“The world in the second half of the 19th century. Russia in the second half of the 19th century

Russia in the second half of the 19th century

On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) was marked by deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and approved legislative acts, who compiled the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.” In 1864, zemstvo self-government (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and the legal profession were introduced, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.

In 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to end the Caucasian War, which lasted 47 years. Annexation to Russia in 1865-1876. significant territories of Central Asia confronted the tsarist administration with the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of the 1860-1870s led to a sharp growth of the economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the “railway boom” of the second half of the 1860s and early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kiev (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the 19th century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, peasants had to buy back their land plots. “Redemption payments” placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often lasted for long years, which caused more than 1,300 mass protests by peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed by force. Communal land use (the inability to manage their plots) and land shortages caused discontent among the peasants and restrained the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to increased exploitation of workers.

The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed, became widespread in society at this time. that an ideal state structure can only be established on the principles of extending the communal order familiar to the Russian village to the entire society. He saw a general peasant uprising as a means of restructuring social life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants naive monarchical sentiments were still very strong. Some young people mistakenly believed that the murder of the Tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879, the secret organization “People's Will” arose, which set as its task terror against prominent employees of the tsarist administration, and as its highest goal - regicide. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the “populists,” but the peasant revolution did not occur.

The son of Alexander II, Alexander III, became king. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen the state apparatus and improve the controllability of the country. To do this, he went for a partial curtailment of the reforms that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the districts to manage peasant affairs; Security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landowners in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made in judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws to limit the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.

Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably treating certain innovations and transformations if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), gold backing of the ruble and a state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country’s finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with central regions Russia. In 1897 it was carried out The first All-Russian population census.
The liberation of peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence of a large number of industrial and commercial enterprises, banks, construction railways, development of agricultural production. TO end of the 19th century V. the number of workers doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900 the share of large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, workers working for them - from 67 to 76%.

The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the emergence of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the “Emancipation of Labor” group, which laid the foundation for the spread of Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program for Russian social democracy, the final goal of which was the creation workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of the means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. Publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to emerge in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V.I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activities in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of technology students (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, etc.) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B.I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class", which was soon crushed by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.

In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav “unions of struggle” and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) took place in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and chose Central Committee(Central Committee). On instructions from the congress, the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly stated. However, the party did not yet have a program and charter, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855, the Kuril Islands were officially included in Russia. The annexation of the Amur region and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. According to the Treaty of Aigun, the undelimited lands on the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and according to the Treaty of Beijing, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was transferred to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed from the annexed possessions of the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Bukhara Emirate were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Transcaspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Transcaspian region was formed with its Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the Russian border with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895, the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in Russia's Turkish possessions in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.

However, there was not enough strength for a decisive offensive. The detachment of General Gurko advanced to the south occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but was unable to advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass were also unsuccessful. The delay of the Russians in occupying Plevna on the western front of the Trans-Danube bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to reach this strategically important point and entrenched themselves in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In the fall, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blockading Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern front of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counter-offensive was repulsed, and the Russian Eastern Front was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack of Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish formations near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities of resistance, after unsuccessful attempt breakthrough, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. in incredibly difficult weather conditions, Russian troops crossed the Balkan ridge and inflicted on the Turks decisive defeat at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, in the battle of Philippopolis (Plovdiv), the last Turkish army was defeated, and on January 8 (20), Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty, on July 13, 1878, Southern Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that emerged in the first half of the 19th century received their further development And in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century
Reforms of the 1860-1870s were real revolution, the consequence of which was fundamental changes in social, state and entire national life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only a social, but also a spiritual emancipation of the people, who had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of intellectuals and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Scientific and technological progress, which served as both factors and indicators of cultural development, was also of no small importance.

Beginning of the 20th century - this is the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, primarily in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers, closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. New items were widely used in Russia scientific and technological progress advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, car, etc.), achievements exact sciences; Various trends have become widespread in literature and art. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, and ballet masters took place in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
IN Russian literature second half of the 19th century V. The themes of folk life and various socio-political trends received a particularly vivid depiction. At this time, the creativity of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky flourished. In the 1880-1890s. in Russian literature, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the works of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of the new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this trend, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations emerged, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. The associations of symbolists (the poet V. Ya. Bryusov was the creator and theorist of Russian symbolism) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. A direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist movement in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values(V.V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V.V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theatrical culture in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century The plays of A. N. Ostrovsky occupied a leading place in the repertoire of the Maly Theater. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Ermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 1860-1870s. Private theaters and theater groups began to emerge. In 1898 in Moscow, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater, and in 1904 in St. Petersburg, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater.
Second half of the 19th century. - blooming time Russian musical art. Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein played a major role in the development and organization of music education. N. G. Rubinstein initiated the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, in the words of V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, T. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Operas by Mussorgsky “Khovanshchina” and “Boris Godunov”, Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Sadko”, “The Pskov Woman” and “The Tsar’s Bride” are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (ballets " Swan Lake", "The Nutcracker", "Sleeping Beauty"; operas "Eugene Onegin", " Queen of Spades", "Mazepa", "Iolanta", etc.). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. A galaxy of talented composers appeared in Russian music: A.K. Glazunov, S.I. Taneyev, A.S. Arensky, A.K. Lyadov, I.F. Stravinsky, A.N. Scriabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas arose, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow became widely known. On its stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.

IN Russian painting Critical realism took a dominant position, the main theme of which was the depiction of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the works of the Itinerant artists (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). Outstanding Representative Russian battle painting was V.V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I.K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists “World of Art” arose, which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N.K. Roerich, I.E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau became the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine style were erected: Upper shopping arcades (now GUM, architect A. N. Pomerantsev), buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V. O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D. N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in social and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.

Developed successfully the science. The name of the great scientist D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) is associated with the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mechnikov created the doctrine of the body’s protective factors, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
“The Father of Russian Aviation” E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel and founded the Aerodynamic Institute in 1904; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet devices. Academician V.I. Vernadsky with his works gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Technical discoveries and inventions are associated with the development of natural sciences: the creation of an incandescent electric light bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), radio communications (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed a fundamental work “History of Russia from Ancient Times,” in which he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by natural and ethnic characteristics Russian people.

The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for rapid development capitalism. In 1861-1900 Russia has transformed from an agricultural to an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the 19th century. in industrial production it took fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. In the Far East, the Amur region and the Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in return for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Began political rapprochement with France.

The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to rouse the peasants to revolt; the terror against the tsar and senior officials turned out to be untenable. In the 1880s The spread of Marxism began in 1892 - revolutionary activity Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.

Gorshenina Nadezhda Mikhailovna,
Republic of Tatarstan, Leninogorsk,
history and social studies teacher
MBOU "Secondary School No. 4

Extracurricular activity general history in 8th grade.

Finest hour on the theme “The World in the Second Half”XIX century".

Target:

— monitor the degree of students’ knowledge acquisition; consolidate in students' understanding of facts, concepts, dates on this topic; fill gaps in learning information block;

— develop students’ logical thinking, the ability to apply knowledge in non-standard situations;

- cultivate interest in the subject, responsibility, empathy for the successes and failures of comrades.

Equipment:

political map “The World at the end of the 19th century”;

record player;

cards;

posters with tasks for tours.

Participants:

Finalists - 5 people;

Understudies - 5 people;

The welcome song from the TV show “Finest Hour” is playing.

Leading: Good afternoon Today our finest hour is dedicated to the topic: “The world in the second half of the 19th century.” Throughout the lesson we will have to remember events, concepts, dates of this period, fill in the gaps, think logically and choose the strongest.

Participants in the game: /represents the participants and their friends/. Game conditions:

1. The finalists and their understudies perform tasks.
2. For the correct answer given by the finalist and the understudy, the finalists receive a star.
3. If the finalist does not advance to the next round, then the backup is eliminated from the game.
4. Hints are strictly prohibited; Spectators can applaud to support the players.
5. The winner, after receiving the main prize, addresses the audience with greetings and wishes.
6. Participants and alternates raise cards with the correct answer.

First round: Choose the correct answer

1. The coalition is...

a) the fundamental law of the state;

b) a political or military alliance of states for joint actions;

c) limited monarchy.

2. Chartism is...

a) the movement for electoral reform;

b) retribution for defeat;

c) movement for Italian independence.

3. The Battle of Sedan led to the fall of the Second Empire in France. When did it happen?

b) in 1870;

4. Plantation slavery is...

a) one of the forms of capitalist economy, when slaves work on plantations, and the product of labor is supplied for sale on the market;

b) a relic of slave-owning relations: white plantation slave owners forced black slaves to work on the plantations, and the product of labor was used in the planter’s household;

c) a system of enslavement of Indians forced to work on plantations.

5. The creator of “little masterpieces” is called:

a) J. Millet;

b) H . Dickens;

c) V. Van Gogh;

G ) F. Schubert.

6. England's main rival in the process of colonizing India was:

a) France;

b) Spain;

c) Portugal;

d) Holland;

7. Sepoys are...

a) feudal princes in India;

b) land tax farmers in India;

c) mercenary soldiers— Hindus in the British colonial army in India;

d) Indian peasants are tenants.

8. Samurai are….

a) Japanese court aristocracy;

b) the military class in Japan;

c) Japanese land nobility;

d) the bureaucratic class in Japan.

9. The “discovery” of Japan took place...

a) as a result of the “Opium Wars”;

b) natural economic development countries;

c) concluding unequal treaties with foreign powers.

(The one with the fewest points is the first to leave the game.)

Second round. Literacy.

Attention! There are letters in front of you. LBTSZMONAN. From 9 letters, participants and their assistants separately need to create a word: a noun, nominative case, singular.

For a word named by both the participant and a friend, the points are doubled. The person with the most words gets a star.

(Music sounds)

Third round. Logical chain.

Determine which word is superfluous here?

1. a) A. Saint-Simon; b) C. Fourier; c) R. Owen; d) A. Lincoln.

2. a) J. Garibaldi; b) Karl X; c) Louis Philippe; d) Napoleon III.

3. a) Argentina; b) Canada; c) Cuba; d) Brazil.

4. a) Austria-Hungary; b) Germany; c) France; d) Italy.

5. a) conservatism; b) liberalism; c) nationalism; d) socialism.

Fourth round. Before you is the word “Napoleon”. Write the word with which it is associated.(The winner receives a star).

Fifth round. Countries before you:

a) England;

b) France;

c) Germany;

d) Italy.

Indicate which country these events are associated with: (participants raise cards with the correct answer)

1) Establishment of the Third Republic (b)

2) Birth of the Labor Party (a)

3) For 46 years, the only son of Umberto 1 Victor, Emmanuel, ruled in this country. (G)

4) As a result of the victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. this country completed its unification. (V)

5) This country was called the “workshop of the world.” (A)

(one is eliminated from the game)

Sixth round. Restore the sequence of events.

(participants raise cards with correct answers, which must be swapped).

1. a) the formation of the Second Empire in France;

b) the beginning of the unification of Italy;

c) the beginning of the unification of Germany;

d) the beginning of the American Civil War.

Answer: ABGV

2. a) Russian-Japanese War,

b) Paris Commune,

c) conclusion of the Triple Alliance,

d) the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War

Answer: GBVA

3. a) The election of A. Lincoln as President of the United States;

b) Homestead Law;

c) The end of the American Civil War;

d) An amendment to the US Constitution that forever prohibited slavery in the country.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Alexander's reforms ii1 The second half of the 19th century occupies a special place in the history of Russia. In terms of significance, the period can only be compared with the era of Peter the Great's reforms. This is the time of the abolition of centuries-old serfdom in Russia and a whole series of reforms affecting all aspects of public life. On February 18, 1855, 37-year-old Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom. The abolition of serfdom was accompanied by reforms in all aspects of the life of Russian society. Land reform. The main issue in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries was the land-peasant issue. Catherine II raised this issue in the work of the Free Economic Society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On free cultivators”, which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. During the years of his reign, Nicholas I created 11 secret committees for peasant question, whose task was the abolition of serfdom, the solution land issue in Russia. In 1857, by decree of Alexander II, a secret committee on the peasant question began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account), a reform was developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different regions, the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant were determined. The Emperor signed a number of laws on February 19, 1861. There was a Manifesto and a Regulation on the granting of freedom to peasants, documents on the entry into force of the Regulation, on the management of rural communities, etc. The abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. The peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while allotments were allocated, the peasants, in the position of “temporarily obligated,” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which in essence did not differ from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. Redemption agreements were concluded for these lands, after which the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments). The use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world). As a result of the reforms, serfdom was abolished - that “obvious and palpable evil for everyone”, which in Europe was directly called “Russian slavery”. However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves. Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of the zemstvo reform carried out in 1864 was electivity and classlessness. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine, zemstvos were established as local government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were held on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge of local affairs, promoting entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - they carried out work for which the state did not have the funds. The urban reform carried out in 1870 was close in nature to the zemstvo reform. In large cities, city councils were established on the basis of all-class elections. However, the elections were held on a census basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. City councils and the mayor resolved issues of internal self-government, education and medical care. To control zemstvo and city activities, a presence on city affairs was created. Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and world. General court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. The adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant's guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle The reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law. The institution of magistrates was introduced to deal with civil cases. The court of appeal was the court chambers. The position of notary was introduced. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in the Special Presence of the Government Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation. Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment was cancelled, and the entire male population over 21 years of age was subject to conscription. Service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and Far North. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was exempt from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months. Financial reform. In 1860, the State Bank was established, the tax-farm2 system was abolished, which was replaced by excise taxes3 (1863). Since 1862, the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. An attempt was made to carry out monetary reform (free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate). Educational reforms. The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private individuals were allowed to open and maintain primary schools, subject to control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions, but introduced tuition fees. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In classical gymnasiums they mainly taught humanities, in real ones - natural. After the minister's resignation public education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead), a new gymnasium charter was adopted, which retained only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with men's secondary education, a system of women's gymnasiums appeared. The University Charter (1863) granted universities broad autonomy, and elections of rectors and professors were introduced. The leadership of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of Professors, to which the student body was subordinate. Universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, and higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, and Kazan. As a result of the publication of a number of laws, a coherent education system was created in Russia, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions. Censorship reform. In May 1862, censorship reform began, “temporary rules” were introduced, which were replaced in 1865 by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, periodicals were also exempt from censorship, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship. Preparation and implementation of reforms were important factor socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared. The economy of post-reform Russia is characterized by the rapid development of commodity-money relations. There was an increase in acreage and agricultural production, but agricultural productivity remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times. The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other hand, strong kulak farms emerged, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them, the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade, towards all new forms of activity in the country: towards the kulak, the merchant, the buyer - towards the successful entrepreneur. In Russia, large-scale industry was created and developed as a state-owned industry. The main concern of the government after the failures of the Crimean War were enterprises producing military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Particular attention was paid to the development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign. The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state on the basis of issuing special orders, so the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. The number of industrial workers grew rapidly, but many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the countryside; they carried with them the charge of discontent among the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city. The reforms laid the foundation for a new credit system. For 1866-1875 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks. As a result of government regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units. In the second half of the 19th century political situation has changed several times in the country. During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. Intensified role III Security (gendarmerie) department. In the 1860s, a radical movement - the populists - entered the political arena. The common intelligentsia, relying on the revolutionary-democratic ideas and nihilism of D.I. Pisareva, created the theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural “world”. "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was a theorist coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, will liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. In 1874, a mass “going to the people” began, but the agitation of the populists was unable to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising. In 1876, the organization “Land and Freedom” arose, which in 1879 split into two groups. The group “Black Redistribution” led by G.V. Plekhanov paid main attention to propaganda; "People's Will" led by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya highlighted the political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People's Will”, was individual terror, regicide, which was supposed to serve as a signal for popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya carried out a series of assassination attempts on Alexander II. In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880, the “Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace” was created, headed by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms.” The development of draft laws for the final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with broad representation of zemstvos and cities. On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. The “Loris-Melikov Constitution” provided for the election of “representatives from public institutions...” to the highest bodies of state power. On the morning of March 1, 1881, the emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally a few hours later, Alexander II was killed by members of the Narodnaya Volya organization. The new Emperor Alexander III held a meeting of the Council of Ministers on March 8, 1881 to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., sharply criticized the “constitution.” Pobedonostsev and the head State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed. In May 1883, Alexander III proclaimed a course called “counter-reforms” in historical-materialist literature, and “adjustment of reforms” in liberal-historical literature. He expressed himself as follows. In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local nobles and landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod. These events revealed the idea of ​​“ official nationality"from the time of Nicholas I - the slogan "Orthodoxy. Autocracy. The spirit of humility" was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; they preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the noble class traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were supported by economic support for landowners. On October 20, 1894, 49-year-old Alexander III suddenly died of acute kidney inflammation in Crimea. Nicholas II ascended the imperial throne. In January 1895, at the first meeting of representatives of the nobles, the top of zemstvos, cities and Cossack troops with the new Tsar, Nicholas II declared his readiness to “protect the principles of autocracy as firmly and steadily as his father did.” During these years, representatives of the royal family, which by the beginning of the 20th century numbered up to 60 members, often intervened in government administration. Most of the Grand Dukes occupied important administrative and military posts. The Tsar's uncles, the brothers of Alexander III - Grand Dukes Vladimir, Alexei, Sergei and cousins ​​Nikolai Nikolaevich, Alexander Mikhailovich, had a particularly great influence on politics. After Russia's defeat in Crimean War A new balance of forces emerged, and political primacy in Europe passed to France. Russia as a Great Power lost its influence on international affairs and found itself isolated. The interests of economic development, as well as considerations of strategic security, required, first of all, the elimination of the restrictions on military navigation in the Black Sea provided for by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856. Russia's diplomatic efforts were aimed at separating the participants in the Paris Peace - France, England, Austria. In the late 50s - early 60s. There was a rapprochement with France, which intended to seize territories on the Apennine Peninsula, using the Italian liberation movement against Austria. But relations with France became strained due to Russia’s brutal suppression of the Polish uprising. In the 60s relations between Russia and the United States have strengthened; pursuing its interests, the autocracy supported the republican government of A. Lincoln in civil war. At the same time, an agreement was reached with Prussia on its support of Russia’s demands to abolish the Treaty of Paris; in return, the tsarist government promised not to interfere with the creation of the North German Union led by Prussia. In 1870, France suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In October 1870, Russia announced its refusal to implement the humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris. In 1871, the Russian Declaration was adopted and legitimized at the London Conference. The strategic task of foreign policy was solved not by war, but by diplomatic means. Russia has gained the opportunity to more actively influence international affairs and, above all, in the Balkans. In 1875-1876 uprisings against Turkey swept the entire peninsula, the Slavs were waiting for Russian help. On April 24, 1877, the Tsar signed the Manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A plan for a short campaign was developed. On July 7, troops crossed the Danube, reached the Balkans, captured the Shipkinsky Pass, but were detained near Plevna. Plevna fell only on November 28, 1877; In winter conditions, the Russian army crossed the Balkans, Sofia was taken on January 4, 1878, and Adrianople on January 8. The Porte requested peace, which was concluded on February 19, 1878 at San Stefano. Under the Treaty of San Stefano, Türkiye lost almost all of its European possessions; A new independent state appeared on the map of Europe - Bulgaria. The Western powers refused to recognize the Treaty of San Stefano. Opened in June 1878 Berlin Congress, who made decisions that were significantly less beneficial for Russia and the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In Russia this was greeted as an insult to national dignity, and a storm of indignation arose, including against the government. Public opinion was still captivated by the “everything at once” formula. The war, which ended in victory, turned into a diplomatic defeat, economic disorder, and an aggravation of the internal political situation. In the first years after the war, there was a “rebalancing” of the interests of the great powers. Germany was inclined towards an alliance with Austria-Hungary, which was concluded in 1879, and in 1882 supplemented by a “triple alliance” with Italy. Under these conditions, there was a natural rapprochement between Russia and France, which ended in 1892 with the conclusion of a secret alliance, supplemented by a military convention. For the first time in world history, economic and military-political confrontation between stable groupings of great powers began. In the “near abroad” the conquest and annexation of new territories continued. Now, in the 19th century, the desire to expand the area was determined primarily by motives of a socio-political nature. Russia actively participated in big politics, sought to neutralize the influence of England in Central Asia and Turkey in the Caucasus. In the 60s There was a civil war in the United States, and the import of American cotton was difficult. Its natural substitute was located nearby, in Central Asia. And, finally, the established imperial traditions pushed to seize territories. In 1858 and 1860 China was forced to cede lands on the left bank of the Amur and the Ussuri region. In 1859, after half a century of war, the mountaineers of the Caucasus were finally “pacified”; their military and spiritual leader, Imam Shamil, was captured in the high-mountain village of Gunib. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was completed. Russian Emperor strove to ensure that the rulers of the states of Central Asia recognized his supreme power, and achieved this: in 1868 the Khanate of Khiva, and in 1873. Bukhara Emirate recognized vassal dependence on Russia. The Muslims of the Kokand Khanate declared a “holy war”, “gazavat”, on Russia, but were defeated; in 1876 Kokand was annexed to Russia. In the early 80s. Russian troops defeated the nomadic Turkmen tribes and came close to the borders of Afghanistan. In the Far East, in exchange for the Kuril Islands, it was acquired from Japan South part Sakhalin Islands. In 1867, Alaska was sold to the United States for $7 million. According to historian S.G. Pushkarev, many Americans believed that she was not worth it. The Russian Empire, “one and indivisible,” stretched “from the cold Finnish rocks to the fiery Taurida,” from the Vistula to the Pacific Ocean and occupied a sixth of the earth. The split in Russian society in the spiritual field began from the time of Peter I and deepened in the 19th century. The monarchy continued the work of “Europeanizing Russia”, regardless of the traditions of national culture. The outstanding achievements of European science, literature, and art were accessible only to a limited number of Russian people; they had little influence on the daily life of the common people. A person of a different culture was perceived by the peasants as a master, a “stranger.” The level of education was reflected in reading tastes. In the 1860s. folklore, tales about knights and pedagogical works accounted for 60% of all publications. During the same time, the popularity of stories about robbers, love, and science increased from 16 to 40%. In the 90s in folk literature a rational hero appears, relying on personal initiative. Such a change in topic indicated the emergence of liberal values ​​in the mass consciousness. In folklore, the epic faded away, the role of ritual poetry fell, and the importance of the accusatory-satirical genre, directed with its edge against the merchant, official, and kulak, grew. In the ditties, the theme of family relationships was supplemented with socio-political subjects. Workers' folklore appeared. In the popular consciousness, along with self-confidence, a mystical belief in the protection or hostility of supernatural forces coexisted; carelessness coexisted with hard work; cruelty coexisted with kindness; and humility coexisted with dignity. Russian science went to new level, differentiated into fundamental and applied. Many scientific discoveries and technical innovations have become the property of world science and technology. The second half of the 19th century was the heyday of Russian literature. Passionate thought about the fate of the homeland and attention to people are its characteristic features. In the 90s The “Silver Age” of Russian poetry began. Contrary to established views, the poets of this time, the symbolists, did not move away from the problems of our time. They sought to take the place of teachers and prophets of life. Their talent was manifested not only in the sophistication of form, but also in humanity. The Russian theme sounded with increasing clarity and purity in culture and gained predominance by the end of the 19th century. At the same time, the social and everyday foundations of ancient Russian life were disintegrating, and the Orthodox people's consciousness was eroding. There were significant changes in everyday life. Urban utilities developed. The streets were paved (usually with cobblestones), and their lighting was improved - kerosene, gas, then electric lamps. In the 60s A water supply system was built in St. Petersburg (in Moscow, Saratov, Vilna, Stavropol it existed until 1861) and seven provincial cities (Riga, Yaroslavl, Tver, Voronezh, etc.), before 1900 it appeared in another 40 large cities. In the early 80s. The telephone appeared in the cities of Russia; by the end of the 19th century, almost all significant cities had telephone lines. In 1882, the first intercity line between St. Petersburg and Gatchina was built. At the end of the 80s. The Moscow-St. Petersburg line, one of the longest in the world, came into operation. The growth of the population of large cities led to the construction of railroads. The first horse-drawn horse-drawn horse was organized in the early 60s. in St. Petersburg, in the 70s she began working in Moscow and Odessa, in the 80s - in Riga, Kharkov, and Revel. In the 90s horsecars began to be replaced by tram service. The first tram in Russia went into operation in Kyiv in 1892, the second - in Kazan, the third - in Nizhny Novgorod. Utilities usually covered the central part of cities. The outskirts, even in the capitals, remained undeveloped. The semi-rural life of large noble estates was becoming a thing of the past. The life of the merchants became Europeanized. Labor population In large cities, those who previously lived in small houses began to crowd more and more into stone buildings and apartment buildings, renting closets and beds there from apartment owners. In 1898, the housing stock of Moscow was examined. It turned out that out of a million residents of the capital, 200 thousand huddled in so-called “bed-bed apartments”, many in “closets” - rooms with partitions that did not reach the ceiling, many rented separate beds or even “half-beds”, on which workers slept different shifts. At wages worker 12-20 rub. a month the closet cost 6 rubles. Single bed - 2 rubles, half - 1.5 rubles. Post-reform times did not make significant changes in the layout of rural settlements that had developed over centuries. As before, the non-black earth zone was dominated by small villages with wooden huts stretched along rural streets. As before, the further north you went, the smaller the size of the settlements. In the steppe zone, the large size of villages was determined by the conditions of water supply. Kerosene lighting was widespread in the village. However, kerosene was expensive and the huts were lit by small lamps. They continued to burn splinters in remote corners. The standard of living of peasants in Novorossia, Samara, Ufa, Orenburg provinces, in the Ciscaucasia and Siberia was significantly higher than in the central provinces. In general, the standard of living in Russia was low. This is evidenced by the average life expectancy, which lags behind European countries. In the 70s - 90s. in Russia it was 31 years for men, 33 years for women, and in England 42 and 55, respectively. EXPLANATIONS of historical facts B various THEORIES STUDYING EACH THEORY SELECTS ITS FACTS FROM MANY HISTORICAL FACTS, BUILDS ITS CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP, HAS ITS EXPLANATIONS IN LITERATURE, HISTORIOGRAPHY, STUDIES ITS HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE T, MAKES ITS CONCLUSIONS AND PREDICTIONS FOR THE FUTURE. REASONS FOR THE Abolition of Serfdom Religious-historical theory studies the movement of man towards God. Orthodox historians (A.V. Kartashov and others) interpret the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms positively, as “the will of God.” At the same time, supporters of the theory of official nationality, based on the principles of “Autocracy. Orthodoxy. Nationality,” the events of the second half of the century were perceived as an attack on the traditional foundations of the state. The main ideologist of autocracy K.P. Pobedonostsev, who controlled power for 24 years, was an ardent opponent of all reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, calling them a “criminal mistake.” Historians of world historical theory, based on unilinear progress, positively assess the processes of the second half of the 19th century. However, they place different emphasis in explaining events. Materialist historians (I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia was late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. The half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society - the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” along the wrong path of development - “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc. Liberal historians, contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and the subsequent reforms. The defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind the West and undermined the country's international prestige. Later, liberal historians (I.N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in the middle of the 19th century serfdom reached highest point economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially the nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force. ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes: The great chain broke, broke and hit: with one end on the master, with the other on the peasant!... Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model. “Machine” progress in Western Europe “forced” tsarism to actively impose industrial orders. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, at the same time preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country developed a situation of “overlapping historical eras” (industrial - agrarian), which subsequently led to social upheaval. Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology towards private property. Tsarism is interpreted as a regime forced to begin industrialization, but unable to cope with its consequences. Local historical theory studies the unity of man and territory, which constitutes the concept of local civilization. The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, was following its own, special path of development. They substantiated the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development towards socialism through the peasant community. Comparative theoretical scheme subject of study + historical fact = theoretical interpretation Reasons for the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of Alexander II | Title | Subject | Interpretation of the fact | | |studies | | |Religious-ist|Movement |Abolition of serfdom | |orical |humanity|rights and subsequent | |(Christian)|and to God |official reforms | | | |the church welcomed.| | | | And supporters of the theory | | | |“Orthodoxy. | | | |Autocracy. | | | |National people" were considered | | | |“criminal mistake” | |World History|Global|Positive | |icheskaya: |development, |towards the abolition of serfdom | | | progress | rights | | |humanity| | | |a | | |Materialistic|Development |Abolition of serfdom | |society, |rights and subsequent | |direction |social|economic reforms | | |x |ripened and marked | | |relations, |transition from feudalism to| | |related to|capitalism. Unlike | | | forms | from Western Europe to | | |proper|Russia this transition | | |ti. | belated | | |Class | | | |fight | | |Liberal |Development |Russia's defeat in | |direction |personality and |Crimean War dispelled| | |security|myth about the military | | |her | the power of the empire, | | |individual|caused irritation in | | | freedoms | society and | | | |destabilized | | | | country. | | | |And here it is | | | | serfdom | | | | reached its highest point | | | |economic | | | |efficiency. Cancel | | | | serfdom and | | | | reforms are not caused by | | | | economic, and | | | |political motives.| | | | The price of violence | | | | transformation is great, | | | |since there were no people | | | |ready for | | | |socio-economic| | | |changes. Lessons - not | | | | we need to force | | | |socio-economic| | | |development of the country | |Technological|Development |Abolition of serfdom | |e direction |technological|law and subsequent | | |skoe, |reforms are due | | | scientific | transition of Russia from | | |discovery |traditional society | | | |to industrial. | | | | Russia was in | | | | second tier countries, | | | | those who have entered the path | | | |industrial | | | |modernization | |Local history|Unity |Abolition of serfdom | |ic |humanity|rights welcomes, but | | |a and |direction of reforms | | | territories | for development | | | | entrepreneurship | | | |believes wrong. | | | | Populists believed | | | |possible in Russia | | | |non-capitalist | | | | development path through | | | |peasant community | Farming is an exclusive right granted by the state for a certain fee to private individuals (farmers) to collect any taxes, sell certain types goods (salt, wine, etc.). Excise tax is a type of indirect tax, mainly on consumer goods; included in the price of goods or tariffs for services. literature. 1. BUGANOV V.I., ZYRYANOV P.N. HISTORY OF RUSSIA, END OF THE XVII-XIX CENTURIES: Textbook. FOR 10 CL. GENERAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS/EDITED BY. A.N. SAKHAROV. 4th ED. M., 1998 2. Vernadsky G.V. Russian history: Textbook. M., 1997 3. Ionov I.N. Russian civilization, IX - early XX centuries: Textbook. book for 10-11 grades. general education institutions. M., 1995 4. Kornilov A.A. Course on the history of Russia in the 19th century. M., 1993 5. History of the USSR XIX - early XX centuries. Textbook. /Under. ed. I. A. Fedosova. M., 1981 6. Monographs: Great reforms in Russia 1856-1874. M., 1992 7. Power and reforms. From autocracy to Soviet Russia. St. Petersburg, 1996 8. Choosing a path. History of Russia 1861-1938 / Ed. O.A. Vaskovsky, A.T. Tertyshny. Ekaterinburg, 1995 9. Kartashov A.V. History of the Russian Church: In 2 vols. M., 1992-1993 10. Litvak B.G. The 1861 coup in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not realized. M., 1991 11. Lyashenko L.M. Tsar Liberator. Life and work of Alexander II. M., 1994 12. Medushevsky A.M. Democracy and authoritarianism: Russian constitutionalism in comparative perspective. M., 1997 13. Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V., Zezina M.R. Culture of Russia IX - XX centuries. M., 1996 14. Eidelman N.Ya. Revolution from above in Russia. M., 1989 15. Pipes R. Russia under the old regime. M., 1993 16. Modernization: foreign experience and Russia / Rep. ed. Krasilshchikov V.A.M., 1994 17. Zakharova L.S. Russia at the turning point (Autocracy and reforms 1861-1874) // History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. Comp. S.V. Mironenko. M., 1991 18. Litvak B.G. Reforms and revolutions in Russia // History of the USSR, 1991, No. 2 19. Potkina I.V., Selunskaya N.B. Russia and modernization // History of the USSR, 1990, No. 4 ----------------------- | Russia | | and the world | |Cancel | |serf| |rights. | |Reforms | |60-70s | |years |
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The world in the 19th century Socio-economic and political development Western countries in the first half of the 19th century Epoch Napoleonic wars. Countries of the East in the 19th century Colonial expansion European countries to the East. The results of the colonial domination of European powers by the end of the 19th century.

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12290.		The conflict between secular (secular-liberal) and religious thinking in Russia in the 21st century	91.7 KB
	This growth in the influence of religion is becoming so strong that the church claims to be an actor that can provide solutions to the existing problems of our country. a new situation in society which makes it clear that on the one hand we have a secular Soviet heritage, on the other hand religiosity is beginning to grow. The main problem of the study is the conflict of freedoms enjoyed by the secular and religiously oriented parts of society: how does secular thinking determine for itself the boundaries of influence on social attitudes and...

Abstract on the topic: “Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century”

Sadykova Elvira

Contents Introduction 31 Culture of post-reform Russia. Second half of the 19th century 42 Culture during the period of bourgeois transformations of the 60-70s 5 2.1 The public’s struggle for development public school. State of education 5 2.2 Socio-political thought 9 2.3 Artistic culture 10 Conclusion 15 References: 15 Introduction Culture is one of the most important areas of social life. In modern social science there are many contradictory interpretations of it. But no matter how we define the concept of “culture”, it always includes education - mental and moral (V.I. Dal). It is difficult to find a sphere of public life that does not have a cultural-historical aspect. In the concept of “culture,” a person and his activities act as a synthesizing basis, since culture itself is a creation of man, the result of his creative efforts. But in culture, man is not only an active, but also a self-changing being. By creating a world of objects and ideas, he creates himself. The subject of cultural history has its own content and specificity among historical disciplines. The history of culture presupposes, first of all, a comprehensive study of its various spheres - the history of science and technology, life, education and social thought, folklore and literary studies, art history, etc. In relation to them, the history of culture acts as a generalizing discipline that considers culture as an integral system of unity and interaction all its areas. When studying culture, one should also keep in mind the manifestation of specific, peculiar only to it patterns, determined by the historical conditions of a given time. IN various periods A leading role in the development of culture can be played by one or another branch of culture (architecture throughout the Middle Ages, literature in the 19th century, science in the development of modern culture, etc.). Interest in the history of Russian culture began to manifest itself in Russia around the 30s and 40s years XIX V. It was associated with the growth of national self-awareness, a general interest in the historical past of the nation, the ideological struggle of this time, with disputes between Westerners and Slavophiles about the fate of Russia. The emergence of the very concept of “culture” dates back to this time, which in the first half of the 19th century. more often the word “enlightenment” corresponded. The term “culture” was first found in the “Pocket Dictionary of Foreign Words included in the Russian Language,” published by M. V. Petrashevsky in 1845-1846. 1. Culture of post-reform Russia. Second half of the 19th century The fall of serfdom meant the beginning of a new, capitalist period in the history of Russia. Capitalism has brought significant changes to the life of society: it transformed the economic system, changed the social and spiritual appearance of the population, its way of life, living conditions, and contributed to the growth of cultural needs. Capitalism as a whole created the conditions for a higher cultural level of society, expanded objective social opportunities to master the culture of significant social strata. The capitalist era, which required a certain level of culture in the sphere of material production, contributed to the acceleration of the process of democratization of culture as a whole. In post-reform times, the scope of education was expanded, and a public school was actually created by the zemstvo. Technical higher education has grown significantly, interest in books has increased, the reading environment has increased, and the social image of the reader has changed. However, the capitalist era in the history of Russia was short-lived - capitalism as a socio-economic formation existed for a little more than half a century. The autocracy, being a feudal political superstructure even in the post-reform era, did not fundamentally change its attitude towards culture, especially towards the problem of educating the people. Development of culture in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. was not a smooth process. Its internal stages determined the ups and downs of the socio-political struggle. Culture, being the most important system of social life, accumulated the ideas of the era. Spiritual life under capitalism continued to maintain a class character. The class acted as the bearer and creator of ideals, value orientations, ethical and aesthetic standards of life. Therefore, only by being an exponent of social progress, this class could form universal human values ​​and thereby reflect the needs of national development. This is precisely the situation in which the Russian bourgeoisie found itself in the post-reform era, which, in the absence of revolutionism, was objectively a progressive force. V.I. Lenin noted that in the 40s - 60s of the 19th century, when “new socio-economic relations and their contradictions... were still in their infancy,” “no self-interest... then appeared in the ideologists of the bourgeoisie. .." The anti-feudal, bourgeois-democratic direction of the ideological struggle of that time determined the universal significance of the created cultural values, bourgeois in their essence. Capitalism, with its desire to expand the economic ties of individual, including national, regions, contributed to the strengthening of communication between the peoples of Russia not only in the economic sphere, but also in the socio-cultural sphere, which underlay the unity of the historical and cultural process in Russia in the era of capitalism. The importance of mutual contacts and ideological closeness with Russian culture, especially literature, was repeatedly emphasized by many figures of national cultures. “Each of us,” wrote one of the founders of new Georgian literature, educator Ilya Chavchavadze, “was raised by Russian literature.” But not only Russian culture had a positive impact on the development of national cultures. National motives fueled the creativity of many Russian writers, artists, and composers. 2. Culture during the period of bourgeois transformations of the 60-70s The social democratic upsurge of the period of the revolutionary situation and the first years after the fall of serfdom made many changes in the cultural life of Russia. The 60s were perceived by contemporaries as a time of spiritual transformation, great hopes and accomplishments. “It was an amazing time,” wrote the publicist and prominent figure in the revolutionary movement N.V. Shelgunov, “the thought that had been dormant until that time swayed, trembled and began to work. Her impulse was strong and her tasks were enormous.” The democratic public was actively involved in solving educational issues, primarily public education. 2.1 The public’s struggle for the development of public schools. State of enlightenment Distinctive feature The social and cultural life of the first post-reform decades was the spread of education. A broad movement began in the country to create public schools, change teaching methods in them, and grant the right to education to women. Much work to disseminate education among the people was carried out by literacy committees and public educational organizations associated with zemstvos. The Moscow Literacy Committee, which arose back in 1845, first raised the issue of introducing universal primary education. In 1861, the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee was created under the Free Economic Society. His goal was to “promote the spread of literacy mainly among peasants who had emerged from serfdom.” Similar educational organizations arose in Tomsk, Samara, Kharkov and other cities of Russia. They carried out work on compiling a catalog of books for elementary schools, writing textbooks, and raising funds for the needs of public education. The founder of the public school, as well as scientific pedagogy in Russia K. D. Ushinsky (1824-1870/71) is rightfully considered. He was a remarkable Russian democratic teacher, the author of educational books (“Native Word”, “Children’s World”), from which tens of millions of children in Russia studied for half a century. Ushinsky created a school of Russian teachers (I.N. Ulyanov, N.F. Bunakov, V.I. Vodovozov, etc.), and had a great influence on the development of advanced pedagogical thought of other peoples of Russia. In the 60s, the government carried out reforms in school affairs, which were part of the social transformations of those years. The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools”, published in 1864, declared the school to be classless and granted the right to open primary schools to public organizations (zemstvos, local city government bodies); women were given the opportunity to teach in schools. However, all schools were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The most common type of primary school in post-reform Russia was zemstvo schools, which owed their appearance to public initiative. During the first ten years of the existence of zemstvo institutions (1864-1874), up to 10 thousand such schools were opened. In subsequent years, their growth slowed down somewhat. The Zemstvo three-year school, in comparison with other elementary schools that existed at that time in Russia (ministerial, parish), was different best production training; besides reading, writing, the four rules of arithmetic and law; of God, elementary information on natural history, geography, and history was taught here. Zemstvo teachers, as a rule, belonged to the advanced Russian intelligentsia. Zemstvos opened up their funds; special teachers' seminaries, paid labor teachers, and were involved in the acquisition of public libraries. Their activities in the field of public education and enlightenment were undoubtedly of a progressive nature. The creation of a primary public school, mainly by the zemstvo, was a serious achievement in the socio-cultural development of post-reform Russia. In the system of primary education, according to the charter of 1864, parochial schools were preserved, which were now under the jurisdiction of the Synod. Elementary education in these schools, which included, in addition to reading and writing, the law of God, Church Slavonic reading and church singing, was significantly lower than in the zemstvo school. The government provided patronage to church and parochial schools, seeking with their help to educate students in the spirit of religion and political reliability. The gymnasium, the main form of secondary school, in the 60s was considered an unclassified general educational institution. At this time, different types of gymnasiums emerged - real and classical. However, from the very beginning they were not completely equal in rights, and after 1866 the classical gymnasium became practically the main form of secondary education; The real gymnasium was transformed into a six-grade school without the right for its graduates to enter the university. In the post-reform era, new universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk. In universities that received autonomy, new departments were opened and the scientific work, rose educational level graduates. In those years, the best scientific forces of Russia were concentrated in universities; many outstanding scientists worked who contributed to the spread of not only science, but also education in the country (D. I. Mendeleev, A. M. Butlerov, A. G. Stoletov, I. M. Sechenov, K. A. Timiryazev, S. M. Solovyov, F. I. Buslaev and many others). The growth of technical equipment in industry and transport and the improvement of production technology required an increase in the level of special education. The St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and the Moscow Vocational School, founded in pre-reform times, were transformed into higher educational institutions. In 1865, on the initiative of the Moscow Society of Agriculture, the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forestry Academy (K. A. Timiryazev Agricultural Academy) was opened in Moscow. Polytechnic and technological institutes were established in a number of cities; closed educational institutions - the Institute of Railway Engineers, Mining, Forestry Institutes - were transformed into civilian educational institutions. By the end of the 19th century. in Russia there were 63 higher educational institutions, in which about 30 thousand students studied. At that time, more than 7 thousand people were educated in higher technical schools, i.e., approximately a quarter of all students. The opportunity for women to receive education and their participation in socially useful work is one of the indicators of the democratization of culture. During the revolutionary situation, women were admitted to universities as listeners. However, according to the Charter of 1863, women were not allowed access to universities. Therefore, many went to study abroad. In the 70s, at the University of Zurich, Russians made up 80% of all foreign students. In Russia, an active socio-scientific movement in defense of women's education, supported by D. I. Mendeleev, I. M. Sechenov, A. N. Beketov, N. I. Pirogov and other advanced scientists, led to the creation at the turn of the 60-70s higher women's courses. They were first opened in St. Petersburg (1869); in Moscow, the most famous were the Higher Women's Courses of the university professor V. I. Guerrier (1872). Higher women's courses in St. Petersburg (Bestuzhevsky - after their director, Professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin), opened in 1878, played a significant role in the social and cultural life of the country and the Russian revolutionary movement. Women's courses worked under university programs, but their completion for a long time did not give women the right to work in their specialty. Only at the beginning of the 20th century. the government was forced to legally recognize the existence of higher education for women in Russia. During the post-reform era, the literacy rate increased. By the time of the fall of serfdom, the proportion of literate people among the population was approximately 7%, by the end of the century - already over 20%. The level of literacy varied depending on the region and the nature of the inhabitants’ occupations. In cities, for example, the number of literate people was approximately twice as high as in rural areas. The All-Russian Population Census of 1897 for the first time revealed the general picture of education in the country. Average level Literacy rate in Russia was 21.1%, and there were more literate people among men (29.3%) than among women (13.1%). By this time, only a little more than one percent of the Russian population had higher and secondary education. Number of students only in high school, in relation to the entire literate population, was 4%. In other words, the level of education in Russia to end of the 19th century. determined Primary School. The general conditions of socio-economic and social development, the rise of mental and spiritual life, some easing of censorship, and the growth of literacy contributed to an increase in the production of books, magazines and newspapers. The country's printing base has increased. Among the published books, natural science, reference, and educational books predominated. Fiction and journalism were published, as a rule, in small editions. In capitals and provincial cities, by the mid-90s, the number of bookstores had grown to approximately 2 thousand. All these facts testified to the fairly wide distribution of books, one of the most important cultural values, in post-reform Russia. Various forms of cultural and educational institutions (libraries, museums, exhibitions) have developed greatly compared to the previous era. Private collecting became widespread during the reform period. Many of the collections subsequently, even in the pre-revolutionary period, made up a significant part of our museums and libraries. On the basis of private collections, on the initiative of their owners, national art museums were created, accessible to the public. In the early 80s, the art gallery of P. M. Tretyakov was opened to the public. In 1893, he donated a collection of his paintings to Moscow. The following year, 1894, the Literary and Theater Museum was organized in Moscow, the basis of which was an extensive collection on the history of Russian and Western European theater by A. A. Bakhrushin (now the Central Theater Museum named after A. A. Bakhrushin). He donated his collection of Russian applied art in 1905. Historical Museum P. I. Shchukin. It constituted one of the departments of the museum. In the second half of the 19th century. with the participation of the public in Russia, many museums of various profiles were organized: historical, natural science, art, industrial, agricultural. For the first time, local history, memorial museums. The total number of museums in the country has grown to 80. Their special feature is their accessibility to the public. In 1872, in Moscow, on the initiative of the Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography, the Polytechnic Museum was organized, which played an important role in the cultural and educational movement of the post-reform era. The collections of one of its sections served as the basis for the creation of the Historical Museum (opened in 1883). The general accessibility of many museums and the development of exhibitions testified to the democratization of culture. Thus, exhibitions of Peredvizhniki artists, the first of which was organized in 1871, began to introduce Russian painting to not only the capital, but also the provincial public for the first time. The exhibition opened in the halls of the Academy of Arts and was then shown in Moscow, Kyiv, and Kharkov. In total, about 30 thousand people visited it. In the mid-80s, exhibitions of the Peredvizhniki took place in 14 cities of Russia. Assessing the overall state of education in Russia, it should be emphasized that in the first post-reform decades significant success was achieved in the spread of general education and technical knowledge, expanding the circle of readers, changing its appearance. “In the 60s,” wrote N.V. Shelgunov, “as if by some miracle, a completely new, unprecedented reader with social feelings, thoughts and interests, who wanted to think about public affairs, was suddenly created. 2.2 Socio-political thought The main questions of socio-political thought - the peasantry and the fate of the autocracy in Russia - in post-reform times, under the conditions of bourgeois reforms, increasingly acquired the character of practically necessary, topical problems. Serfdom was cancelled, the power of the monarchy was shaken by the very course of real life. IN public consciousness A democratic program for the renewal of Russia was formed, the spokesmen of which during this period were primarily raznochintsy revolutionaries. In general, the 60s and 70s were marked by serious changes in the ideological life of society. This time was characterized by the predominance of democratic ideas in the public consciousness, the conviction of the need for reforms, the struggle to find ways to implement them in the interests of the broad masses of the people, and a certain retreat of the autocracy from its protective serfdom principles. All this created the appropriate ideological and moral atmosphere for the development of artistic culture. 2.3 Artistic culture During the post-reform era, remarkable works of literature and art were created in Russia, which took their rightful place in the treasury of world culture. The strength of Russian national art lay in its artistic merits, citizenship, high morality and democratic orientation. The “serious content” of art as its feature was noted by the art and music critic V. V. Stasov (1824-1906). The art of critical realism, which became the main artistic movement, was closely connected with the ideological quests of that time. It not only described life, but also analyzed it, tried to reveal and explain its inherent contradictions. Critical realism of the 60-70s was distinguished by increased social activity. Literature and art, more than ever, have come closer to reflecting real life (essays, novels about modern life, modern everyday drama, everyday genre of painting, etc.). In the second half of the 19th century. ideological and artistic development was largely determined by revolutionary democratic aesthetics, the foundations of which were laid by Belinsky. Its further development was associated with the name of N. G. Chernyshevsky. In fiction of the second half of the 19th century. found a reflection of the social changes that occurred in post-reform Russia. Russian literature has always been characterized by “the desire to solve the problems of social existence” (M. Gorky). The spirit of denunciation and a critical attitude towards existing reality were characteristic of the works of Russian writers of the first post-reform decades. The literature of the post-reform era was a “bright constellation of great names.” During these years, the greatest Russian writers created works, whose creative path began in the previous era. The new generation of realist writers, who came to literature in the 60s and 70s, brought new themes, genres, and ideological and aesthetic principles. In the literary process of those years, the leading place belonged to the essay, in which acute social problems, fundamental issues of life and everyday life of the peasantry (essays by N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsov, G.I. Uspensky, etc.). Associated with social upsurge is the emergence of the democratic novel, in which actor became a commoner (N. G. Pomyalovsky’s stories “Pittish Happiness” and “Molotov”), the first works about the life and everyday workers (F. M. Reshetnikov’s novels “Glumovs”, “Miners”). The programmatic work of the 60s was N. G. Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?”, published in Sovremennik in 1863. It was a story about “new people”, their morality and moral values. Chernyshevsky’s novel had a huge ideological impact on more than one generation of democratic youth. A reflection of the acute ideological and artistic struggle in the literature of the 60s was the appearance of the so-called anti-nihilistic novel (“Nowhere” by N. S. Leskov; “The Troubled Sea” by A. F. Pisemsky and others .) 6O-70s - the time of heyday and greatest achievements of the Russian classical novel and story. I. S. Turgenev (1818-1883) and F. M. Dostoevsky (1821 - 1881) made a huge contribution to domestic and world culture. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” published in 1862, and his other works created images of new heroes of the era - commoners and democrats. The work of F. M. Dostoevsky, ideologically complex, sometimes tragic, is always deeply moral. Pain for the humiliated and insulted, faith in man were the main theme of the writer. Raznochinsky youth considered N.A. Nekrasov (1821 - 1877/78) their ideological leader. The theme of the people, their quests and hopes occupied Nekrasov’s poetry central place. At this time, he created his largest work - the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” which gives a realistic picture of the life of the Russian peasantry. Nekrasov’s work expresses not only the dream of the happiness of the people, but also faith in their strength, capable of throwing off the shackles of serfdom. The pinnacle of Russian literature of the 19th century. became the work of L. N. Tolstoy (1828 - 1910). He posed “great questions” in his novels, stories, dramas, and journalism (V.I. Lenin). The writer was always concerned about the fate of the people and the Motherland (the historical epic “War and Peace”). One of the most acute social literary works of our time was Tolstoy’s novel “Anna Karenina”, in which he, depicting the life of Russian society in the 70s, pronounces a merciless verdict on the bourgeois-landowner system, its morals, customs, and foundations. The state of the theater in the post-reform era was determined by the successes of Russian drama. The theater community attracted attention to the burning issues of theater development: improving professional acting education, expanding the network of theaters through the creation of private enterprises. The monopoly of state-owned theaters was abolished in 1882 under the influence of the demands of the progressive public. However, even earlier, private theaters began to emerge under the guise of “home performances”, “family evenings”, etc. Thus, the Artistic Circle appeared in Moscow - a social and artistic organization (1865-1883), created on the initiative of A. N. Ostrovsky, N. G. Rubinstein, V. F. Odoevsky, the first people's theater at the Polytechnic Exhibition (1872). The Maly and Alexandrian theaters continued to be the main centers of theatrical culture. However, the number of theater troupes in the provincial cities of Russia has increased significantly, and a new democratic viewer has emerged, mainly from the raznochinsky environment. Theater increasingly became an organic part of social and cultural life, no longer covering only narrow circle the metropolitan public, but also wider layers of the provincial intelligentsia. With the intensification of acute problems in social life in the theater, interest in modern everyday drama grew. Development of Russian theater in the second half of the 19th century. is inextricably linked with the name of A. N. Ostrovsky (1823 - 1886), who considered the theater “a sign of the maturity of the nation, just like academies, universities and museums.” Ostrovsky’s dramaturgy is a remarkable phenomenon of national artistic culture. Since the production of the play “Don’t Sit in Your Own Sleigh” in 1852 on the stage of the Malygotheater, Ostrovsky’s works have taken a leading place in his repertoire. The social and ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades affected the state of music. In 1859, on the initiative of A. G. Rubinstein (1829-1894), the Russian Musical Society was organized “to develop music education, taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talents.” The society organized symphonic and chamber concerts. In St. Petersburg, on the initiative of A. G. Rubinstein (1862), and then in Moscow (organized by N. G. Rubinstein, 1866), conservatories were opened, which laid the foundation for professional musical education in Russia. In St. Petersburg in the 60s, composer M. A. Balakirev and singing teacher G. Ya. Lomakin opened a free music school, which existed until 1917. It set the task of disseminating musical knowledge, promoting the works of Glinka, Dargomyshsky, composers of the “mighty handful”, the best works foreign" music (L. Beethoven, F. Liszt, G. Berlioz, etc.). In the second half of the 19th century, the creative association of composers “the mighty handful” played a huge role in the development of musical culture [M. A. Balakirev (1836/37- 1910), M. P. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), Ts. A. Cui (1835-1918), A. P. Borodin (1833-1887), N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908)]. This name was given to it by the music critic and his ideological leader V. V. Stasov. The ideological and moral views of this community were formed under the influence of advanced ideas of the 60s and 70s. One of the main features of the aesthetics and musical creativity of the composers of the “mighty handful" was the desire to convey “truth” in music life", national character. They made extensive use of musical folklore, gravitated toward historical and epic plots, and contributed to the establishment of folk musical drama on the stage (“BorisGodunov”, “Khovanshchina” by M. P. Mussorgsky). The composers of the “mighty handful” did a lot to collect and study musical folklore, publishing several collections of Russian folk songs in the 60s and 70s. Outstanding achievements of Russian music are associated with the name of P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). He is one of the greatest composers of our era, who left a vast creative heritage in the field of ballet, opera, symphony, chamber music (ballets “Swan Lake”, “Sleeping Beauty”; operas “Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”; symphonies, romances, symphonic poems, the musical cycle “The Seasons”, etc. ). Tchaikovsky's national and deeply folk music has a rare power of emotional impact. Tchaikovsky created his main works in the 70s and 80s. In his work, he asserted the human right to free life, called for “the fight against the dark forces of evil and injustice.” Along with the lyrical life-affirming principle, Tchaikovsky’s music is characterized by tragic features, especially strong in his last works. Distinctive property After the reform of musical art there was its programming, the use of national motifs and plots from literary works in music. V.V. Stasov noted that composers of the second half of the 19th century. followed Glinka's example. “Our era,” the critic wrote, “is moving further and further away from the “pure” music of previous periods and is increasingly demanding real, definite content for musical creations.” Progressive social thought set new tasks for painting. The 60s constitute a certain internal stage in the history of Russian fine art with a predominance of the social genre. “Genre is not a whim, not a whim, not an invention of one or several artists,” wrote V. V. Stasov, - but an expression of modern need, a universal, irresistible need to express all aspects of life with art.” The atmosphere of the 60s was most fully reflected in the work of V. G. Perov (1833-1882) (the paintings “Rural Procession at Easter”, “Seeing Off the Dead Man”, “Troika”, etc.). The ideological and artistic movement of these years paved the way for the emergence of the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions” (1871). The idea of ​​​​organizing it arose in 1865, when, on the initiative of Kramskoy, an exhibition of paintings “Artels of Artists” was presented in Nizhny Novgorod, which was a success. Itinerant movement is a leading movement in national art of the second half of the 19th century, ideologically opposed to academicism. The tenets of revolutionary-democratic aesthetics determined the programming of the work of the Peredvizhniki: citizenship, awareness of the social and psychological problems of their time, interest in the appearance of their contemporary. Working in different genres (everyday genre, landscape, portrait, historical painting), the Itinerant artists introduced new, essentially important aspects into each of them. They devoted a lot of space peasant theme, for the first time, images of the progressive intelligentsia and workers were captured on their canvases [N.A. Yaroshenko (1846-1898) - “Student”, “Student”, “Stoker”]. The favorite topic of a number of Peredvizhniki was native nature. The artists managed to reveal inner harmony Russian nature, the amazing beauty of fields and copses, a road stretching into the distance, the sky before a thunderstorm, etc. Their works contain both romantic spirituality and a philosophical understanding of existence (F. A. Vasiliev, I. I. Shishkin, I. I. Levitan). A. K. Savrasov’s painting “The Rooks Have Arrived,” shown at the first exhibition of the Wanderers (1871), was recognized by contemporaries as an example of landscape painting, which perfectly conveyed the mood of the coming spring and the renewal of nature. Distinctive feature The portrait of the Wanderers had deep psychological realism and ideology. Their paintings conveyed a social portrait of the era, which “... represented people dear to the nation, who believed in its better future and fought for this idea” (I. E. Repin). A remarkable page of Russian art is represented by the work of I. E. Repin (1844-1930), an artist of enormous talent, deep truth of life and amazing versatility. I. E. Repin’s worldview took shape during the era of social upsurge and the spread of bourgeois democracy. These ideas fed his art and helped him comprehend and understand many issues of modern life. New, not known to art In the 60s, Repin showed his attitude towards the people in the film “Barge Haulers on the Volga” (1873). While denouncing the exploitation of the people, the artist at the same time affirmed the hidden strength within them, the ripening protest. Repin sees powerful, original features and characters in barge haulers. Working successfully in the field of portraiture, he created a series of brilliant images of people of his era. The pinnacle of Repin's mastery is the portrait of M. P. Mussorgsky (1881). Peredvizhniki artists repeatedly turned to historical themes, and the national theme predominated in their paintings. They used real events as plots and sought to convey the era and the character of historical characters. It was typical for the Peredvizhniki to depict turning points in Russian history. They interpreted historical subjects in a new way, showing Russian history through a separate psychological drama, as a rule, outstanding personality(N. N. Ge. “Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei,” 1871; I. E. Repin. “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan,” 1885). The main achievements of historical painting of this time are associated with the work of V. I. Surikov (1848 - 1916). He was interested in periods of great socio-political and spiritual conflicts, manifestations of popular struggle against official statehood and churchism. He said a new word in historical painting, showing the people as the driving force of history (“Morning Streletskaya Execution”, 1881; “Boyarynya Morozova”, 1887; etc.). Surikov's interpretation of historical themes was a consequence of new ideas about the historical process and the place of the masses in it, which distinguished the social thought and literature of the era of the raznochinets. Close to the Wanderers in his aesthetic views, M. M. Antokolsky (1843 - 1902), who played a major role in the development of Russian realistic sculpture. He created the series historical works(“Ivan the Terrible”, “Peter I”, “Nestor the Chronicler”, “Yaroslav the Wise”, etc.). A. M. Opekushin (1838 -1923) - one of the representatives of monumental sculpture - was the author of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow. The opening of the monument to the Great Russian poet, created with voluntary donations, took place in June 1880 and became a huge event cultural significance. Conclusion Changes of enormous significance occurred in the culture of Russia in the 19th century. They formed the cultural heritage of the country. Cultural heritage is the most important form in which continuity in the historical development of society is expressed. Even in the conditions of the socialist revolution, which resolutely denies many of the socio-historical institutions of the old society, the creation of a qualitative new culture is impossible without the creative development of cultural heritage, without careful attitude to the culture of past eras, without preserving the wealth that was created in various fields of culture. Today we are especially clear about this. List of used literature: 1. Zezina M. R. Koshman L. V. Shulgin V. S. History of Russian culture. – M., 1990 2. Milyukov P. N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. – M., 1993 3. Sapronov P. A. Culturology (lectures on the course of cultural studies).