from the USSR. Muhammad Daun granted some ministerial positions to relatively young Afghans who had received professional education abroad, but power remained in the hands of the royal family. Meanwhile, relations with Pakistan deteriorated over the question of the political future of the Pathan tribes. In March 1963, the king dismissed Daoud to stop the spread of Soviet influence and normalize relations with Pakistan. In 1964, the country adopted a constitution, which provided for the election of the lower house and the partial election of members of the upper house of parliament. In the summer of 1965, the first national elections took place. However, the government refused to legalize political parties, fearing the activation of nationalist and extremist leftist organizations. The Afghan armed forces depended on the USSR along the line material supplies and personnel training. In July 1973, Muhammad Daoud carried out a coup and Afghanistan was declared a republic. The constitution adopted in 1977 declared the introduction of a one-party system of government in the country. Daoud, who became president, put forward ambitious plans for economic development, but his autocratic government was met with opposition from both left-wing intellectuals and the army, and the right-wing tribal elite, who did not want increased control from the central authorities. The leading organization on the left flank of the political spectrum was the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), founded in 1965. In 1967 it split into the pro-Soviet Parcham faction and the more radical Khalq faction, but both united in 1976 in their opposition to the Daoud regime .
War in Afghanistan. In April 1978, after Daoud attacked the PDPA, the extreme left wing ground forces and military pilot officers overthrew his regime. Daoud, along with his family and senior dignitaries, was killed. President of Afghanistan, proclaimed democratic republic , became the leader of the PDPA Nur Muhammad Taraki. In the summer, Taraki and his deputy Hafizullah Amin, who were part of the Khalq faction, began to free themselves from prominent members of the Parcham faction who were in the previous government. Taraki put forward a program of revolutionary change, including land reform, eradication of illiteracy and the emancipation of women. At the end of 1978, these steps inspired Islamic fundamentalists and tribal nobility to revolt. By the summer of 1979, right-wing forces already controlled a significant part of the country’s rural areas. In September Taraki was deposed and killed. He was replaced by Amin, who took vigorous action to suppress the rebels and resisted Soviet attempts to force him to pursue more moderate policies. However, the position of the Kabul authorities continued to deteriorate. On December 25, 1979, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan and quickly took control of Kabul and other important cities. Amin was killed on December 27, and Babrak Karmal, leader of the Parcham faction in the PDPA, was proclaimed president of the country. Karmal abandoned the repressive policies of the Amin regime and promised to carry out social and economic reforms, taking into account the norms of Islam and the customs of the country. However, he failed to pacify the rebels from the right camp, and the government continued to depend on the support of the USSR. The presence of Soviet troops made Karmal's regime unpopular among Afghan nationalists. In subsequent years, military clashes in Afghanistan caused serious demographic and economic shocks. OK. 4 million refugees migrated to Pakistan and another 2 million to Iran. At least 2 million peasants poured into Kabul and other cities. Almost 2 million Afghans were killed, not counting 2 million wounded and other casualties. The Mujahideen militias included dozens of different associations - from tribal groups to enthusiastic adherents of the revolution in Iran. Most opponents of the regime had bases located in Pakistan, but some of them operated from bases in Iran. The US administration, through the CIA, spent over $3 billion on supplies of weapons and ammunition for Afghan partisans in 1980-1988. Saudi Arabia provided approximately the same amount. China, Iran and Egypt also provided military assistance or provided training facilities for the rebels. In the spring of 1985, the USSR intensified efforts to “normalize” the situation in Afghanistan. The number of Soviet troops in this country in 1986 was increased to 150 thousand people, approx. There were 50 thousand fighters in the Afghan army. They were opposed by approximately 130 thousand armed rebels. The Soviet military contingent was equipped with modern weapons and used tanks and bombers against the partisans, but they had the support of the local population and in the difficult situation of mountainous areas could act more effectively than regular units. Since September 1986, the United States has provided the partisans with stingers, which were capable of shooting down Soviet helicopters. Najibullah Ahmadzai, a member of the Parcham faction, known as the head of the Afghan security service, replaced Karmal in the leadership of the PDPA in May 1986, who also lost the post of president of the country in November. Najibullah called for national accord in early 1987, but the rebels' reaction to this proposal was negative. M.S. Gorbachev, who was elected General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, decided to stop interfering in the affairs of Afghanistan. In April 1988, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the USSR and the USA signed an agreement to end foreign military intervention in Afghanistan. The contingent of the Soviet armed forces was withdrawn from the country from May 1988 to February 1989, but the supply of weapons by the superpowers did not stop. Najibullah scheduled elections to the National Assembly for April 1988, reserving some seats for the rebels if they wished to join the government. However, they decided to continue fighting and in February 1989 created a government in exile in Pakistan. In Kabul, Najibullah's power lasted until April 1992. Leading mujahideen groups created governing bodies in the provinces, but immediately began fighting each other for local leadership. In June, Burhanuddin Rabbani was elected president of the country. For the next four years, an alliance of political forces of variable composition remained on his side. An equally unstable hostile coalition surrounded the capital and began shelling it. The UN tried to negotiate a ceasefire. In the meantime, demobilized foreign fighters returned to their homeland - Algeria, Pakistan and Egypt, where they began promoting the ideas of Muslim fundamentalism. Subsequently, some of them were accused of participating in terrorist acts. In November 1994, the Taliban captured the country's second largest city, Kandahar. In early 1995, they defeated the powerful Hezb-i-Islami militia, the main support of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, and a month later they began to threaten Kabul, but temporarily retreated under pressure from government troops. In September 1995, the Taliban captured Herat, an important center in the north-west of the country. A year later, after numerous successful attacks, the Taliban entered Kabul, and the opportunity arose to extend their power throughout Afghanistan. The joint offensive of the united detachments of Uzbek and Tajik field commanders stopped the further advance of the Taliban detachments in October 1996. In May 1997, the latter managed, however, to capture Mazar-i-Sharif and penetrate further to the north, but the counter-offensive of the Hazara, Tajik and Uzbek formations forced the Taliban to retreat. In August 1998, after a successful summer campaign, they reoccupied Mazar-i-Sharif, and in September 1998 they entered the Hazara capital of Bamiyan. However, the armed forces of the Northern Alliance managed to recapture part of the lost territory at the end of 1998. As a result, although the Taliban controlled 75-90% of the entire territory of the country at the beginning of 1999, one can foresee in the near future a continuation of the war in Afghanistan between ethnic communities that will defend their lands.
LITERATURE
Pulyarkin V.A. Afghanistan. Economical geography. M., 1964 Gubar Mir Ghulam Muhammad. Afghanistan on the path of history. M., 1987 Afghanistan today. Directory. Dushanbe, 1988 Afghanistan: problems of war and peace. M., 1996

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .