Began in the second half of the 17th century. The transformations found their logical conclusion in the reign of Peter I (son of Alexei Mikhailovich).
Peter was proclaimed king in 1682 g., but in reality there was a so-called “triple rule”, i.e. together with his brother Ivan and Princess Sophia, who concentrated all power in her hands. Peter and his mother lived in the villages of Preobrazhenskoye, Kolomenskoye, and Semenovskoye near Moscow.
IN 1689 Mr. Peter, with the support of many boyars, nobles and even the Moscow Patriarch, deprived Sophia of power, imprisoning her in a monastery. Until 1696 (until his death) Ivan remained a “ceremonial king,” i.e. formally shared power with Peter.
Since the 90s of the 17th century. A new era begins, associated with the transformations of Peter I, which affected all aspects of the life of Russian society. As ardent admirers of Peter figuratively noted, in fact, the 18th century began earlier than the grandiose fireworks display arranged in Moscow on January 1, 1700 on the occasion of the new century.
Military reforms
The reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. This king did not know peace, he fought all his life: first with his sister Sophia, then with Turkey, Sweden. Not only to defeat the enemy, but also to take a worthy place in the world, Peter I began his reforms. The starting point for the reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).
In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and the absence of a fleet, Azov was not captured. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize Kumpanstvos, which would be engaged in the construction of ships. The United Kumpanstvo, which consisted of merchants and townspeople, was obliged to build 14 ships; Admiralty - 16 ships; one ship is an obligation for every 10 thousand landowner peasants and 8 thousand monastery peasants. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. In 1696, Russian naval forces won their first victory - Azov was taken. On next year Peter sends the so-called Great Embassy of 250 people to Europe. Among its members, under the name of the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, Pyotr Mikhailov, was the Tsar himself. The embassy visited Holland, England, Vienna. As he believed, the idea of a trip abroad (Grand Embassy) arose from Peter I as a result of the ongoing transformations. The king went to Europe for knowledge and experience in 1697-1698. Researcher A.G. Brickner, on the contrary, believed that it was after his trip to Europe that Peter I developed a reform plan.
In the summer of 1698, the trip was interrupted due to a report received about a mutiny of the archers. The Tsar took personal part in the executions, Sophia was tonsured a nun. The Streltsy army was to be disbanded. The Tsar began to reorganize the army and continued the construction of the fleet. It is interesting to note that in addition to providing general leadership, Peter was directly involved in the creation of the fleet. The tsar himself, without the help of foreign specialists, built the 58-gun ship "Predestination" ("God's Foresight"). Back in 1694, during a sea voyage organized by the Tsar, the Russian white-blue-red flag was raised for the first time.
With the outbreak of the war with Sweden, the construction of a fleet began in the Baltic. By 1725, the Baltic fleet numbered 32 battleships armed with from 50 to 96 cannons each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys and many other smaller ships. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. Peter personally compiled Marine charter, where it was written “Only that sovereign has both hands who has both a land army and a fleet.”
Peter I elected new principle recruitment of the army: recruitment kits. From 1699 to 1725 53 recruitments were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits passed military training, received government-issued weapons and uniforms. “Willing people” from free peasants were also recruited into the army with a salary of 11 rubles a year.
Already in 1699, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. By the end of his reign, the total number of the Russian army was 318 thousand people.
Peter strictly obliged all nobles to perform military service, starting with the rank of soldier. In 1716 it was published Military regulations, which regulated order in the army in military and Peaceful time. Officer training was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him, at the end of his reign, to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to Russian service.
Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, reform occupies a central place government controlled, reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in. Already in the first years of the war it became clear that the old state mechanism management, the main elements of which were orders and districts, does not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help regional reform— creating new administrative entities- provinces that united several districts. IN 1708 g. was formed 8 provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
IN 1711 Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
IN early XVIII V. the meetings of the Boyar Duma, the management of central and local state apparatus moves to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in state system Petra. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was prosecutor general, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
IN 1718 - 1721. The system of command administration of the country was transformed. Was established 10 boards, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - foreign relations, the Military Collegium - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - state expenses, the Commerce Collegium - trade.
Church reform
Became a kind of collegium Synod, or Spiritual College, established in 1721 The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to carry out his policies.
Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social politics was of a pro-noble and serfdom character. Decree of 1714 on unified inheritance established the same procedure for inheritance of real estate, without distinction between estates and estates. The merger of two forms of feudal land ownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidation of the feudal class into a single class - estate nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often, in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
To force the nobles to think about service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primogeniture- prohibited from selling and mortgaging land holdings, including generic ones. The new principle reflected in Table of ranks 1722. strengthened the nobility due to the influx of people from other classes. Using the principle of personal service and strictly specified conditions for promotion up the ladder of ranks, Peter turned the mass of servicemen into a military-bureaucratic corps, completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. The table of ranks divided the military, civil and court services. All positions were divided into 14 ranks. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility.
Urban reform
The reform in relation to city residents was significant. Peter decided to unify the social structure of the city, introducing Western European institutions into it: magistrates, guilds and guilds. These institutions, which had deep roots in the history of the development of the Western European medieval city, were brought into Russian reality by force, through administrative means. The chief magistrate supervised the magistrates of other cities.
The townspeople's population was divided into two guilds: the first was made up of the “first-class”, which included the upper classes of the settlement, rich merchants, artisans, townspeople of intelligent professions, and second the guild included small shopkeepers and artisans, who, in addition, were united in workshops on a professional basis. All other townspeople who were not included in the guilds were subject to verification in order to identify runaway peasants among them and return them to old places residence.
Tax reform
The war consumed 90% government spending, peasants and townspeople bore numerous duties. In 1718 - 1724 A capitation census of the male population was conducted. Landowners and monasteries were ordered to submit “tales” (information) about their peasants. The government instructed guards officers to conduct an audit of the submitted statements. Since then, censuses began to be called audits, and the “soul” became the unit of taxation instead of the peasant household. All male population had to pay capitation tax.
Development of industry and trade
As a result of the transformations of Peter I, manufacturing began to actively develop and industry was created. By the end of the 17th century. There were about 30 manufactories in the country. During the years of Peter the Great's rule there were more than 100 of them. A movement begins towards overcoming the technical and economic backwardness of Russia. Large industries are growing in the country, especially metallurgy (in the Urals), textiles and leather (in the center of the country), new industries are emerging: shipbuilding (St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), glass and earthenware, paper production (St. Petersburg, Moscow).
Russian industry was created under conditions of serfdom. Worked in factories sessional(bought by breeders) and attributed(who paid taxes to the state not with money, but with work at the factory) peasants. Russian manufacturing was actually like a serf fiefdom.
The development of industrial and handicraft production contributed to the development of trade. The country was in the process of creating an all-Russian market. In order to encourage the merchants, the first trade tariff was introduced in 1724, taxing the export of Russian goods abroad.
Social (class) reforms of Peter I - briefly
As a result of the social reforms of Peter I, the position of the three main Russian classes - nobles, peasants and urban residents - changed greatly.
The service class nobles , after the reforms of Peter I, they began to perform military service not with the local militias they themselves recruited, but in regular regiments. The nobles now (in theory) began their service from the same lower ranks as the common people. People from non-noble classes, along with nobles, could rise to the highest ranks. The procedure for obtaining service degrees has been determined since the time of the reforms of Peter I, no longer by birth and not by customs such as localism, but by the law published in 1722. Table of ranks" She established 14 ranks of army and civilian service.
To prepare for service, Peter I also obliged the nobles to undergo initial training in literacy, numbers and geometry. A nobleman who failed the prescribed examination was deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.
It should be noted that the landowner class, even after the reforms of Peter I, still had quite important service advantages over ordinary people. Nobles who entered military service, as a rule, were assigned not to ordinary army regiments, but to privileged guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, stationed in St. Petersburg.
Major change in social status peasants was associated with the tax reform of Peter I. It was carried out in 1718 and replaced the previous household(from each peasant household) method of taxation per capita(from the heart). According to the results of the 1718 census, capitation tax.
This purely financial, at first glance, reform had, however, important social content. The new poll tax was ordered to be collected equally not only from peasants, but also from privately owned serfs who had not previously paid state taxes. This order of Peter I brought closer social status peasantry with powerless serfs. It predetermined the evolution of the view of serfs by the end of the 18th century not as sovereign tax people(as they were considered before), but how on complete master slaves.
Cities : the reforms of Peter I were aimed at organizing city government according to European models. In 1699, Peter I granted Russian cities the right of self-government through elected representatives burgomasters, which should have been town hall. The townspeople were now divided into “regular” and “irregular”, as well as into guilds and workshops according to their occupation. By the end of the reign of Peter I, the town halls were transformed into magistrates who had more rights, rather than town halls, but were elected in a less democratic way - only from “first-class” citizens. At the head of all magistrates was (from 1720) the capital's Chief Magistrate, who was considered a special collegium.
Peter I. Portrait by P. Delaroche, 1838
Military reform of Peter I - briefly
Administrative and government reforms of Peter I - briefly
Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly
Economic reforms of Peter I - briefly
Like most European figures, the second half XVII- the beginning of the 18th century, Peter I followed in economic policy principles of mercantilism. Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs through broad benefits, and assigned serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.
In foreign trade, the mercantilist policy of Peter I led to strict protectionism (high duties were introduced on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). Widely used government regulation economy. Peter I contributed to the construction of canals, roads and other means of communication, and the exploration of mineral resources. The development of the mineral wealth of the Urals gave a powerful impetus to the Russian economy.
Church reform of Peter I - briefly
As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian church, previously quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king ordered don't elect a new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have one until the council of 1917. Instead was appointed king“Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne” - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.
This “uncertain” state of affairs persisted until the final reform of church government, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich, was carried out in 1721. According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a “spiritual college” - Holy Synod. Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church had now legally become completely dependent on secular power.
In 1701, the church's land holdings were transferred to the management of the secular Monastery Prikaz. After the synodal reform of 1721 they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter was now completely subordinate to the state, this return did not have of great importance. Peter I also placed monasteries under strict state control.
In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence.
Military reform
The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and a Russian navy, staffed on the basis of conscription. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; The position of commander-in-chief was introduced (in wartime). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, military educational establishments(navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and Marine Academy. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, and methods of conducting combat operations were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716) and the Naval Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and fleet in Northern War.
Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. Height industrial production was accompanied by an intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild system was introduced in cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of internal and foreign trade played a big role state monopoly for the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with abroad. Peter's government paid great attention development waterways- the main mode of transport at this time. Active construction of canals was carried out: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.
Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. Height state budget, necessary for waging war, active internal and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” led by A. Kurbatov were looking for ever new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards. In total, indirect collections by 1724 numbered up to 40 species. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special “fees”. Considerable income was generated by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in them. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system- the introduction of a poll tax, replacing household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenue from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage of serfdom in Russia, extending it to those segments of the population that were previously free (“walking people”) or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded slaves). Thirdly, it introduced passport system. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence was required to have a passport indicating the period of return.
Reorganization of public administration.
Strengthening absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of public administration, its highest, central and local authorities. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - for external relations, the Military Collegium - for the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - for the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - for revenue collection, the State Collegium - for state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - for noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - for industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated. Along with the strengthening of the central management apparatus, reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodeship administration, a provincial management system was introduced in 1708 - 1715. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied huge territory and therefore was divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (headed by a governor). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative and bureaucratic management system has emerged for the entire country, decisive role in which the monarch played, relying on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.
The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. The Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the “Spiritual Regulations”, developed by his supporter, Pskov Bishop Feofan Prokopovich. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, management of educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Prikaz, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, this meant the subordination of the church to the state.
Social politics.
In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of fiefs and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or in the authorities state power. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state.
Under Peter I, a new structure of society emerged, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly visible. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. At the same time, enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), Medical School(1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic font was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg. Much work has been done to study history, geography and natural resources Russia. The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first Russian natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society. The Tsar, by order of command, introduced hair shaving, European clothing, and the compulsory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set out in the translated book “Youth honest mirror" In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's reforms in the sphere of culture, life and morals were often introduced by violent methods and were of a clearly political nature. The main thing in these reforms was to respect the interests of the state.
Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.
2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also, in a minimal historical period of time, brought it to a qualitatively higher level, turning Russia into a powerful power.
The price for these radical changes was further strengthening serfdom, temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and strong tax and tax pressure on the population. Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.
21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.
Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with connections with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.
On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.
To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.
In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.
Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, strengthen the power and international situation Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.
Peter I
Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of cases of state crimes) and Secret Chancery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.
Administrative reforms of Peter I
Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I
The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. Second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by zemstvo commissars.
Urban reform (1699-1720)
To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.
Estate reforms
The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.
Nobility.
Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.
Peasantry
Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.
Among the free peasants were:
state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
palace ones that belonged personally to the king;
possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.
Urban class
Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.
In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.
Judicial reform of Peter I
Functions supreme court carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.
Church reform of Peter I
Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.
Financial reforms of Peter I
First stage financial reform Peter I was reduced to collecting money to maintain the army and wage wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).
In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the main monetary unit became a penny. The fiat ruble was abolished.
Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.
Thus, during tax reform Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.
Social reforms Peter I
Education reform of Peter I
In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.
Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.
Reforms of Peter I in culture
Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.
The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, focusing on Special attention the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.
Socio-economic reforms of Peter I
To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.
Reforms of Peter I in the army
Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716 it was published Military Regulations, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.
As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and the Navy.
Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.
Results of the reforms of Peter I
A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, strong army and a fleet, a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance has been set - the creation of a Russian medical education, and also marked the beginning of Russian surgery.
Features of the reforms of Peter I
The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
Lack of a reform system.
Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.
Reasons for the reforms of Peter I
By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.
The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became
be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into rough waters ocean, bypassing all reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had enormous historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf owners, using serfdom methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter’s time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of further development countries were becoming increasingly stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations remained, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. Peter's transformative activity was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking down outdated institutions , laws, foundations and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most notable figures in world history.
Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary
The table “Reforms of Peter 1” briefly outlines the features transformative activities the first emperor of Russia. With its help, it is possible to concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life of Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this The best way in order for middle-level students to master this complex and quite voluminous material, which is very important for the analysis and correct understanding of the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.
Features of the emperor's activities
One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the “Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this topic demonstrates all the data students need.
In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all layers of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. At the same time, he was a very practical person and introduced innovations based on specific needs.
This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.
Transformations in the army
At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic “The Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on this problem helps students familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. For almost his entire reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.
One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is “The Military Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.
The importance of military innovations
It shows that the emperor’s steps were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. for a long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that previously there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the inspections along with several servants, who also had to serve with him.
However, by the beginning of the 18th century this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had already taken final shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.
Transformations of power structures
Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is " Political reforms Peter 1". A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep character was the transformative activity of the emperor in government. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created a Senate modeled on Western European countries. Instead of orders, boards were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.
New administrative division
The topic “State reforms of Peter 1” is no less complex. Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the fundamental changes that have occurred in the organization of local government. Governorates were created that were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and districts was the voivode.
Changes in industry and trade
It is often particularly difficult to study the topic “ Economic reforms Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy, but at the same time he acted using almost serf-like methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Economic activity Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in developing trade according to the Western European model.
Transformations in the social structure
The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that occurred in Russian society of the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and government spheres depending not on clan affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous “Table of Ranks” introduced a new principle of service. From now on, in order to receive a promotion or rank, a person had to achieve some success.
It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the clan aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this class, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.
The study of this problem can be completed by summing up the results. What significance did the reforms of Peter 1 have in the history of Russia? Table, summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up the results. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the needs of his time, when the principle of localism became outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have necessary qualities to fulfill new tasks that the country faced in connection with the Northern War and Russia’s entry into the international arena.
The role of the emperor's transformative activities
The topic “The Main Reforms of Peter 1”, a table whose summary is an important component in studying the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.
The measures taken by the ruler brought our country onto the European stage and introduced it into the ranks of the leading European countries. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, table, summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, gaining access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.
Reforms of Peter 1.
Zhanna Gromova
Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Military reforms
since 1699
Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
Financial reforms
The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. Kopek became
Tatyana Shcherbakova
Regional reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.
Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.
In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and the provincial collegial lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.
To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.
In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the Tsar's close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Theological College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not agree to the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign.
Army and Navy reforms
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Army reform and the creation of a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.
Maxim Lyubimov
Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform - the creation of new administrative entities - provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
In 1711 the Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in Peter’s state system. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the Prosecutor General, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721 The system of command administration of the country was transformed. 10 boards were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with external relations, the Military Collegium - with the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - with the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - with revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - with state expenses, and the Commerce Collegium - with trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to carry out his policies.
Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and serfdom in nature. The Decree of 1714 on single inheritance established the same procedure for inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merger of two forms of feudal land ownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidation of the feudal class into a single class - the class of nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often, in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
To force the nobles to think about service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primordacy - they prohibited the sale and mortgage of land
Oleg Sazonov
Military Collegium
The Military Collegium was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military administration. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and vice-president A. A. Weide.
On June 3, 1719, the staff of the College was announced. The board consisted of a presence, headed by the president (vice-president) and the Chancellery, which was divided into divisions in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. Supervision over the legality of decisions was carried out by the prosecutor, subordinate to the prosecutor general. The organization of the ground army service was under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium.
The Kriegskomissariat and the Provision Master General, who were responsible for the clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had significant independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the Field Chief General, the Collegium exercised only general leadership.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The Military Collegium was subject to reorganization aimed at subordinating all branches of military administration to it.
In 1721, the management of the Don, Yaik and Greben Cossacks was transferred from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack region.
In 1736, the Commissariat, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army, became part of the Military Collegium. The staff of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Chancellery, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, inspecting and serving troops, as well as cases of fugitives, recruiting minors and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed expeditions) for branches of management. The offices were headed by directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices resolved cases independently, submitting only complex and controversial issues. During this period, there were the General Kriegs Commissariat, Chief Tsalmeister, Amunich (Mundirnaya), Provisions, Accounting, Fortification Offices and the Artillery Office. The body of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, independent departments were restored - commissariat, provisions, artillery and fortification management. The counting expedition was abolished. After this, the importance of the Military Collegium as a governing body fell.
The increasing importance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II’s personal rapporteur on military affairs; new staff of the Collegium were introduced.
In 1781, the Accounting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, exercising control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the College received new organization. The commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (departments since 1796).
In 1798, new staff of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Order, Foreign, Recruitment, School Establishment and Repair), independent expeditions (Military, Accounting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provisions, Military Orphan Institutions) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of Military Ground Forces in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.
Yuri Kek
Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory authorities were created.
Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.
Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.
Military reforms
since 1699
The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction, using the “Table of Ranks,” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.
Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.
Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
Introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,
Mikhail Basmanov
Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartary, he set about military reform in a Western manner. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. He introduced serfdom, while in Europe they were getting rid of it. He allowed many foreigners (including military personnel) into the Russian Empire with privileges. Previously, few of them were allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartaria.
Olya Kireeva
As you know, Peter I cut a window to Europe, forced the boyars to shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected during the Soviet period, but in recent history his role in the life of the country is assessed very ambiguously. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be based on his completed reforms.
Under Peter I Russian kingdom became the Russian Empire as a result of victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era “from the Nativity of Christ”, New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which the collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, all document flow was standardized, and office work was brought to a unified scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local power vertical was created, and then each province into 50 provinces.
The country's regular army was replenished first with foreign officers, and then with Russian nobles - graduates of navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful navy was created and a Maritime Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy came under the complete subordination of the Senate; instead of the patriarch, the management of the church vertical was handled by the Holy Synod, which swore allegiance to the emperor.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landowners, free peasants became the property of the state.
Elementary education became mandatory for all children of the boyars.
All representatives noble class were required to perform public service.
A “Table of Ranks” appeared, allowing one to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, capitation taxes began to be collected, and for the first time a capitation census was carried out.
The kopeck became the main monetary unit.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.
Reforms of Peter I
Reforms of Peter I- transformations in the state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activities of Peter I can be divided into two periods: -1715 and -.
A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.
Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, at a general meeting, and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.
Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.
The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:
- The Collegium of Foreign Affairs replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
- Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
- Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
- The Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
- The chamber board is the collection of state revenues.
- The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenditures,
- The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.
- Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
- Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).
- Manufactory Collegium - light industry (manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
- The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - deeds of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debentures). She worked in civil and criminal court.
- The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives senior clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the king, and decisions were approved by him, we can say that Russian Emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authority were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.
- The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of a hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.
The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.
In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.
Control over the activities of civil servants
To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).
In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.
Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.
Army and Navy reforms
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1721. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first conscription yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to exhibit lifelong service one recruit. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.
Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32 Lithograph from a 19th century book.
If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of work in the navigation, artillery, engineering schools the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class. In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, which strictly defined the service, rights and responsibilities of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,560 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 14 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.
Church reform
Religious politics
The era of Peter was marked by a tendency towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were subject to burning at the stake. The “schismatics” were allowed to practice their faith, subject to recognition of the existing state order and payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of faith was granted to foreigners coming to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).
Financial reform
Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.
The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to, including about 90 that were large manufactories.
Autocracy reform
Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated by law in any way, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.
Class politics
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.
Nobility
Key milestones:
- Decree on Education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.
- Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
- Decree on sole inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.
- “Table of Ranks” () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.
The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks first four classes "Table of Ranks". Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class service people, is now becoming a duty for all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.
Peasantry
Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (the Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX century, when this category was finally established as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, landowners were allowed to give serfs as recruits. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of serf trade. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessions. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.
Urban population
The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only large city was Moscow, which was the capital before the reign of Peter the Great. Although Russia was much inferior in terms of urban and industrial development Western Europe, but during the 17th century. there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great concerning the urban population was aimed at ensuring the payment of the poll tax. For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or bore a monetary obligation in the share that fell on him according to the social scheme.
Transformations in the sphere of culture
Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 according to the Byzantine era became 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I waged a struggle against the external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the ban on beards is most famous), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.
Changes have occurred in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704. on public celebrations, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”
Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape among the nobility, which was radically different from the values and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.
Peter I in 1709. Drawing from the mid-19th century.
Education
Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.
According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.
Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.
Church reform of Peter I - measures carried out by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century, which radically changed the management of the Orthodox Russian Church, introducing a system that some researchers believe to be Caesar-papist.
The position of the Russian Church before the reforms of Peter I
By the end of the 17th century, the Russian Church had accumulated a significant amount of both internal problems, and problems associated with its position in society and the state, as well as practically complete absence systems of religious and church enlightenment and education. In half a century, as a result of the not entirely successfully carried out reforms of Patriarch Nikon, an Old Believer schism occurred: a significant part of the Church - primarily the common people - did not accept the decisions of the Moscow Councils of 1654, 1655, 1656, 1666 and 1667 and rejected the transformations prescribed by them in the Church, following norms and traditions that formed in Moscow in the 16th century, when the Moscow Church was in schism with Ecumenical Orthodoxy - until the normalization of its status in 1589-1593. All this left a significant imprint on the society of that time. Also, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon pursued a policy that clearly threatened the emerging Russian absolutism. Being an ambitious man, Nikon tried to maintain the same status in the Moscow State that Patriarch Filaret had before him. These attempts ended in complete failure for him personally. The Russian tsars, clearly seeing the danger of the privileged position of the Russian Church, which owned vast lands and enjoyed benefits, felt the need to reform the government of the church. But in the 17th century the government did not dare to take radical measures. The privileges of the Church, which came into conflict with the emerging absolutism, consisted of the right of land ownership and trial of clergy in all matters. The land holdings of the church were huge; the population of these lands, in most cases exempt from paying taxes, was useless to the state. Monastic and bishop's commercial and industrial enterprises also did not pay anything to the treasury, thanks to which they could sell their goods cheaper, thereby undermining the merchants. The continuous growth of monastic and church land ownership in general threatened the state with huge losses.
Even Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, despite his devotion to the church, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to put a limit on the claims of the clergy. Under him, the further transfer of land into the ownership of the clergy was stopped, and lands recognized as taxable, which ended up in the hands of the clergy, were returned back to taxation. According to the Council Code of 1649, the trial of the clergy in all civil cases was transferred to the hands of a new institution - the Monastic Prikaz. The monastic order was the main significant subject of the subsequent conflict between the Tsar and Nikon, who in in this case expressed the interests of the entire corporation of the highest clergy. The protest was so strong that the tsar had to give in and agree with the fathers of the Council of 1667, so that the trial of clergy in civil and even criminal cases would be returned to the hands of the clergy. After the Council of 1675, the Monastic Order was abolished.
An important factor in church life at the end of the 17th century was the annexation that took place in 1687 Kyiv Metropolis to the Moscow Patriarchate. The Russian episcopate included Western-educated Little Russian bishops, some of whom will play key role in the church reforms of Peter I.
General nature and background
Peter I, standing at the helm government, saw the muted, and sometimes obvious, dissatisfaction of the clergy with the transformations that were begun to modernize Russia, because they destroyed the old Moscow system and customs, to which they were so committed in their ignorance. As the bearer of the state idea, Peter did not allow the independence of the church in the state, and as a reformer who devoted his life to the cause of renewal of the fatherland, he did not like the clergy, among whom he found greatest number opponents of what was closest to him. But he was not an unbeliever; rather, he belonged to those who are called indifferent to matters of faith.
Even during the life of Patriarch Adrian, Peter, a very young man who led a life quite far from church interests, expressed his wishes to the head of the Russian clergy regarding the putting in order of the clergy. However, the patriarch shunned innovations that penetrated the structure of state and social life in Russia. Over time, Peter's dissatisfaction with the Russian clergy intensified, so that he even got used to attributing most of his failures and difficulties in internal affairs to the secret but stubborn opposition of the clergy. When, in Peter’s mind, everything that opposed and was hostile to his reforms and plans was embodied in the person of the clergy, he decided to neutralize this opposition, and all his reforms related to the structure of the Russian Church were aimed at this. They all meant:
- Elimination of the opportunity to grow up as a Russian pope - “a second sovereign, an autocrat equal or greater”, which the Moscow patriarch could become, and in the person of Patriarchs Philaret and Nikon to a certain extent became;
- Subordination of the church to the monarch. Peter looked at the clergy in such a way that they “are not another state” and must, “along with other classes,” obey general state laws.
Peter's travels through the Protestant countries of Europe further strengthened his views on the relationship between the state and the church. With considerable attention, Peter listened to the advice of William of Orange in 1698, during his informal meetings, to organize the Church in Russia in the Anglican manner, declaring himself its Head.
In 1707, Metropolitan Isaiah of Nizhny Novgorod was deprived of his chair and exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, who sharply protested against the actions of the Monastic Order in his diocese.
The case of Tsarevich Alexy, with whom many clergy pinned hopes for the restoration of former customs, was extremely painful for some of the higher clergy. Having fled abroad in 1716, the Tsarevich maintained relations with Metropolitan Ignatius (Smola) of Krutitsky, Metropolitan Joasaph (Krakovsky) of Kiev, Bishop Dosifei of Rostov, and others. During the search carried out by Peter, Peter himself called “conversations with priests and monks” the main reason for treason. As a result of the investigation, punishment fell upon the clergy who were found to have connections with the Tsarevich: Bishop Dosifei was defrocked and executed, as well as the Tsarevich’s confessor, Archpriest Jacob Ignatiev, and the clergyman of the cathedral in Suzdal, Theodore the Desert, who was close to Peter’s first wife, Queen Evdokia; Metropolitan Joasaph was deprived of his see, and Metropolitan Joasaph, summoned for questioning, died on the way from Kyiv.
It is noteworthy that throughout the preparation for the reform of church government, Peter was in intensive relations with the eastern patriarchs - primarily the Patriarch of Jerusalem Dositheos - on various issues of both a spiritual and political nature. And he also addressed the Ecumenical Patriarch Cosmas with private spiritual requests, such as permission for him to “eat meat” during all fasts; His Letter to the Patriarch dated July 4, 1715 justifies the request by the fact that, as the document says, “I suffer from febro and scurvy, which illnesses come to me more from all sorts of harsh foods, and especially since I am forced to be constantly for the defense of the holy church and state and my subjects in military difficult and distant campaigns<...>" With another letter from the same day, he asks Patriarch Cosmas for permission to eat meat at all posts for the entire Russian army during military campaigns, ““our more Orthodox troops<...>They are on difficult and long journeys and in remote and inconvenient and deserted places, where there is little, and sometimes nothing, of any fish, below some other Lenten dishes, and often even bread itself.” There is no doubt that it was more convenient for Peter to resolve issues of a spiritual nature with the eastern patriarchs, who were largely supported by the Moscow government (and Patriarch Dosifei was de facto for several decades a political agent and informant of the Russian government about everything that happened in Constantinople), than with their own, sometimes obstinate, clergy.
Peter's first endeavors in this area
Even during the life of Patriarch Adrian, Peter himself forbade the construction of new monasteries in Siberia.
In October 1700, Patriarch Adrian died. Peter was at that time with his troops near Narva. Here in the camp, he received two letters concerning the situation created by the death of the Patriarch. Boyar Tikhon Streshnev, who remained in charge of Moscow during the sovereign's absence, according to the old custom, gave a report on the death and burial of the patriarch, on the measures taken to protect the property of the patriarchal house, and asked who to appoint as the new patriarch. Profit-maker Kurbatov, obliged by his position to represent the sovereign about everything that tends to profit and benefit the state, wrote to the sovereign that he, the tsar, was judged by the Lord “to govern his property and his people in everyday needs in truth, like the father of a child.” He further pointed out that due to the death of the patriarch, his subordinates took all matters into their own hands and disposed of all patriarchal income in their own interests. Kurbatov proposed electing, as before, a bishop for temporary control of the patriarchal throne. Kurbatov advised that all monastic and episcopal estates should be rewritten and given over to someone else for protection.
A week after returning from Narva, Peter did as Kurbatov suggested. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan and Murom was appointed guardian and administrator of the Patriarchal Throne. The locum tenens was entrusted with the management of only matters of faith: “about schism, about opposition to the church, about heresies,” but all other matters under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch were distributed according to the orders to which they belonged. The special order in charge of these matters - the Patriarchal Order - was destroyed.