Established Secret expedition, fulfilling the same role. Finally abolished by Alexander I.
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Preobrazhensky Order and the Secret Chancellery
Base Preobrazhensky order dates back to the beginning of the reign of Peter I (established in the year in the village of Preobrazhenskoe near Moscow); At first he represented a branch of the special office of the sovereign, created to manage the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky regiments. Used by Peter as a political body in the struggle for power with Princess Sophia. The name “Preobrazhensky Order” has been in use since the year; Since that time, he has been in charge of maintaining public order in Moscow and the most significant court cases. However, in the decree of the year, instead of the “Preobrazhensky order,” the moving hut in Preobrazhenskoye and the general courtyard in Preobrazhenskoye are named. In addition to the affairs of managing the first guards regiments, the Preobrazhensky order was given the responsibility for managing the sale of tobacco, and in the year it was ordered to send to the order everyone who would speak for themselves “The word and deed of the sovereign”(that is, to accuse someone of a state crime). The Preobrazhensky Prikaz was under the direct jurisdiction of the tsar and was controlled by Prince F. Yu. Romodanovsky (until 1717; after the death of F. Yu. Romodanovsky - by his son I. F. Romodanovsky). Subsequently, the order received the exclusive right to conduct cases of political crimes or, as they were then called, "against the first two points." Since 1725, the secret chancellery also dealt with criminal cases, which were in charge of A.I. Ushakov. But with a small number of people (under his command there were no more than ten people, nicknamed forwarders of the secret chancellery), such a department was not able to cover all criminal cases. Under the then procedure for investigating these crimes, convicts convicted of any criminal offense could, if they wished, extend their process by saying "word and deed" and having made a denunciation; they were immediately taken into the Preobrazhensky Prikaz along with the accused, and very often the accused were people who had not committed any crime, but against whom the informers had a grudge. The main activity of the order is the prosecution of participants in anti-serfdom protests (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political reforms of Peter I.
Office of Secret and Investigative Affairs
Central government agency. After the dissolution of the Secret Chancellery in 1726, it resumed work as the Office of Secret and Investigative Affairs in 1731 under the leadership of A. I. Ushakov. The competence of the chancellery included the investigation into the crime of the “first two points” of the State Crimes (they meant “Word and Deed of the Sovereign.” The 1st point determined “if anyone uses any kind of fabrications to think of an evil deed or a person and honor on the imperial health with evil and harmful words vilify”, and the 2nd spoke “about rebellion and treason”). The main weapons of the investigation were torture and interrogations with “bias.”
Abolished by the manifesto of Emperor Peter III (1762), at the same time the “Word and Deed of the Sovereign” was prohibited.
Secret expedition
The successor to the Secret Chancellery was Secret expedition under the Senate - the central government institution in the Russian Empire, a political investigation body (1762-1801). Formally, the institution was headed by the Prosecutor General of the Senate, but in fact all affairs were in charge of Chief Secretary S. I. Sheshkovsky. The secret expedition investigated the conspiracy of V. Mirovich, carried out the criminal prosecution of A. N. Radishchev, and supervised the trial of E. I. Pugachev. Torture, prohibited under Peter III, came into widespread use again. After the accession of Alexander I, the functions of the Secret Expedition were redistributed between the first and fifth Senate departments.
Preobrazhensky Order and the Secret Chancellery
Base Preobrazhensky order dates back to the beginning of the reign of Peter I (established in the year in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow); At first he represented a branch of the special office of the sovereign, created to manage the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky regiments. Used by Peter as a political organ in the struggle for power with Princess Sophia. The name “Preobrazhensky Order” has been in use since the year; Since that time, he has been in charge of maintaining public order in Moscow and the most significant court cases. However, in the decree of the year, instead of the “Preobrazhensky order,” the moving hut in Preobrazhenskoye and the general courtyard in Preobrazhenskoye are named. In addition to the affairs of managing the first guards regiments, the Preobrazhensky order was given the responsibility for managing the sale of tobacco, and in the year it was ordered to send to the order everyone who would speak for themselves "The Sovereign's Word and Deed"(that is, to accuse someone of a state crime). The Preobrazhensky Prikaz was under the direct jurisdiction of the tsar and was controlled by Prince F. Yu. Romodanovsky (until 1717; after the death of F. Yu. Romodanovsky - by his son I. F. Romodanovsky). Subsequently, the order received the exclusive right to conduct cases of political crimes or, as they were then called, "against the first two points." Since 1725, the secret chancellery also dealt with criminal cases, which were in charge of A.I. Ushakov. But with a small number of people (under his command there were no more than ten people, nicknamed forwarders of the secret chancellery), such a department was not able to cover all criminal cases. Under the then procedure for investigating these crimes, convicts convicted of any criminal offense could, if they wished, extend their process by saying "word and deed" and having made a denunciation; they were immediately taken into the Preobrazhensky Prikaz along with the accused, and very often the accused were people who had not committed any crime, but against whom the informers had a grudge. The main activity of the order is the prosecution of participants in anti-serfdom protests (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political reforms of Peter I.
Office of Secret and Investigative Affairs
Central government agency. After the dissolution of the Secret Chancellery in 1727, it resumed work as the Office of Secret and Investigative Affairs in 1731. under the leadership of A.I. Ushakova. The competence of the chancellery included the investigation into the crime of the “first two points” of the State Crimes (they meant “The word and deed of the sovereign.” The 1st point determined “if anyone uses any kind of fabrications to think about an evil deed or a person and honor on the imperial health with evil and harmful words vilify”, and the 2nd spoke “of rebellion and treason”). The main weapons of the investigation were torture and interrogations with “bias.”
Abolished by the manifesto of Emperor Peter III (1762), at the same time the “Word and Deed of the Sovereign” was prohibited.
Special Office
Sources
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- N.M.V. The Secret Chancellery during the reign of Peter I. Essays and stories on genuine cases // Russian Antiquity, 1885. - T. 47. - No. 8. - P. 185-208; No. 9. – P. 347-364; T. 48. - No. 10. – P. 1-16; No. 11. – pp. 221-232; No. 12. – P. 455-472.
- The Secret Chancellery during the reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. 1741-1761// Russian antiquity, 1875. – T. 12. – No. 3. - P. 523-539.
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See what the “Secret Chancellery” is in other dictionaries:
Secret Chancery- the central state institution of Russia, a body of political investigation and court. Created by Peter I in February 1718 to conduct the investigation into the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, Tk. was located in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg; in Moscow… … Encyclopedia of Law
Legal dictionary
Organ of political investigation in St. Petersburg (1718 26) in the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and people close to him who were opponents of the reforms of Peter I ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
SECRET CHANCELLERY, a body of political investigation in St. Petersburg (1718 26) in the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and people close to him who were opponents of the reforms of Peter I. Source: Encyclopedia Fatherland ... Russian history
Body of political investigation in St. Petersburg (1718 26) in the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and people close to him who were opponents of the reforms of Peter I. Political science: Dictionary reference book. comp. Prof. Science Sanzharevsky I.I.. 2010 ... Political science. Dictionary.
SECRET OFFICE- in Russia, a central government agency, a body of political investigation and court. Created by Peter I in February 1718 to investigate the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Because was located in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg; in Moscow… … Legal encyclopedia
Political investigation body in St. Petersburg (1718 26) in the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and people close to him who were opponents of the reforms of Peter I. * * * SECRET OFFICE SECRET OFFICE SECRET OFFICE, political investigation body in St. Petersburg (1718 26) in the case... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Central State. institution in Russia, body of political investigation and court. Created by Tsar Peter I in February 1718 to investigate the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich (See Alexei Petrovich). Because it was located in Petropavlovskaya... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Center. state institution of Russia, political body. investigations and trials. Created by Peter I in February. 1718 to conduct the investigation into the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Because it was located in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg; there were its branches in Moscow.... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
secret office- in Russia in the 18th century. one of the central government institutions, a body of political investigation and court. Established by Peter 1 in 1718 to conduct an investigation into the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Later to T.K. investigation and trial have moved on... ... Large legal dictionary
central government institution in Russia in the 18th century, the highest body of political investigation. Created in Moscow (in the village of Preobrazhenskoye) in 1731 to investigate crimes of a political nature; took over the competence of the Secret Chancellery of Peter I, whose former minister A.I. Ushakov headed the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs until 1747, and from 1747 - A.I. Shuvalov. Reported directly to the empress.
In August 1732, the Chancellery was transferred to St. Petersburg, but its office headed by S.A. was left in Moscow. Saltykov. Abolished in 1762. Competence of T.r.d.k. moved to the Secret Expedition under the Senate.
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OFFICE OF SECRET SEARCH CASES
center. state establishment in Russia in the 18th century. Created in Moscow (in the village of Preobrazhenskoye) in 1731 to investigate political crimes. character; took over the competence of the Secret Chancellery of Peter I, b. Minister of the Roy A. I. Ushakov headed the K. tr. until 1747. d., from 1747 - A. I. Shuvalov. Reported directly to the empress. In Aug. In 1732 the office was transferred to St. Petersburg, but its office headed by S. A. Saltykov was left in Moscow. During the existence of these two institutions, they changed roles and, accordingly, names several times; abolished in 1762. The competence of the K. tr. passed to the Secret Expedition of the Senate created by Catherine II. Lit.: Veretennikov V.I., From the history of the Secret Chancellery. 1731-1762, X., 1911.
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Office of Secret Investigations
The new department was established on March 24, 1731 and became the full successor to Peter the Great's Secret Chancellery and the Preobrazhensky Order. From the first it inherited its name and narrow specialization on political crimes, from the second - its location (Preobrazhensky General Court) and budget (3,360 rubles per year with the total budget of the Russian Empire being 6–8 million rubles). The staff of the new state security service also remained compact and in 1733 consisted of two secretaries and 21 clerks. By this time P.A. Tolstoy had already been defeated in the political struggle of that turbulent time and was imprisoned in the Solovetsky Monastery, where he died. His former associate A.I. was appointed head of the Office of Secret Investigation Cases. Ushakov, who managed to work in both Peter’s detective departments. Slavishly devoted to Empress Anna Ioannovna, Ushakov led the two most high-profile political trials during her reign - the “supreme leaders” Dolgorukovs and Golitsyns and the cabinet minister A.P. Volynsky, who tried to put an end to the Bironovism. When at the beginning of 1732 the court headed by the empress returned from Moscow to St. Petersburg, Ushakov also moved there with his office, called the “Marching Office of Secret Investigative Affairs.” In order not to leave the old capital unattended, an office was opened in it “from this office”, located on Lubyanka. A relative of the queen, Adjutant General S.A., was placed at the head of the Moscow office. Saltykov, who immediately launched a vigorous activity. In the first four years of its existence alone, the office he led examined 1,055 cases and arrested 4,046 people. Understanding the importance of political investigation for strengthening her power, hated by a significant part of the population, Anna Ioannovna gave the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs a status higher than any collegium of the empire, and subordinated it personally to herself, categorically forbidding any other government bodies to interfere in its activities. Ushakov, who headed the Chancellery, was not obliged to report on his actions even to the Senate, but he regularly appeared with reports to the Empress herself. In the next round of the struggle for power at the top that unfolded after the death of Anna Ioannovna in 1740, the head of the political investigation deliberately did not take any part, being content, in the words of the historian, with “the role of an unprincipled executor of the will of any person in whose hands the power was at the moment.” Having mercilessly dealt with Biron’s opponents under the former empress, Ushakov then conducted an investigation of this once all-powerful temporary worker, after he was overthrown by Field Marshal Minich and Vice Chancellor Osterman. When they themselves were soon overthrown, both of them were also interrogated by the head of the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs. Thanks to such conformism and slavish devotion to anyone in power, A.I. Ushakov retained his post under Elizaveta Petrovna, who reigned on the Russian throne in 1741. The daughter of Peter the Great left completely intact the body of political investigation, which under her dealt with the supporters of the overthrown Brunswick dynasty, the leader of the Bashkir uprising of 1755 Batyrsh and led a number of others processes of “word and deed”. This area of government activity was not deprived of the attention of the new ruler, and, despite her tendency towards laziness noted by her contemporaries, Elizabeth periodically heard reports from Ushakov, and when he grew old, she sent her favorite brother L.I. to help him. Shuvalov, who ultimately replaced Ushakov in his post. At the time of the accession of the new empress to the throne in 1741, the staff of the Chancellery of Secret Investigative Affairs consisted of 14 subordinates of Ushakov: secretary Nikolai Khrushchev, four clerks, five sub-clerks, three copyists and one “backpack master” - Fyodor Pushnikov. There were another 14 employees in the Moscow office. The scope of their work was constantly expanding. Counting those preserved in the archives by the beginning of the 19th century. the affairs of this department shows that 1,450 cases remained from the era of Bironovism, and 6,692 cases from the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. In addition to political cases on the “first two points,” this state security body also considered cases of bribery and abuse of local authorities, court intrigues and quarrels. The Office of Secret Investigation and Counterintelligence functions were performed. “In particular,” the historian writes, “in 1756, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna instructed her (the Chancellery - author’s note) to investigate the case of the French missionary Valcroissant and Baron Budberg, suspected of espionage. In 1761, a case was transferred here on suspicion of the Saxon-born general of the Russian service, Totleben, of having relations with the Prussians. In January 1762, a big case was conducted here about espionage among Russian troops in Prussia.” In 1754, the procedure for conducting a search in the Chancellery was regulated by a special instruction “Rite of what the accused tries,” approved personally by the Empress. If the suspect did not immediately admit his guilt during interrogation and confrontation with the informer, then the rack and the whip were first used to extract truthful testimony from him. The rack consisted of two vertically dug pillars with a crossbar on top. The executioner tied the hands of the interrogated person behind his back with a long rope, threw the other end over the crossbar and pulled it. The bound hands came out of their joints, and the man hung on the rack. After this, the victim was given 10–15 blows with a whip. The executioners who worked in the dungeons were “true masters of the whip-making craft”: “They could lay blow to blow evenly, as if measuring them with a compass or ruler. The force of the blows is such that each one pierces the skin and blood flows in a stream; the skin came off in pieces along with the meat.” If the rack and the whip did not have the desired effect, then the “Rite” recommended the use of the following “means of persuasion.” The document said: “A vice made of iron in three strips with screws, into which the villain’s fingers are placed on top, two large ones from the hands, and two feet on the bottom; and is screwed away from the executioner until either he obeys, or he can no longer press his fingers and the screw will not work. They put a rope on the head and put a gag in and twist it so that he (the tortured person - author's note) is amazed; then they cut the hair on the head down to the body, and cold water is poured onto those places almost drop by drop, which also makes you astonished.” In addition, the “backpack master” “stretches up the person hanging on the rack and, having lit a broom with fire, moves it along the back, for which three or more brooms are used, depending on the circumstances of the tortured person.” The active application of these measures in practice gave rise to such strong hatred of the Office of Secret Investigative Cases in all layers of Russian society, not excluding the ruling one, that Peter III, who replaced Elizabeth on the throne, considered it a good thing with the “highest manifesto” on February 21, 1762 to liquidate this institution and everywhere announce to the population. At the same time, it was prohibited “the hateful expression, namely “word and deed,” should henceforth mean nothing.” The ominous words that had been ringing over Russia for 140 years were losing their magical power. The news of this was greeted with enthusiasm in Russian society. Contemporary of events, writer and naturalist A.T. Bolotov writes in his memoirs: “This brought great pleasure to all Russians, and they all blessed him for this deed.” Some pre-revolutionary historians were inclined to attribute the decision to abolish the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs to the nobility and generosity of Peter III, but the surviving documents completely destroy this legend. It turns out that even two weeks before the publication of the manifesto, which caused such “great pleasure” in society, the new tsar ordered, in place of the destroyed Office of Secret Investigation, to establish a Special Expedition under the Senate, in charge of issues of political investigation. Thus, the decision of Peter III was a typical hypocritical maneuver of the authorities, striving, without changing anything in essence, to look more attractive in the eyes of society by simply changing the signs. Instead of the widely announced liquidation of the political investigation structure, in reality it simply flowed under the banner of the Senate. All the changes boiled down to the fact that the political investigation body, which retained its personnel, from an independent organization became a structural unit under the highest state body of the Russian Empire.
The successors of Peter I declared that there were no more important and large-scale political affairs in the state. By decree of May 28, 1726, Empress Catherine I liquidated the Secret Chancellery and ordered all its affairs and servants to be transferred to Prince I. F. Romodanovsky (the son of Peter the Great's satrap) to the Preobrazhensky Prikaz by the first of July. There the investigation was carried out. The order became known as the Preobrazhenskaya Chancellery. Among the political cases of that time, one can name the trials of Tolstoy, Devier and Menshikov himself. But Peter II in 1729 stopped the activities of this body and dismissed Prince Romodanovsky. From the office, the most important cases were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council, and less important ones were sent to the Senate.
The activities of special bodies resumed only under Anna Ioannovna.
On March 24, 1731, the Office of Secret Investigation Cases was established at the Preobrazhensky General Court. The new intelligence service was functionally designed to identify and investigate political crimes. The Office of Secret Investigative Affairs received the right to investigate political crimes throughout Russia, which resulted in the order to send to the office persons who declared “the sovereign’s word and deed.” All central and local authorities had to unquestioningly carry out the orders of the head of the office, Ushakov, and for “malfunction” he could fine any official.
When organizing the office of secret investigative cases, the experience of its predecessors, and first of all the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, was undoubtedly taken into account. The Office of Secret Investigative Affairs represented a new, higher stage in the organization of the political investigation system. It was free from many of the shortcomings inherent in the Preobrazhensky order, and above all, from multifunctionality. The office arose as an industrial institution, whose staff was entirely focused on investigative and judicial activities to combat political crimes.
Like its historical predecessors, the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs had a small staff - 2 secretaries and a little more than 20 clerks. The department's budget was 3,360 rubles per year, with the total budget of the Russian Empire being 6-8 million rubles.
A.I. was appointed head of the Office of Secret Investigation Cases. Ushakov, who had experience working in the Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the Secret Chancellery. He was able to obtain such a high position thanks to his demonstration of exceptional devotion to Empress Anna Ioannovna.
The new institution reliably guarded the interests of the authorities. The means and methods of investigation remained the same - denunciations and torture. Ushakov did not try to play a political role, remembering the sad fate of his former comrades Tolstoy, Buturlin, Skornyakov-Pisarev, and remained only a zealous executor of the monarch's will.
Under Elizaveta Petrovna, the Secret Investigation Office remained the highest body of political investigation in the empire. It was headed by the same Ushakov. In 1746 he was replaced by the actual chamberlain P.I. Shuvalov. He led the secret service, “instilling horror and fear throughout all of Russia” (according to Catherine II). Torture, even under Elizaveta Petrovna, remained the main method of inquiry. They even drew up a special instruction “Rite of what the accused is trying to do.” She demanded that “having recorded torture speeches, attach them to the judges without leaving the dungeon,” which regulated the registration of the inquiry.
All political affairs were still carried out in the capital, but their echoes also reached the provinces. In 1742, the former ruler of the country, Duke Biron, and his family were exiled to Yaroslavl. This favorite of Anna Ioannovna actually ruled the country for ten years. The established regime was nicknamed Bironovschina. The Duke's opponents were persecuted by servants of the Secret Chancellery (an example is the case of Cabinet Secretary A.P. Volynsky and his supporters). After the death of the empress, Biron became regent of the young king, but was overthrown as a result of a palace coup.
For fifteen years, the head of the Secret Chancellery was Count Alexander Ivanovich Shuvalov, cousin of Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, the empress's favorite. Alexander Shuvalov, one of the closest friends of Princess Elizabeth’s youth, has long enjoyed her special trust. When Elizaveta Petrovna ascended the throne, Shuvalov began to be entrusted with detective work. At first he worked under Ushakov, and in 1746 he replaced his ill boss at his post.
In the detective department under Shuvalov, everything remained the same: the machine set up by Ushakov continued to work properly. True, the new head of the Secret Chancellery did not possess the gallantry inherent in Ushakov, and even inspired fear in those around him with the strange twitching of his facial muscles. As Catherine II wrote in her notes, “Alexander Shuvalov, not in himself, but in the position he held, was the threat of the entire court, the city and the entire empire; he was the head of the Inquisition Court, which was then called the Secret Chancellery. His occupation, as they said, caused him to have a kind of convulsive movement, which occurred on the entire right side of his face from eye to chin whenever he was excited by joy, anger, fear or apprehension.”
Shuvalov was not such a detective fanatic as Ushakov; he did not spend the night in the service, but became interested in commerce and entrepreneurship. Court affairs also took up a lot of his time - in 1754 he became chamberlain of the court of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. And although Shuvalov behaved with caution and caution towards the heir to the throne, the very fact that the chief of the secret police became his chamberlain unnerved Peter and his wife. Catherine wrote in her notes that she met Shuvalov every time “with a feeling of involuntary disgust.” This feeling, which was shared by Peter Fedorovich, could not but affect Shuvalov’s career after the death of Elizaveta Petrovna: having become emperor, Peter III immediately dismissed Shuvalov from his post.
The reign of Peter III (December 1761 - June 1762) became an important stage in the history of political investigation. It was then that “Word and Deed!” was banned! - an expression used to declare a state crime, and the Secret Chancellery, which had been operating since 1731, was liquidated.
The decisions of Emperor Peter III, who came to power on December 25, 1761, were prepared by the entire previous history of Russia. By this time, changes in people's psychology and their worldview became noticeable. Many Enlightenment ideas became generally accepted norms of behavior and politics, and they were reflected in ethics and law. Torture, painful executions, and inhumane treatment of prisoners began to be looked upon as a manifestation of the “ignorance” of the previous era, the “rudeness of morals” of the fathers. The twenty-year reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, who actually abolished the death penalty, also contributed.
The famous manifesto on the prohibition of “Word and Deed” and the closure of the Secret Chancellery, published on February 22, 1762, was undoubtedly a step by the authorities towards public opinion. The decree openly admitted that the formula “Word and Deed” does not serve the benefit of people, but their harm. This very formulation of the question was new, although no one was going to abolish the institution of denunciation and prosecution for “indecent words.”
Much of the manifesto is devoted to explaining how intent in a state crime should now be reported and how the authorities should act in the new situation. This suggests that we are not talking about fundamental changes, but only about modernization and improvement of political investigation. From the manifesto it follows that all previous investigation cases are sealed with state seals, consigned to oblivion and deposited in the archives of the Senate. Only from the last section of the manifesto can one guess that the Senate becomes not only a place for storing old detective papers, but an institution where new political affairs will be conducted. However, the manifesto still speaks very vaguely about how political investigation will now be organized.
Everything becomes clear if we look at the decree of Peter III of February 16, 1762, which, instead of the Secret Chancellery, established a special expedition under the Senate, where all the employees of the Secret Chancellery, headed by S.I. Sheshkovsky, were transferred. And six days later a manifesto appeared about the destruction of the Secret Chancellery.
The secret expedition during the reign of Catherine II (1762–1796) immediately took an important place in the system of power. It was headed by S.I. Sheshkovsky, who became one of the chief secretaries of the Senate. Catherine II perfectly understood the importance of political investigation and the secret police. The entire previous history of Russia, as well as her own history of accession to the throne, told the empress about this. In the spring and summer of 1762, when the department was reorganized, the investigation was weakened. Catherine's supporters almost openly prepared a putsch in her favor, and Peter III did not have accurate information about the impending danger and therefore only brushed aside rumors and warnings in this regard. If the Secret Chancellery had worked, then one of the conspirators, Pyotr Passek, arrested on June 26, 1762 following a denunciation and placed in custody in a guardhouse, would have been taken to the Peter and Paul Fortress. Since Passek was an insignificant person, prone to drunkenness and debauchery, questioning with passion would quickly loosen his tongue and the Orlovs’ conspiracy would be exposed. In a word, Catherine II did not want to repeat the mistakes of her husband.
Political investigation under Catherine II inherited much from the old system, but at the same time, differences appeared. All attributes of detective work were preserved, but in relation to nobles their effect was softened. From now on, a nobleman could be punished only if he was “incriminated before the court.” He was also freed from “all bodily torture,” and the estate of the criminal nobleman was not taken away from the treasury, but was transferred to his relatives. However, the law always made it possible to deprive a suspect of nobility, title and rank, and then torture and execute.
In general, the concept of state security during the time of Catherine II was based on maintaining “peace and quiet” - the basis for the well-being of the state and its subjects. The secret expedition had the same tasks as the detective agencies that preceded it: to collect information about state crimes, take criminals into custody and conduct investigations. However, Catherine’s investigation not only suppressed the enemies of the regime, “approximately” punishing them, but also sought to “study” public opinion with the help of secret agents.
Special attention began to be paid to monitoring public moods. This was caused not only by the personal interest of Catherine II, who wanted to know what people thought about her and her reign, but also by new ideas that public opinion should be taken into account in politics and, moreover, it should be controlled, processed and directed to the right direction. power channel. In those days, as later, political investigation collected rumors and then summarized them in their reports. However, even then a feature characteristic of the secret services appeared: under a certain guise of objectivity, reassuring lies were delivered “to the top.” The higher the information about what “one woman said at the market” rose, the more officials corrected it.
At the end of 1773, when Pugachev's uprising agitated Russian society and caused a wave of rumors, “reliable people” were sent to eavesdrop on conversations “in public gatherings, such as in rows, bathhouses and taverns.” The Commander-in-Chief of Moscow, Prince Volkonsky, like every boss, strove to make the picture of public opinion in the city entrusted to his care look as attractive as possible to the supreme power, and sent the empress quite soothing reports about the state of mind in the old capital, emphasizing the patriotic, loyal sentiments of Muscovites. The tradition of such processing of intelligence information was, as is known, continued in the 19th century. I think that the Empress did not particularly trust Volkonsky’s cheerful reports. In the depths of her soul, the empress clearly had no illusions about the love of the people for her, whom she called “ungrateful.”
The influence of the authorities on public opinion consisted in concealing facts and events from it (however, in vain) and in “starting favorable rumors.” It was also necessary to catch and approximately punish chatterboxes. Catherine did not miss the opportunity to find out and punish those who spread rumors and libels about her. “Try through the chief police chief,” she writes on November 1, 1777 about some libel, “to find out the factory and the manufacturers of such insolence, so that retribution can be inflicted according to the crime.” Sheshkovsky was in charge of the St. Petersburg “liars,” and in Moscow the Empress entrusted this case to Volkonsky.
Catherine read reports and other documents of political investigation among the most important government papers. In one of her letters in 1774, she wrote: “Twelve years of Secret Expedition under my eyes.” And then for more than two decades the investigation remained “under the eyes” of the empress.
Catherine II considered political investigation to be her primary state “work,” while showing enthusiasm and passion that harmed the objectivity she declared. In comparison, Empress Elizabeth seems like a pitiful amateur who listened to General Ushakov’s brief reports during the toilet between the ball and the walk. Catherine, on the other hand, knew a lot about detective work and delved into all the intricacies of “what concerns the Mystery.” She herself initiated detective cases, was in charge of the entire progress of the investigation of the most important of them, personally interrogated suspects and witnesses, approved the verdicts or passed them herself. The empress also received some intelligence information, for which she duly paid.
Under the constant control of Catherine II, the investigation into the case of Vasily Mirovich (1764), the impostor “Princess Tarakanova” (1775), was underway. The empress’s role in the investigation of the Pugachev case in 1774-1775 was enormous, and she strenuously imposed her version of the rebellion on the investigation and demanded evidence of it. The most famous political case, which was started on the initiative of Catherine II, was the case of the book by A. N. Radishchev “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790). The Empress ordered the author to be found and arrested after reading only thirty pages of the essay. She was still working on her comments on the text of the book, which became the basis for the interrogation, and the author himself was already “entrusted to Sheshkovsky.” The empress also directed the entire course of the investigation and trial. Two years later, Ekaterina led the organization of the business of the publisher N.I. Novikov. She gave instructions about arrests and searches, and she herself composed a lengthy “Note” about what to ask the criminal. Finally, she herself sentenced Novikov to 15 years of imprisonment in the fortress.
Catherine, an educated, intelligent and kind-hearted woman, usually followed the motto “We will live and let others live” and was very tolerant of the tricks of her subjects. But sometimes she suddenly exploded and behaved like the goddess Hera - a stern guardian of morality. This reflected both the tradition, according to which the autocrat acted as the Father (or Mother) of the Fatherland, a caring but strict educator of unreasonable child subjects, and simply the hypocrisy, caprice, and bad mood of the empress. The empress's letters to various people have been preserved, to whom she, in her own words, “washed their hair” and whom she warned with serious anger that for such things or conversations she could send the disobedient and “liar” to where Makar did not send calves.
For all her dislike for violence, Catherine sometimes crossed the line of those moral standards that she considered exemplary for herself. And under her, many cruel and “unenlightened” methods of investigation and repression, which the authorities have always resorted to, turned out to be possible and acceptable, starting with the shameless reading of other people’s letters and ending with walling up a criminal alive in a fortress casemate by order of the empress-philosopher (more on this below). This is natural - the nature of autocracy has not essentially changed. When Catherine II died and her son Paul I ascended the throne, autocracy lost the graceful features of the “empress mother,” and everyone saw that no privileges and principles of the Enlightenment ingrained in the consciousness could save one from autocracy and even the tyranny of the autocrat.