First World War declaration of war. Political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

The First World War is one of the greatest tragedy in the history of the world. Millions of victims died as a result of the geopolitical games of the powers that be. This war has no clear winners. The political map has completely changed, four empires have collapsed, and the center of influence has shifted to the American continent.

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Political situation before the conflict

There were five empires on the world map: the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire, as well as such superpowers as France, Italy, Japan, trying to take their place in world geopolitics.

To strengthen their positions, states tried to unite in unions.

The most powerful were the Triple Alliance, which included the central powers - the German, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, as well as the Entente: Russia, Great Britain, France.

Background and goals of the First World War

Main prerequisites and goals:

1. Alliances. According to the treaties, if one of the countries of the union declared war, then the others must take their side. This leads to a chain of involving states in the war. This is exactly what happened when the First World War began.
2. Colonies. Powers that did not have colonies or did not have enough of them sought to fill this gap, and the colonies sought to free themselves.
3. Nationalism. Each power considered itself unique and the most powerful. Many empires claimed world domination.
4. Arms race. Their power needed to be supported by military power, so the economies of major powers worked for the defense industry.
5. Imperialism. Every empire, if not expanding, then collapses. There were five of them then. Each sought to expand its borders at the expense of weaker states, satellites and colonies. The young German Empire, formed after Franco-Prussian War.
6. Terrorist attack. This event became the reason for the world conflict. The Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The heir to the throne, Prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia arrived in the acquired territory - Sarajevo. There was a fatal assassination attempt by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip. Due to the assassination of the prince, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which led to a chain of conflicts.

If we talk about the First World War briefly, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson believed that it began not for any reason, but for all of them at once.

Important! Gavrilo Princip was arrested, but death penalty They could not apply it to him because he was under 20 years old. The terrorist was sentenced to twenty years in prison, but four years later he died of tuberculosis.

When did the first world war begin

Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum to carry out a purge of all government bodies and the army, eliminate persons with anti-Austrian beliefs, arrest members of terrorist organizations, and, in addition, allow the Austrian police to enter Serbian territory to conduct an investigation.

They were given two days to fulfill the ultimatum. Serbia agreed to everything except the admission of the Austrian police.

July 28th, under the pretext of non-fulfillment of the ultimatum, Austro-Hungarian Empire declares war on Serbia. From this date they officially count down the time when the First World War began.

The Russian Empire has always supported Serbia, so it began mobilization. On July 31, Germany issued an ultimatum to stop mobilization and gave it 12 hours to complete. The response announced that the mobilization was taking place exclusively against Austria-Hungary. Despite the fact that the German Empire was ruled by Wilhelm, a relative of Emperor Nicholas Russian Empire, On August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on the Russian Empire. At the same time, Germany entered into an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.

After Germany invaded neutral Belgium, Britain did not adhere to neutrality and declared war on the Germans. August 6, Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. Italy adheres to neutrality. On August 12, Austria-Hungary begins to fight with Britain and France. Japan plays against Germany on August 23. Further down the chain, more and more states are drawn into the war, one after another, all over the world. The United States of America does not join until December 7, 1917.

Important! England pioneered the use of tracked combat vehicles, now known as tanks, during the First World War. The word "tank" means tank. So British intelligence tried to disguise the transfer of equipment under the guise of tanks with fuel and lubricants. Subsequently, this name was assigned to combat vehicles.

Main events of the First World War and Russia's role in the conflict

The main battles take place on the Western Front, in the direction of Belgium and France, as well as on the Eastern Front, on the Russian side. With the entry of the Ottoman Empire a new round of actions began in the eastern direction.

Chronology of Russia's participation in the First World War:

• East Prussian operation. The Russian army crossed the border of East Prussia towards Königsberg. 1st Army from the east, 2nd Army from the west of the Masurian Lakes. The Russians won the first battles, but misjudged the situation, which led to further defeat. A large number of soldiers became prisoners, many died, so had to retreat fighting.
• Galician operation. A huge battle. Five armies were involved here. The front line was oriented towards Lvov, it was 500 km. Later the front split into separate positional battles. Then the Russian army began a rapid offensive against Austria-Hungary, its troops were pushed back.
• Warsaw ledge. After a number of successful operations with different sides the front line became crooked. There was a lot of strength thrown to level it. The city of Lodz was alternately occupied by one side or the other. Germany launched an attack on Warsaw, but it was unsuccessful. Although the Germans failed to capture Warsaw and Lodz, the Russian offensive was thwarted. Russia's actions forced Germany to fight on two fronts, thanks to which a large-scale offensive against France was thwarted.
• Japan's entry into the Entente. Japan demanded that Germany withdraw its troops from China, and after the refusal announced the beginning of hostilities, taking the side of the Entente countries. This was an important event for Russia, since now there was no need to worry about the threat from Asia, and the Japanese were helping with supplies.
• The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the Triple Alliance. The Ottoman Empire hesitated for a long time, but still took the side of the Triple Alliance. The first act of her aggression was attacks on Odessa, Sevastopol, and Feodosia. After which, on November 15, Russia declared war on Turkey.
• August operation. It took place in the winter of 1915, and received its name from the city of Augustow. Here the Russians could not resist; they had to retreat to new positions.
• Carpathian operation. There were attempts on both sides to cross the Carpathian Mountains, but the Russians failed to do so.
• Gorlitsky breakthrough. The army of Germans and Austrians concentrated their forces near Gorlitsa, towards Lvov. On May 2, an offensive was carried out, as a result of which Germany was able to occupy Gorlitsa, Kielce and Radom provinces, Brody, Ternopil, and Bukovina. With the second wave, the Germans managed to recapture Warsaw, Grodno, and Brest-Litovsk. In addition, they managed to occupy Mitava and Courland. But off the coast of Riga the Germans were defeated. To the south, the offensive of the Austro-German troops continued, Lutsk, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kovel, Pinsk were occupied there. By the end of 1915 the front line has stabilized. Germany sent its main forces towards Serbia and Italy. As a result of major failures at the front, the heads of the army commanders rolled. Emperor Nicholas II took upon himself not only the governance of Russia, but also direct command of the army.
• Brusilovsky breakthrough. The operation was named after commander A.A. Brusilov, who won this fight. As a result of the breakthrough (May 22, 1916) the Germans were defeated they had to retreat with huge losses, leaving Bukovina and Galicia.
• Internal conflict. The Central Powers began to become significantly exhausted from the war. The Entente and its allies looked more advantageous. Russia at that time was on the winning side. She put a lot of effort into this and human lives, but could not become a winner due to an internal conflict. Something happened in the country, because of which Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. The Provisional Government came to power, then the Bolsheviks. To stay in power, they withdrew Russia from the theater of operations, concluding peace with central states. This act is known as Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
• Internal conflict of the German Empire. On November 9, 1918, a revolution took place, the result of which was the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Weimar Republic was also formed.
• Treaty of Versailles. Between the winning countries and Germany On January 10, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles was concluded. Officially The First World War ended.
• The League of nations. The first assembly of the League of Nations took place on November 15, 1919.

Attention! The field postman wore a bushy mustache, but during a gas attack, the mustache prevented him from putting on his gas mask tightly, because of this the postman was severely poisoned. I had to make small antennae so that they wouldn’t interfere with putting on a gas mask. The postman's name was .

Consequences and results of the First World War for Russia

Results of the war for Russia:

• One step away from victory, the country made peace, having lost all privileges as a winner.
• The Russian Empire ceased to exist.
• The country voluntarily gave up large territories.
• Undertook to pay indemnity in gold and food.
• It was not possible to establish the state machine for a long time due to internal conflict.

Global consequences of the conflict

Irreversible consequences occurred on the world stage, the cause of which was the First World War:

1. Territory. 34 of the 59 states were involved in the theater of operations. This is more than 90% of the Earth's territory.
2. Human sacrifices. Every minute 4 soldiers were killed and 9 were injured. In total there are about 10 million soldiers; 5 million civilians, 6 million died from epidemics that broke out after the conflict. Russia in the First World War lost 1.7 million soldiers.
3. Destruction. A significant part of the territories where the fighting took place were destroyed.
4. Dramatic changes in the political situation.
5. Economy. Europe lost a third of its gold and foreign exchange reserves, which led to a difficult economic situation in almost all countries except Japan and the United States.

Results of the armed conflict:

• The Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German empires ceased to exist.
• European powers lost their colonies.
• Such states as Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Austria, Hungary appeared on the world map.
• The United States of America has become the leader of the world economy.
• Communism has spread to many countries.

The role of Russia in the 1st World War

Results of the First World War for Russia

Conclusion

Russia in the First World War 1914 – 1918. had victories and defeats. When the First World War ended, it received its main defeat not from an external enemy, but from itself, an internal conflict that put an end to the empire. It is unclear who won the conflict. Although the Entente and its allies are considered victorious, but their economic condition was deplorable. They did not have time to recover, even before the start of the next conflict.

To maintain peace and consensus among all states, the League of Nations was organized. It played the role of an international parliament. It is interesting that the United States initiated its creation, but itself refused membership in the organization. As history has shown, it became a continuation of the first, as well as a revenge of the powers offended by the results of the Treaty of Versailles. The League of Nations here showed itself to be an absolutely ineffective and useless body.

The First World War was an imperialist war between two political unions of states where capitalism flourished, for the redivision of the world, spheres of influence, the enslavement of peoples and the multiplication of capital. Thirty-eight countries took part in it, four of which were part of the Austro-German bloc. It was aggressive in nature, and in some countries, for example, Montenegro and Serbia, it was national liberation.

The reason for the outbreak of the conflict was the liquidation of the heir to the Hungarian throne in Bosnia. For Germany, this became a convenient opportunity to start a war with Serbia on July 28, whose capital came under fire. So Russia began general mobilization two days later. Germany demanded that such actions be stopped, but having received no response, it declared war on Russia, and then on Belgium, France and Great Britain. At the end of August, Japan declared war on Germany, while Italy remained neutral.

The First World War began as a result of the uneven political and economic development of states. Strong conflicts arose between Great Britain and France and Germany, since many of their interests in dividing the territory of the globe collided. At the end of the nineteenth century, Russian-German contradictions began to intensify, and clashes also arose between Russia and Austria-Hungary.

Thus, the aggravation of contradictions pushed the imperialists to the division of the world, which was supposed to happen through a war, the plans of which were developed by the general staffs long before its appearance. All calculations were made on the basis of its short duration and shortening, so the fascist plan was designed for decisive offensive actions against France and Russia, which were supposed to take place no more than eight weeks.

The Russians developed two options for conducting military operations, which were offensive in nature; the French envisaged an offensive by the forces of the left and right wing, depending on the offensive of the German troops. Great Britain did not make plans for operations on land, only the fleet was supposed to provide protection for sea communications.

Thus, in accordance with these developed plans, the deployment of forces took place.

Stages of the First World War.

1. 1914 Invasions of German troops into Belgium and Luxembourg began. In the battle of Maron, Germany was defeated, just as in the East Prussian operation. Simultaneously with the latter, the Battle of Galicia took place, as a result of which the Austro-Hungarian troops were defeated. In October, Russian troops launched a counteroffensive and pushed the enemy forces back to their original position. In November, Serbia was liberated.

Thus, this stage of the war did not bring decisive results to either side. The military actions made it clear that it was wrong to make plans to carry them out beyond short term.

2. 1915 Military operations mainly unfolded with the participation of Russia, since Germany planned its rapid defeat and withdrawal from the conflict. During this period, the masses began to protest against the imperialist battles, and already in the fall a

3. 1916 Great importance assigned to the Naroch operation, as a result of which German troops weakened their attacks, and the Battle of Jutland between the German and British fleets.

This stage of the war did not lead to the achievement of the goals of the warring parties, but Germany was forced to defend itself on all fronts.

4. 1917 Revolutionary movements began in all countries. This stage did not bring the results that both sides of the war expected. The revolution in Russia thwarted the Entente's plan to defeat the enemy.

5. 1918 Russia left the war. Germany was defeated and pledged to withdraw troops from all occupied territories.

For Russia and other countries involved, military actions made it possible to create special government agencies solving issues of defense, transportation and many others. Military production began to grow.

Thus, the First World War marked the beginning of the general crisis of capitalism.

World War I was the result of the aggravation of the contradictions of imperialism, the unevenness and spasmodic development of capitalist countries. The most acute contradictions existed between Great Britain, the oldest capitalist power, and the economically strengthened Germany, whose interests collided in many areas of the globe, especially in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Their rivalry turned into a fierce struggle for dominance in the world market, for the seizure of foreign territories, for the economic enslavement of other peoples. Germany's goal was to defeat the armed forces of England, deprive it of colonial and naval primacy, subjugate the Balkan countries to its influence, and create a semi-colonial empire in the Middle East. England, in turn, intended to prevent Germany from establishing itself in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, to destroy its armed forces, to expand its colonial possessions. In addition, she hoped to capture Mesopotamia and establish her dominance in Palestine and Egypt. Acute contradictions also existed between Germany and France. France sought to return the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, captured as a result of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, as well as to take away the Saar Basin from Germany, to maintain and expand its colonial possessions (see Colonialism).

Bavarian troops are sent by rail towards the front. August 1914



Territorial division of the world on the eve of the First World War (by 1914)



Poincaré's arrival in St. Petersburg, 1914. Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934) - President of France in 1913-1920. He pursued a reactionary militaristic policy, for which he received the nickname “Poincare War.”



Division of the Ottoman Empire (1920-1923)



American infantryman who suffered from exposure to phosgene.



Territorial changes in Europe in 1918-1923.



General von Kluck (in a car) and his staff during large maneuvers, 1910



Territorial changes after the First World War in 1918-1923.

The interests of Germany and Russia collided mainly in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Kaiser's Germany also sought to tear Ukraine, Poland and the Baltic states away from Russia. Contradictions also existed between Russia and Austria-Hungary due to the desire of both sides to establish their dominance in the Balkans. Tsarist Russia intended to seize the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, Western Ukrainian and Polish lands under Habsburg rule.

The contradictions between the imperialist powers had a significant impact on the alignment political forces in the international arena, the formation of opposing military-political alliances. In Europe at the end of the 19th century. - early 20th century two largest blocs were formed - the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; and the Entente consisting of England, France and Russia. The bourgeoisie of each country pursued its own selfish goals, which sometimes contradicted the goals of the coalition allies. However, all of them were relegated to the background against the background of the main contradictions between two groupings of states: on the one hand, between England and its allies, and Germany and its allies, on the other.

The ruling circles of all countries were to blame for the outbreak of the First World War, but the initiative in unleashing it belonged to German imperialism.

Not last role the outbreak of the First World War was due to the desire of the bourgeoisie to weaken the growing class struggle of the proletariat and the national liberation movement in the colonies, to distract the working class from the struggle for its social liberation by war, to decapitate its vanguard through repressive wartime measures.

The governments of both hostile groups carefully concealed the true goals of the war from their people and tried to instill in them a false idea about the defensive nature of military preparations, and then of the conduct of the war itself. Bourgeois and petty-bourgeois parties of all countries supported their governments and, playing on the patriotic feelings of the masses, came up with the slogan “defense of the fatherland” from external enemies.

The peace-loving forces of that time could not prevent the outbreak of a world war. Real power, capable of significantly blocking its path was the international working class, numbering over 150 million people on the eve of the war. However, the lack of unity in international socialist movement disrupted the formation of a united anti-imperialist front. The opportunistic leadership of the Western European social democratic parties did nothing to implement the anti-war decisions taken at the congresses of the 2nd International held before the war. A misconception about the sources and nature of the war played a significant role in this. Right-wing socialists, finding themselves in warring camps, agreed that “their” own government had nothing to do with its emergence. They even continued to condemn the war, but only as an evil that had come upon the country from outside.

The First World War lasted over four years (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918). 38 states took part in it, over 70 million people fought on its fields, of which 10 million people were killed and 20 million were maimed. The immediate cause of the war was the murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, by members of the Serbian secret organization “Young Bosnia” on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia). Incited by Germany, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an obviously impossible ultimatum and declared war on it on July 28. In connection with the opening of hostilities in Russia by Austria-Hungary, general mobilization began on July 31. In reply German government warned Russia that if mobilization was not stopped within 12 hours, mobilization would also be declared in Germany. By this time, the German armed forces were already fully prepared for war. The tsarist government did not respond to the German ultimatum. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3 on France and Belgium, on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Later, most of the countries of the world were involved in the war (on the side of the Entente - 34 states, on the side of the Austro-German bloc - 4).

Both warring sides started the war with multimillion-dollar armies. Military actions took place in Europe, Asia and Africa. The main land fronts in Europe: Western (in Belgium and France) and Eastern (in Russia). Based on the nature of the tasks being solved and the military-political results achieved, the events of the First World War can be divided into five campaigns, each of them included several operations.

In 1914, in the very first months of the war, military plans developed by the general staffs of both coalitions long before the war and designed for its short duration collapsed. The fighting on the Western Front began in early August. On August 2, the German army occupied Luxembourg, and on August 4, it invaded Belgium, violating its neutrality. Small in number Belgian army was unable to provide serious resistance and began to retreat north. On August 20, German troops occupied Brussels and were able to freely advance to the borders of France. Three French and one British armies were advanced to meet them. On August 21-25, in a border battle, the German armies drove back the Anglo-French troops, invaded Northern France and, continuing the offensive, reached the Marne River between Paris and Verdun by the beginning of September. The French command, having formed two new armies from reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive. The Battle of the Marne began on September 5. 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies (about 2 million people) took part in it. The Germans were defeated. On September 16, oncoming battles began, called the “Run to the Sea” (they ended when the front reached the sea coast). In October and November, bloody battles in Flanders exhausted and balanced the forces of the parties. A continuous front line stretches from the Swiss border to the North Sea. The war in the West took on a positional character. Thus, Germany’s hope for the defeat and withdrawal of France from the war failed.

Russian command, yielding to persistent demands French government, decided even before the end of the mobilization and concentration of its armies to move on to active action. The goal of the operation was to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. On August 4, the 1st Russian Army under the command of General P.K. Rennenkampf crossed the state border and entered the territory of East Prussia. During fierce fighting, German troops began to retreat to the West. Soon the 2nd Russian Army of General A.V. Samsonov also crossed the border of East Prussia. The German headquarters had already decided to withdraw troops beyond the Vistula, but, taking advantage of the lack of interaction between the 1st and 2nd armies and the mistakes of the Russian high command, German troops managed to inflict a heavy defeat on the 2nd Army first, and then throw the 1st Army back to her starting positions.

Despite the failure of the operation, the invasion of the Russian army into East Prussia had important results. It forced the Germans to transfer two army corps and one cavalry division from France to the Russian front, which seriously weakened them strike force in the West and was one of the reasons for its defeat in the Battle of the Marne. At the same time, by their actions in East Prussia, the Russian armies shackled the German troops and kept them from assisting the allied Austro-Hungarian troops. This made it possible for the Russians to inflict a major defeat on Austria-Hungary in the Galician direction. During the operation, the threat of invasion of Hungary and Silesia was created; The military power of Austria-Hungary was significantly undermined (Austro-Hungarian troops lost about 400 thousand people, of which more than 100 thousand were captured). Until the end of the war, the Austro-Hungarian army lost the ability to conduct operations independently, without the support of German troops. Germany was again forced to withdraw some of its forces from Western Front and transfer them to the Eastern Front.

As a result of the 1914 campaign, neither side achieved its goals. Plans for waging a short-term war and winning it at the cost of one general battle collapsed. On the Western Front, the period of maneuver warfare was over. Positional, trench warfare began. On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany; in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the German bloc. New fronts formed in Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Syria and the Dardanelles.

In the 1915 campaign, the center of gravity of military operations shifted to the Eastern Front. Defense was planned on the Western Front. Operations on the Russian front began in January and continued from short breaks until late autumn. In the summer, the German command broke through the Russian front near Gorlitsa. Soon it launched an offensive in the Baltic states, and Russian troops were forced to leave Galicia, Poland, part of Latvia and Belarus. However, the Russian command, switching to strategic defense, managed to withdraw its armies from the enemy’s attacks and stop his advance. The bloodless and exhausted Austro-German and Russian armies in October went on the defensive along the entire front. Germany faced the need to continue a long war on two fronts. Russia bore the brunt of the struggle, which provided France and England with a respite to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. Only in the fall did the Anglo-French command carry out an offensive operation in Artois and Champagne, which did not significantly change the situation. In the spring of 1915, the German command used for the first time on the Western Front, near Ypres, chemical weapon(chlorine), as a result of which 15 thousand people were poisoned. After this, gases began to be used by both warring sides.

In the summer, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente; in October, Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation of the Anglo-French fleet was aimed at capturing the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, breaking through to Constantinople and withdrawing Turkey from the war. It ended in failure, and the Allies stopped hostilities at the end of 1915 and evacuated troops to Greece.

In the 1916 campaign, the Germans again shifted their main efforts to the West. For their main attack, they chose a narrow section of the front in the Verdun area, since a breakthrough here created a threat to the entire northern wing of the Allied armies. The fighting at Verdun began on February 21 and continued until December. This operation, called the “Verdun Meat Grinder,” boiled down to grueling and bloody battles, where both sides lost about 1 million people. The offensive actions of the Anglo-French troops on the Somme River, which began on July 1 and continued until November, were also unsuccessful. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, were unable to break through the enemy’s defenses.

Operations on the Eastern Front were of great importance in the 1916 campaign. In March, Russian troops, at the request of the allies, carried out an offensive operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. It not only pinned down about 0.5 million German troops on the Eastern Front, but also forced the German command to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and transfer some of its reserves to the Eastern Front. Due to the heavy defeat of the Italian army in Trentino in May, the Russian high command launched an offensive on May 22, two weeks earlier than planned. During the fighting, Russian troops on the Southwestern Front under the command of A. A. Brusilov managed to break through the strong positional defense of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. The enemy suffered heavy losses - about 1.5 million people killed, wounded and captured. The Austro-German command was forced to transfer large forces to the Russian front, which eased the position of the Allied armies on other fronts. Russian offensive saved the Italian army from defeat, eased the position of the French at Verdun, and accelerated Romania's appearance on the side of the Entente. The success of the Russian troops was ensured by the use by General A. A. Brusilov of a new form of breaking through the front through simultaneous attacks in several areas. As a result, the enemy lost the opportunity to determine the direction of the main attack. Along with the Battle of the Somme, the offensive on the Southwestern Front marked the turning point in the First World War. The strategic initiative completely passed into the hands of the Entente.

On May 31 - June 1, the largest earthquake occurred off the Jutland Peninsula in the North Sea. naval battle throughout the First World War. The British lost 14 ships in it, about 6,800 people killed, wounded and captured; The Germans lost 11 ships, about 3,100 people killed and wounded.

In 1916, the German-Austrian bloc suffered huge losses and lost its strategic initiative. Bloody battles drained the resources of all the warring powers. The situation of workers has sharply worsened. The hardships of the war and their awareness of its anti-national character caused deep discontent among the masses. In all countries, revolutionary sentiments grew in the rear and at the front. A particularly rapid rise of the revolutionary movement was observed in Russia, where the war revealed the corruption of the ruling elite.

Military operations in 1917 took place in the context of a significant growth of the revolutionary movement in all the warring countries, strengthening of anti-war sentiments in the rear and at the front. The war significantly weakened the economies of the warring factions.

The advantage of the Entente became even more significant after the United States entered the war on its side. The condition of the armies of the German coalition was such that they could not take active action either in the West or in the East. The German command decided in 1917 to switch to strategic defense on all land fronts and focused its main attention on waging unlimited submarine warfare, hoping in this way to disrupt the economic life of England and take it out of the war. But, despite some success, the submarine war did not give the desired result. The Entente military command moved to coordinated strikes on the Western and Eastern fronts in order to inflict the final defeat of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

However, the offensive of the Anglo-French troops launched in April failed. On February 27 (March 12), a bourgeois-democratic revolution took place in Russia. The Provisional Government that came to power, taking a course to continue the war, organized, with the support of the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, a large offensive of the Russian armies. It began on June 16 on the Southwestern Front in the general direction of Lvov, but after some tactical success, due to the lack of reliable reserves, the enemy’s increased resistance choked. The inaction of the Allies on the Western Front allowed the German command to quickly transfer troops to the Eastern Front, create a powerful group there, and launch a counteroffensive on July 6. The Russian units, unable to withstand the onslaught, began to retreat. The offensive operations of the Russian armies on the Northern, Western and Romanian fronts ended unsuccessfully. The total number of losses on all fronts exceeded 150 thousand people killed, wounded and missing.

The artificially created offensive impulse of the soldier masses was replaced by an awareness of the pointlessness of the offensive, an unwillingness to continue the war of conquest, to fight for interests alien to them.

“The times have already passed when other nations divided lands and waters among themselves, and we, the Germans, were content with only the blue sky... We also demand a place in the sun for ourselves,” said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the times of the Crusaders or Frederick II, the focus on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines of Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification allowed Germany to significantly increase its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power. At the beginning of the 20th century. It has reached second place in the world in terms of industrial production.

The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle between rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - colonies from England and France and western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of Berlin’s aggressive strategy remained the “onslaught towards the East”, into the Slavic lands, where the German sword was supposed to win a place for the German plow. In this Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where Austro-German diplomacy managed, on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions, to split the union of the Balkan countries and cause a second Balkan war between Bulgaria and the rest of the countries of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing the dominance of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. The aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states created by Russia's centuries-long struggle with the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, interrupting negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.

Two days later, William declared war on France, in whose defense England came out. Türkiye became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing it to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, closing the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. The Russian state has already end of the XVIII V. achieved its main territorial goals in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and markets that attracted aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force restraining German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with seizing control of the straits and ensuring free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where Uniate centers hostile to the Russian Orthodox Church were located, was not excluded.

The German attack caught Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay of which deprived the Germans of any chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles heel" was the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The Russian leadership was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle would be used, including ideological ones. This meant for Russia great value, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and cartridges with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, who had not fought with the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And not everyone in the highest circles saw the German Empire as a cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: family dynastic ties, similar political systems, long-standing and close relations between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening sense of patriotism in the educated strata of Russian society, which were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. Thus, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: “The French have “che”re France,” the British have “Old England.” The Germans call it “our old Fritz.” Only those who went through a Russian gymnasium and university have “damned Russia.” A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military conflict. As for Russian society, it, as a rule, did not feel the prospect of a long and grueling struggle with a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the onset of the “terrible years of Russia.” Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.

1914 Campaign Western Theater

The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the Chief of the General Staff A. von Schlieffen. It envisaged holding back the slowly mobilizing Russians with small forces and delivering the main blow in the west against France. After its defeat and capitulation, it was planned to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was compiled under the influence of the Allies. It envisaged, even before the completion of mobilization, an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, assumed that the Germans would deliver the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilno-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. Ultimately, events began to develop according to the first option. Having started the war, Germany unleashed all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to slow mobilization across the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by persistent requests for help from allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught from the Germans.

East Prussian operation (1914). On the Russian side, the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies took part in this operation. The front of their advance was divided by the Masurian lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd Army to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Epanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenschild-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, General Bulgakov's 25th Division captured Stallupenen. Russian losses amounted to 6.7 thousand people, Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, German troops fought a new, larger battle for the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, which were advancing in two directions towards Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break up the 1st Army piecemeal. On the morning of August 7, the German shock force fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to capture them in a pincer movement. The Germans pressed the Russian right flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. The total German losses were about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off Prittwitz’s path to the west, forced the German commander to initially order a withdrawal across the Vistula (this was provided for in the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood in place for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup its forces. Without precise information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Konigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (south from Königsberg).

While Rennenkampf was marching on Konigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against Samsonov’s army, which did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radiograms, were aware of all the Russian plans. On August 13, Hindenburg unleashed an unexpected blow on the 2nd Army from almost all of his East Prussian divisions and inflicted a severe defeat on it in 4 days of fighting. Samsonov, having lost control of his troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage to the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which by September 2 withdrew beyond the Neman. The East Prussian operation had dire consequences for the Russians in tactical and especially moral terms. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, won by the Germans tactically, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the plan for a lightning war. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of military operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon went on the offensive again in East Prussia.

Battle of Galicia (1914). The most ambitious and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It involved 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front (under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German Woyrsch group. The sides had approximately equal numbers of fighters. In total it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them exceeded the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with a strike by Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the area of ​​Lublin and Kholm. There were: the 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce encounter battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed to Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation took place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholm-Lublin direction. However general situation at the front it was shaping up threateningly for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southern direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. A possible meeting of German and Austro-Hungarian troops west of Warsaw, in the area of ​​​​the city of Siedlce, threatened to encircle the Russian armies in Poland.

But despite persistent calls from the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not attack Sedlec. He focused primarily on clearing East Prussia of the 1st Army and abandoned his allies to their fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and launched a counteroffensive on August 22. However, it developed slowly. Holding back the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th Army of General Brusilov still managed to last bit of strength close the breakthrough and hold positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the Russian onslaught from the north (from the Lublin-Kholm region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the forces of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. Subsequently, if Austria-Hungary achieved success on the Russian front, it was only with the strong support of the Germans.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). Victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army (including those arriving from the western front) to the Warta River area. Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), launched an offensive on Warsaw and Ivangorod on September 15, 1914. At the end of September - beginning of October, Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the closest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this area to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into the battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of communications routes by the retreating, and poor supply of Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states to its side in 1914.

First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German Army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow Forests (in the area of ​​the Polish city of Augustow), since fighting in forested areas did not allow the Germans to take advantage of their advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce fighting broke out at this line, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.

Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). Siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops besieged Przemysl in September 1914. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles of Khirov and San, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible to blockade Przemysl for the second time at the end of October 1914. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his foray on March 5, 1915 ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, Commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the largest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl in connection with a general retreat from Galicia.

Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the Northwestern Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. German command from intercepted radiograms knew about the impending offensive. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful pre-emptive strike on October 29 with the goal of encircling and destroying the 5th (General Plehwe) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz area. The core of the advancing German group with a total number of 280 thousand people. formed part of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under pressure from superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The heaviest fighting broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough of General Schaeffer's German corps into the eastern Lodz region on November 5-6, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which arrived from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin to withdraw troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the “Lodz patch”, and German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and linked up with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap where Schaeffer's corps had broken through was closed, and he himself found himself surrounded. Although the German corps managed to escape from the bag, the German command's plan to defeat the armies Northwestern Front failed. However, the Russian command also had to say goodbye to the plan to attack Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side still lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), Russian troops were now unable to really threaten German territory. The Germans suffered 50 thousand casualties.

"The Battle of Four Rivers" (1914). Having failed to achieve success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back across the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, German troops with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsch group again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction on November 19. After heavy fighting in the area of ​​the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After this, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), located to the south, went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce “battle on four rivers” (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire Russian front line in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the German onslaught on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The “Battle of Four Rivers” was distinguished by extreme tenacity and significant losses on both sides. The damage to the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its personnel suffered especially, which directly influenced the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German Army exceeded 100 thousand people.

Campaign of 1914 Caucasian theater of military operations

The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already entered the war in 1914. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. The 90,000-strong Turkish army was led by Minister of War Enver Pasha. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian Army under the overall command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (the actual commander of the troops was General A.Z. Myshlaevsky). The central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of military operations was the Sarykamysh operation.

Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian Army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Olta detachment), the Turks on December 12, in severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units here (up to 1 battalion). Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived to the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led its defense. Having failed to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10 thousand people due to frostbite. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and pushed the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main attack to Karaudan, which was defended by the units of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Meanwhile, Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps on December 22. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian Army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and prisoners. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory at Sarykamysh stopped Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the position of the Caucasian Army.

1914 Campaign War at sea

During this period, the main actions took place on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (the basis of which was the German battle cruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.

Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships at Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle came down to an artillery duel between the Goeben and the Russian lead battleship Eustathius. Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, the Goeben received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the rest of the Russian ships to enter the battle, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there the Goeben was repaired until December, and then, going out to sea, it hit a mine and was again undergoing repairs). "Eustathius" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having tested the fortress of Russia’s Black Sea borders in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active actions off the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea communications.

1915 Campaign Western Front

By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front close to the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse German plan Schlieffen. “If there had been no casualties on the part of Russia in 1914,” said British Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “then German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still have been in Belgium and France." In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This implied the occupation of East Prussia and an invasion of the Hungarian Plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During active military operations in 1914, the Russian personnel army was killed in the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia. Its decline had to be made up by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular character of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained police force.” Another serious problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition was tens of times higher than calculated. Russia and her are not enough developed industry This problem was particularly acute. Domestic factories could only meet 15-30% of the army's needs. The task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing became clear. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, the Russian armed forces entered the New Year with a shortage of weapons and personnel. This had a fatal impact on the 1915 campaign. The results of the battles in the east forced the Germans to radically reconsider the Schlieffen plan.

The German leadership now considered Russia to be its main rival. Its troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to throw their main forces to the east to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task made easier by the opportunity to wage a maneuver war in the east (in the west by that time a continuous positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which would cost enormous casualties). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted of deep envelopment from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal These “strategic Cannes” were supposed to be surrounded by Russian armies in a “Polish bag”.

Battle of the Carpathians (1915). It was the first attempt by both sides to realize their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling Russian troops in Poland. The Battle of the Carpathians began on January 7 with an almost simultaneous offensive by the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). A counter battle took place, called the “rubber war.” Both sides, pressing on each other, had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat back. The fighting in the snowy mountains was characterized by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push back the left flank of the 8th Army, but they were unable to break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repelled their advance. “As I toured the troops in the mountain positions,” he recalled, “I bowed to these heroes who steadfastly endured the terrifying burden of a mountainous winter war with insufficient weapons, facing three times the strongest enemy.” Only the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi, was able to achieve partial success. At the beginning of March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of the spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming fierce enemy resistance, Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command transferred new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Battle of the Carpathians, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.

Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian Battle, fierce fighting broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Below) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies went on the offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell in the area of ​​the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of Sievers’ army and tried to encircle it. The second stage provided for a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front. But due to the tenacity of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely capture it in pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repelled attacks by German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from further advancing. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overthrown the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. “The attempt to break through was complete madness. But this holy madness is heroism, which showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the times of the storming of Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the storming of Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all kinds of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable!”, wrote the German war correspondent R. Brandt in those days. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from attack by mid-February and took up defense on the Kovno-Osovets line. The Northwestern Front held out and then managed to partially restore its lost positions.

Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out on another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) was stationed. On February 7, in the Prasnysz area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Below). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repelled the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for a winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, General Pleshkov’s 1st Siberian Corps approached Prasnysh and immediately attacked the Germans. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians completely defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on a general offensive, which, after stubborn fighting, drove the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. Meanwhile, the 10th Army also went on the offensive and cleared the Augustow Forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Encounter battles along the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians depleted the reserves of the Russian army on the eve of a formidable blow, which the Austro-German command was already preparing for it.

Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). The beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push back Russian troops at the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third breakthrough option. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, over half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. In the 35-kilometer section of the breakthrough at Gorlice, a strike group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It was superior to the Russian 3rd Army (General Radko-Dmitriev) stationed in this area: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, Mackensen’s group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the build-up of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here late, were brought into battle piecemeal and quickly died in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of shortage of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this most major success Germans on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible roar of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. “We almost didn’t respond - we had nothing. The regiments, exhausted to the last degree, repelled one attack after the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.”

The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left all of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, Mackensen’s group was not able to quickly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to “pushing through” the Russian front. It was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the German offensive from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called The Great Retreat, during which Russian troops left Galicia, Lithuania, and Poland in the spring and summer of 1915. Russia's allies, meanwhile, were busy strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The Union leadership used the respite given to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. “We,” Lloyd George later admitted, “left Russia to its fate.”

Battles of Prasnysh and Narev (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began to carry out the second act of its “strategic Cannes” and struck from the north, from East Prussia, against the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. German troops had superiority in numbers of personnel (177 thousand versus 141 thousand people) and weapons. The superiority in artillery was especially significant (1256 versus 377 guns). After hurricane fire and a powerful onslaught, German units captured the main defense line. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, much less the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, launching counterattacks in threatened areas. In 6 days of continuous fighting, Galwitz's soldiers were able to advance 30-35 km. Without even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began to regroup its forces and pull up reserves for a new attack. In the Battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The tenacity of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin withdrawing its armies beyond the Vistula.

Having brought up their reserves, the Germans went on the offensive again on July 10. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies took part in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narev front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. Having an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They managed to cross the river in several places, but the Russians, with fierce counterattacks, did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads until the beginning of August. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The resilience of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate from the Warsaw area without hindrance. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narevo. The Germans also suffered considerable losses. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the battles of Prasnysh and Narew saved Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.

Battle of Vilna (1915). The end of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno region (now Kaunas). But the Germans forestalled this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and on August 5 surrendered the fortress to the Germans (for this he was later sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the North-Western Front troops beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive stalled. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful group in the Sventsyan area (north of Vilno) and on August 27 launched an attack on Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Due to the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilna. However, the Germans failed to develop their success. Their path was blocked by the timely arrival of the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Decisively attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to Sventsyany. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this area stabilized. The Battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted offensive forces, the Germans are moving to positional defense in the east. The German plan to defeat Russia's armed forces and exit the war failed. Thanks to the courage of its soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army avoided encirclement. “The Russians broke out of the pincers and achieved a frontal retreat in a direction favorable to them,” the Chief of the German General Staff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the Riga - Baranovichi - Ternopil line. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the largest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.

Campaign 1915 Caucasian theater of military operations

The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support the Allied forces landing at Gallipoli, was disrupted. Under the influence of the German successes, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.

Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the area of ​​Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the onslaught of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky) defending this sector began to retreat to Russian border. This created the threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian Army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, which dealt a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish group. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes of seizing the strategic initiative in the Caucasus theater of military operations.

Hamadan Operation (1915). From October 17 to December 3, 1915, Russian troops took offensive actions in Northern Iran to suppress the possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Advancing to Hamadan, the Russians defeated Turkish-Persian troops (8 thousand people) and eliminated German-Turkish agents in the country . This created a reliable barrier against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and also eliminated a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army.

1915 Campaign War at sea

Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for Russian fleet. Among the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can highlight the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosporus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).

March to the Bosphorus (1915). A squadron of the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes, took part in the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the Bosphorus Strait area, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship Rostislav opened fire on the fortified area of ​​Iniada (northwest of the Bosphorus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosphorus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battle cruiser Goeben - and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship Eustathius distinguished itself, which disabled the Goeben with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and left the battle. This campaign to the Bosphorus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. Subsequently, the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet was the Germans. submarines. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With the entry of Bulgaria into the war, the zone of operation of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a new large area in the western part of the sea.

Gotland Fight (1915). This naval battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the firefight, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was severely damaged and, engulfed in flames, washed up on the Swedish coast. There his team was interned. Then a cruising battle took place. It was attended by: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lubeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, German ships ceased fire and left the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant because for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio reconnaissance data was used to fire.

Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) attempted at the end of July to break through the Irbene Strait into the Gulf of Riga to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga at sea . Here the Germans were confronted by ships Baltic Fleet led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete its mission due to minefields and successful actions Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats(“Sivuch”> and “Korean”). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans were unable to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. Subsequently, serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.

1916 Campaign Western Front

Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to defense of private industry, whose activities were coordinated by military-industrial committees (MIC), expanded. Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the supply of the front improved by 1916. Thus, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various types of guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew due to additional mobilizations by 1.4 million people. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to deliver the main blow to the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous “Verdun meat grinder” began, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.

Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, the Russian command carried out an offensive on March 5-17, 1916 with troops from the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of ​​Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jacobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania and Belarus and throwing them back to the borders of East Prussia. But the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation at Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch area was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragosa). For 10 days she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20 thousand killed and 65 thousand wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage to the Germans was 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, Russia's allies, since the Germans were unable to transfer a single division from the east to Verdun. “The Russian offensive,” wrote the French general Joffre, “forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to bring all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions removed from other sectors.” On the other hand, the defeat at Naroch and Jacobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western Fronts. They were never able, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, to conduct successful offensive operations in 1916.

Brusilov breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people), led by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov, began. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that moment numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov used a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted of alternating active and passive breakthrough sections. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate forces on the threatened areas. The Brusilov breakthrough was distinguished by careful preparation (including training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: “Don’t spare shells!” Artillery preparation in various areas lasted from 6 to 45 hours. According to the figurative expression of historian N.N. Yakovlev, the day the breakthrough began " Austrian troops didn't see the sunrise. Instead of serene sunbeams, death came from the east - thousands of shells turned habitable, heavily fortified positions into hell." It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops were able to achieve the greatest degree of coordinated action between infantry and artillery.

Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilov method of “rolling attack” was then used by the Allies to break through German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front came down to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group Woyrsch. Having gone on the attack after many hours of artillery bombardment, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, defense in depth (there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire at the front line alone). After bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of Woyrsch's group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.

The headquarters was unable to shift the task of delivering the main attack to the Southwestern Front in time, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans, with the forces of the created group of General Liesingen, launched a counterattack in the Kovel area against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front. But she repelled the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army that finally received reinforcements, launched a new offensive on Kovel. In July, the main battles took place in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport node) were not successful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians transferred reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.

During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke through the Austro-German defenses along its entire length from the Pripyat marshes to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to weaken the pressure on France and Italy. Influenced by the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But persistent attacks in the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. The Austro-German units, strengthened by that time, repelled the Russian onslaught. In general, despite the tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not bring a turning point in the course of the war. They cost Russia enormous casualties (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.

Campaign of 1916 Caucasian theater of military operations

At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by conducting the Erzurum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved their greatest success in the Caucasian theater of military operations.

Erzurum and Trebizond operations (1916). The goal of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzurum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish Army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian Army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive on Erzurum. The offensive took place in snow-capped mountains with strong winds and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzurum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk. But Yudenich still decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its implementation. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzurum and then began pursuing the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzurum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced from their borders deeper into Turkish territory by more than 150 km. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of the mountain snow. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.

Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbitten). The damage to the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (Captain 1st Rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, landings and the supply of reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky detachment (15 thousand people) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two Plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. The first to cross the stormy cold river on April 2 were the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polathane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian Army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The Russian capture of Eastern Turkey was of great political significance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies regarding the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.

Kerind-Kasreshiri operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to provide assistance to an English detachment surrounded by the Turks in Kut el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. Baratov’s corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Hanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison in Kut el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish Army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which was greatly thinned out (from heat and disease). At Haneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad), Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps abandoned the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. Eastern of this Iranian city the Turkish offensive was stopped.

Erzrincan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzurum and Trebizond. The first to go on the offensive from the Erzincan area on June 13 was the 3rd Turkish Army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people). The hottest battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan Regiment was stationed. With his steadfastness, he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzurum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish Army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having been defeated near Erzincan, the Turkish command entrusted the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, it went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). This created a threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich launched a counterattack on the Turks at Ognot with the forces of General Vorobyov’s group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognotic direction, which lasted throughout August, Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. Turkish losses amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. During two operations, 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and stopped active operations against the Russians. The Ognot operation was the last major battle of the Russian Caucasian Army in the First World War.

1916 Campaign War at sea

In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army defending Riga with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines also did this quite successfully. One of the retaliatory actions of the German fleet is its shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This foray, based on insufficient understanding of Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 out of 11 German ships participating in the campaign were blown up and sank. destroyers. None of the fleets knew such a case during the entire war. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transportation of troops, landing troops and fire support for the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to blockade the Bosphorus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy’s sea communications. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.

1917 campaign

By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained quite stable. Its army held its position firmly and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then from Paris they were only 120 km. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain collection decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, and transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men were drafted into the army - 15 million people, and the national economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in entire years of previous wars. All this required unprecedented effort from the people. However, not all society bore the burden of war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, huge profits came from placing military orders at private factories. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed prices to inflate. Evasion from the front by joining rear organizations was widely practiced. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war at lightning speed, the First World War became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages depended to a large extent on the mood of the nation and strong and skillful leadership.

In this regard, Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere has such an irresponsible split at the top of society been observed. Representatives of the State Duma, aristocracy, generals, left parties, liberal intelligentsia and associated bourgeoisie circles expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious end. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to establish proper order in the rear during wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, turned out to be helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which became hostage to this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus for the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived officers of disciplinary power over soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officers suffered greatly, becoming the first victims of soldiers' discontent. The purge of the senior command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position with successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.

June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The offensive was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was of a propaganda nature and was intended to raise the prestige of new government. At first, the Russians enjoyed success, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). It broke through the front and advanced 50 km, occupying the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the troops of the Southwestern Front could not achieve more. Their pressure quickly wilted under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. At the beginning of July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the Southwestern Front were defeated and were thrown back significantly east of their original lines, to the state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Maresti, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jacobstadt completely failed. The total loss of Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. Political events that had a disintegrating effect on the troops played a significant role in their failure. “These were no longer the old Russians,” German General Ludendorff recalled about those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.

Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans, on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Goutier) to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, German troops went on the offensive. By noon they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived specially on the occasion of this celebration. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand were prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat near Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.

Moonsund operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy Russian naval forces there. To this end, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. To implement it, they allocated a Marine detachment special purpose, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing of troops on the Moonsund Islands, which blocked the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Katen (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom, which fought heroically. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an organized manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron’s path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and worthily completed their participation in the First World War.

Brest-Litovsk Truce (1917). Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who advocated an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, a truce was concluded between the Bolshevik government and German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of newly independent Finland and Ukraine, as well as from the districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk threw it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). In addition, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, establish customs duties favorable to Germany, and also pay a significant indemnity to the German side (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks took upon themselves historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty only recorded the situation in which the country found itself, driven to collapse by war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. First world number those killed in the Russian army amounted to 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.

Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

A prolific blogger, one of those who again calls Russia to the axe, in one of his publications drew a parallel between the present day and the events of a hundred years ago - the beginning of the First World War:

“Russia is creeping into a war that threatens to develop into a world war, as if by touch, without a clear understanding of what it is doing and why. This was already the case 101 years ago. Then there was no bloody brother Assad yet, but there were some other brothers, whose sacred right to blow up the Austrian archdukes had to be protected at all costs, even at the cost of the destruction of the empire.”

So, according to the conclusion of the sarcastic author, Russia entered the war defending the right of the Serbs to kill the heirs of the Austro-Hungarian throne, in other words, in the diplomatic correspondence that preceded the war, the Russian side defended the right of fraternal Serbia to terrorize against neighboring state. With all the allowance for the author's superficial buffoonery, it is obvious that he instills in the reader a version of events, according to which it is Russia that is responsible for the outbreak of the war. Since the ruler of Russia at that time was Emperor Nicholas II, glorified as a saint, this accusation is brought against him.

With all the invulnerability of the Passion-Bearer Tsar, whose memory was attacked by incomparably more knowledgeable in history and more witty accusers, it seems necessary this time to call a spade a spade: slander against Russia and its Tsar - slander. And to remind you of the actual course of pre-war events: the fact is that in popular judgments about the causes of the First World War, it is equally or not to blame equal share rests with all the great powers that have joined it, and among them also with Russia. And this is an erroneous assessment.

What actually happened in those terrible June and July days that preceded the great war? In the quoted tirade, only an indirect mention of the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia, committed by an Austrian subject of Serbian nationality Gavrilo Princip on June 15 (28) in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina treacherously annexed by Austria-Hungary, corresponds to reality. The killer and his accomplice Čabrinović were captured without delay. Princip was prompted to take this step by various motives, probably also by Serbian patriotism. He, indeed, did not consider the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, completed in 1909, as legal, inhabited by people of Orthodox, Catholic and Islamic faiths who spoke the same Serbo-Croatian language. Emperor Nicholas II, having received news of the murder, immediately expressed condolences to the elderly Emperor of Austria-Hungary, Franz Joseph. To the Austrian Ambassador In St. Petersburg, Count Chernin was visited by grand dukes, ministers and other prominent dignitaries.

Meanwhile, Austrian newspapers threatened Serbia with war, a wave of pogroms of shops owned by Serbs swept through the cities of Austria-Hungary, and the authorities did not take measures to stop them. There were mass arrests of Serbs in Bosnia. These acts of outrage and lawlessness aroused the indignation of the Russian public and the concern of the government. Negotiations were held through diplomatic channels, in which the Russian side made efforts to prevent an Austria-Hungary attack on Serbia. On June 28, he died in the office of the Austrian envoy in Belgrade. Russian ambassador A.A. Hartwig: his heart could not withstand the stress of the difficult negotiations that he conducted to prevent a big war.

The Austrian authorities could, of course, suspect that Serbian agents were involved in the terrorist attack, but they did not have any evidence of this involvement, and subsequently it became clear that Gavril Princip did not maintain contacts with representatives of the Serbian state and that therefore the Serbian government did not have the slightest relation to the murder of the Archduke and his wife. Nevertheless, the reaction of the Austrian government to the terrorist attack was an ultimatum presented to Belgrade. Its text was approved at a meeting of the Council of Ministers of Austria-Hungary on July 6 (19), but since the President of Russia's allied France, R. Poincaré, was visiting St. Petersburg these days, its presentation was postponed: in Vienna they did not want to react to this ultimatum, Russia and France immediately agreed on coordinated actions. The ultimatum was presented by the Austro-Hungarian envoy Gisl in Belgrade on July 10 (23), an hour after R. Poincaré left St. Petersburg.

“2) immediately close the society called “Narodna Odbrana”, confiscate all means of propaganda of this society and take the same measures against other societies and institutions in Serbia engaged in propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy...

3) immediately exclude from the programs existing in Serbia educational institutions, both in relation to the personnel of the students and in relation to the methods of teaching, everything that serves or could serve to spread propaganda against Austria-Hungary;

4) remove from military and administrative service in general all officers and officials guilty in relation to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, whose names the Austro-Hungarian government reserves the right to inform the Serbian government, along with an indication of the acts they committed;

5) allow the cooperation of Austro-Hungarian bodies in Serbia in the suppression of the revolutionary movement directed against the territorial integrity of the monarchy (meaning the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. - Prot. V.Ts.);

6) conduct a judicial investigation against the participants in the June 15 conspiracy located on Serbian territory, and persons sent by the Austro-Hungarian government will take part in the searches caused by this investigation;

9) give the Austro-Hungarian government an explanation regarding the completely unjustifiable statements of the highest Serbian officials, both in Serbia and abroad, who, despite their official position, allowed themselves, after the assassination attempt on June 15, to speak in an interview in a hostile manner attitude towards the Austro-Hungarian monarchy..."

Serbian Envoy to Russia Spojlakovic, having met with Russian Foreign Minister S.D. Sazonov, said that from the very beginning of the conflict, “the Belgrade authorities said that they were ready to punish those individuals who participated in the conspiracy. Similar questions are resolved through mutual negotiations between the governments concerned, and in this case there can be no misunderstandings... The question of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the subject of negotiations between the interested European cabinets, and therefore... the whole question of the failure to fulfill the obligations assumed by Serbia must be considered by the same European governments, which will establish how fair the accusation brought by Austria against Serbia is. In fact, it is impossible for Austria to be the accuser and the judge!”

The conflict, fraught with war, caused an immediate reaction in European capitals. The Parisian newspaper Journal des Débats, expressing the position of the French government, wrote then:

“The attempt being prepared against Serbia is unacceptable. Serbia must agree to all demands compatible with its independence, carry out an investigation and identify those responsible, but if more is demanded of it, then it has the right to refuse, and if force is used against it, then Serbia will not in vain appeal to the public opinion of Europe and support of the great powers who have set themselves the task of maintaining balance.”

But the Austrian ultimatum caused a surge of militant enthusiasm in Germany. The newspaper Berliner Lokal Anzeiger commented on it as follows:

“The note was dictated with anger... the old emperor’s patience was exhausted. Of course, the note will give the impression of a slap in the face in Belgrade, but Serbia will accept the humiliating demands, or the Austrian guns, which have been loaded so long ago and so often, will fire themselves. Belgrade's attempts to turn to St. Petersburg for help will be in vain. The German people will breathe a sigh of relief. He welcomes the determination of the Viennese ally and will prove his loyalty in the coming days."

The Russian government’s reaction to the Austrian ultimatum was reported in its July 12 issue by Russian Invalid:

“The government is very concerned about the current events and the sending of an ultimatum to Serbia. The government is vigilantly monitoring the development of the Austro-Serbian conflict, to which Russia cannot remain indifferent.”

On July 13, Serbia responded to the ultimatum in an extremely compromise manner: most of the Austrian demands were accepted, but Serbia refused to allow the intervention of the Austro-Hungarian authorities in judicial investigations on Serbian territory, which was incompatible with the sovereignty of the Serbian state. The peaceful nature of the Serbian government impressed even the warlike German Emperor Wilhelm II, who found the Serbian response satisfactory.

Emperor Nicholas II: “As long as there is the slightest hope of avoiding bloodshed, all our efforts must be directed towards this goal”

But the Austrian authorities, as they say, have their teeth in their hands. They rejected this answer and broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia on the same day it was given. War became inevitable without loss of face by Serbia, Austria-Hungary or Russia. Two days earlier, on July 11, the Royal Regent of Serbia, Alexander, telegraphed Emperor Nicholas II: “We cannot defend ourselves. Therefore, we beg Your Majesty to help us as soon as possible.” Holy Emperor Nicholas II responded to this telegram three days later:

“As long as there is the slightest hope of avoiding bloodshed, all our efforts must be directed towards this goal. If, contrary to our sincere desires, we do not succeed in this, Your Highness can be confident that in no case will Russia remain indifferent to the fate of Serbia.”

On July 15, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. In the dual monarchy, general mobilization began. At the same time, troops were pulled up to the borders not only with Serbia, but also with Russia.

The Russian government responded by deciding to mobilize in four military districts adjacent to the Austrian border, but Chief of the General Staff N.N. Yanushkevich advocated the need for general mobilization because there was no hope that Germany would not enter the war on the side of its closest ally Austria-Hungary in the event of a clash with Russia, and carrying out a partial mobilization could complicate the implementation of plans for general mobilization, which were, as it were, usually done, developed in detail by the General Staff in advance: due to a violation of the prepared plans, logistical problems could arise. The Emperor did not immediately decide on the proposal of the General Staff, but after a meeting with military advisers on July 17, he agreed to replace the partial mobilization with a general one.

Realizing the scale of the impending disaster, Nicholas II tried to prevent it, hoping for the prudence of the German Emperor Wilhelm II, close relative his and his wife's. On the same day, he telegraphed his cousin, who demanded that the Russian government cancel the mobilization:

“It is technically impossible to stop our military preparations, which have become inevitable due to the mobilization of Austria. We are far from wanting war. While negotiations with Austria on the Serbian issue continue, my troops will not take any military action. I solemnly give you my word on this.”

There was no peace-loving response from Germany. On the night of July 18-19, German Ambassador Pourtales in St. Petersburg paid a visit to Foreign Minister S.D. Sazonov demanding that the mobilization be immediately cancelled, otherwise threatening war. The German authorities spoke to Russia in the language of ultimatums, which was, of course, unacceptable for a sovereign and great power. The ambassador was refused to fulfill this ultimatum, but Sazonov assured him that Russia would not begin military action against Austria while its negotiations with Serbia continued.

On July 19 (August 1), 1914, at 7:10 a.m., the German ambassador handed over the official act of declaring war on Russia

On July 19 (August 1), 1914, at 7:10 a.m., Pourtales handed over to Sazonov an official act of declaration of war. Thus began the great war, and with it, according to the poet, began “not a calendar, a real twentieth century.” On July 20, in St. Petersburg, which, under the influence of patriotic enthusiasm, was to experience its first rename - to Petrograd, crowds of people filled Palace Square, and when Nicholas II stepped onto the balcony of the Winter Palace, there were shouts of “hurray” and the singing of the anthem “God Save the Tsar!”; the people fell to their knees. It seemed that the revolutionary turmoil experienced at the beginning of the century had finally become a thing of the past. Receiving the highest ranks of the army and navy in the palace, the emperor declared: “I here solemnly declare that I will not make peace until the last enemy warrior leaves our land.” On the same day, the Highest Manifesto was issued, at the end of which it was said:

“Now we no longer have to stand up only for our unjustly offended kindred country, but to protect the honor, dignity, integrity of Russia and its position among the great powers.”

As can be seen from the cited documents, Russia, in the person of its monarch, showed on the eve of the war the utmost peacefulness, readiness to compromise, but without loss of face and honor, without betrayal of the same faith and blood of Serbia, which at one time was given guarantees for the protection of its independence. This is the moral side and assessment of what happened. But what is the situation in political-pragmatic terms, how were these events seen based on the interests of the Russian state? Approximation great war Moreover, its inevitability was experienced in different countries of Europe and in its different strata: on the political Olympus - by ministers, diplomats and generals, by business, opposition parties and the revolutionary underground, by politically engaged intelligentsia and apolitical circles. These sentiments were reflected in newspaper publications in the pre-war years and months. Irreconcilable contradictions between Germany and France led to war, which did not accept the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and subordinated its foreign and defense policy to a higher goal - revenge. Austria-Hungary continued its expansion in the Balkans, not being satisfied with the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, clearly seeking to subjugate Orthodox peoples Balkans, over which the Ottoman Empire was losing power step by step. Such a policy of the Habsburg Empire encountered resistance from Orthodox Russia, for which this expansion was unacceptable. Rivalry grew between Germany and Great Britain over overseas colonies, which the German Empire, despite its industrial and military power, was deprived. And this is just the tip of the iceberg of contradictions between the great European powers.

In this situation, it was vitally important for Russia to be part of a stronger coalition in case of war. And these calculations of the Russian government came true. Having started the war against Russia, the German authorities had no doubt that France, associated with Russia union treaty and thirsting for revenge for the shameful loss of 1871, will not stand aside, therefore, for military-strategic reasons, without waiting for the reaction of a potential enemy, on July 21 Germany declared war on France. Austria-Hungary, whose aggressive actions against Serbia had set Europe on fire, was slow to declare war on Russia. Behind this pause was a diplomatic ploy: Italy, which was part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, conditioned the fulfillment of its allied obligations on the defensive goals of the war, and the fact that it was not Russia that declared war on Germany, but Germany on Russia and then France, liberated Italy from the obligation to participate in it on the side of its allies. Therefore, Austria paused, waiting for a Russian attack, but for military reasons it was still forced to be the first to declare war on Russia on July 24. Italy then decided on its neutrality, and later, in 1915, entered the war on the side of the Entente. The fact is that Italy hesitated in choosing allies, since it had territorial claims both to France because of Nice, and to Austria-Hungary because of Trieste and South Tyrol, so that, having left the Triple Alliance, it could choose allies based on from the chances of victory of one side or the other.

Great Britain was bound to France by a treaty of alliance - the "Accord of the Heart", or the Entente, but since it had serious contradictions with Russia in central Asia and the Far East, the British government hesitated to enter the war. When, however, the German army, due to the fact that on the French side the border was powerfully fortified in terms of engineering and the enemy’s most combat-ready forces were concentrated there, decided to attack Paris through the territory of neutral Belgium, London, in an ultimatum tone, demanded that Germany respect the neutrality of this country and withdraw their troops from it. Germany ignored the British demand, despite the fact that the government's strategic calculations and General Staff based on the premise of British neutrality. On the night of July 22–23, Great Britain declared war on Germany. On August 11, Britain's ally Japan joined the Entente. Romania, which remained neutral at the beginning of the war, despite the fact that its king Charles I, originally from the Hohenzollern dynasty, tried in vain to persuade the government to participate in the war on the side of Germany and Austria, later entered the war also on the side of the Entente. Germany and Austria, however, managed to attract the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria as allies. In 1917, when the outcome of the world war was finally determined, the United States entered it.

Thus, a significant superiority of forces in terms of the number of troops and population, as well as economic scale, was on the side of the Entente. The combat training and courage of the German soldiers, the high-class professionalism of the German generals and officers could not compensate for this colossal superiority of the enemy. The nightmare of a war on two fronts, which was once feared wise politician Otto von Bismarck and against which he warned Germany became a reality that doomed her to defeat. So, entering the war, Russia acted thoughtfully, with thorough pragmatic calculations.

It was Russia's opponents who started the war who were defeated - not Russia

And yet, for Russia, this war ended in a catastrophe of no less magnitude than for Germany. In newspaper publications you can often find the statement that Russia was defeated in this war: this, of course, is an absurd judgment - if one side is defeated, the other becomes the winner. The opponents of Russia who started the war were defeated. The victory over them was achieved mainly by the sacrificial blood of Russian soldiers, who crushed a significant part of the manpower of Germany and Austria-Hungary. True, when the victory pie was divided at the peace conference in Versailles in 1919, Russia did not participate in this division.

The reason for the absence of its delegation in Versailles was not only the injustice of its former allies: the reason for Russia’s removal from participation in the conference was its withdrawal from the war through the conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk Peace on the eve of the defeat of Germany and Austria. It is known that the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was preceded by a revolutionary catastrophe: the forced abdication of the Holy Emperor Nicholas II from the throne - due to the intrigues of the Grand Dukes - members of the Imperial House; due to direct betrayal of senior military leaders; a conspiracy of political oppositionists who turned out to be outright revolutionaries in the fateful days of February 1917. The passion-bearing tsar abdicated in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, who did not fulfill his will. An insignificant group of deputies of the by that time dissolved State Duma, having gathered in the Tauride Palace, formed the Provisional Government, agreeing on its composition with the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, hastily put together in the same palace, thereby laying the foundation for a new Russian turmoil, on the crest of which less years later, power in Petrograd passed to the party, whose leader, at the very beginning of the great war, openly advocated the defeat of his country in it, with the fully justified hope that for Russia in this case the war of peoples would turn into a civil war. Moreover, in 1918, when the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, even if the Council of People's Commissars, which had removed the Provisional Government, which was just as self-appointed as itself, had been ready to continue the war, which almost the majority of the Bolshevik leaders were inclined to do at that time, it was deprived There was such a possibility: the disintegration of the active army, which began after the overthrow of the Tsar, came to its natural end within a year - mass desertion and the collapse of the front.

The fall of the Russian Empire was at one time predicted both prophetically by St. Seraphim of Sarov and historiosophically by K.N. Leontyev, and even poetically - in a youthful, almost children's poem by M.Yu. Lermontov:

“The year will come, Russia’s black year,
When the kings crown falls;
The mob will forget their former love for them,
And the food of many will be death and blood.”

At the level of political forecasts, the course of events, as they unfolded after Russia entered the war, was foreseen almost in detail by an experienced statesman - former Minister of Internal Affairs P.N. Durnovo, opponent of what was started at Alexandra III rapprochement between Russia and Republican France, who advocated a return to Germanophile orientation Russian diplomacy previous reigns. In the “Note” he submitted to the Sovereign in February 1914, Durnovo warned that in the war with Germany Russia would play “the role of a battering ram, piercing the very thickness of the German defense,” and that “in case of failure ... social revolution, in its most extreme manifestations, it is inevitable in our country... Socialist slogans are the only ones that can raise and group broad sections of the population, first a black redistribution, and then a general division of all values ​​and property. The defeated army, which had also lost its most reliable personnel during the war, and was largely overwhelmed by the spontaneous common peasant desire for land, would turn out to be too demoralized to serve as a bulwark of law and order. Legislative institutions and intellectual opposition parties, deprived of real authority in the eyes of the people, will be unable to restrain the diverging popular waves that they themselves raised, and Russia will be plunged into hopeless anarchy, the outcome of which cannot even be predicted.”

In July 1914, the holy Emperor Nicholas II acted according to his conscience, not betraying Serbia to be torn to pieces

What is called: like looking into the water. Emperor Nicholas II realized the danger of war with Germany. In any case, he did not want Russia to be involved in it, but the ultimatum presented by the Austrian government to Serbia of the same faith, and then by Germany to Russia itself, left him no choice: it is not possible for a mortal man to foresee all the consequences of his actions, but a Christian is called upon in all circumstances act according to your Christian conscience. In July 1914, the holy Emperor Nicholas II acted according to his conscience, not betraying Serbia to be torn to pieces.

But in words folk wisdom, man proposes, but God disposes. God's providence led Russia along the path prepared for it. At one time, the great statesman K.P. Pobedonostsev said significant words: “Russia needs to be frozen so that it does not go rotten.” He, of course, did not mean at all the frost that she actually had to endure, but Russia still went through such a test.

As for the outcome of the world war for Russia, as one of the winners in it, Marshal of France F. Foch, foresaw, the Treaty of Versailles turned out to be not a real peace, but only an armistice agreement, since it did not resolve the contradictions that plunged the world into war. After 20 years of respite, the war resumed with almost the same participants on one side and the other as in the first act of the world-historical drama, and it ended in 1945 for Russia and its allies with a triumphant victory, but that is a completely different story.

The parallel between the events of a hundred years ago and the present is not drawn, because now there are no madmen who would risk waging a world war, having our country as their enemy in it, but in one respect the roll call of eras is obvious: as in 1914, Russia again took control protection of a people who have become victims of aggression, a people, a large part of which are our co-religionists - Syrian Orthodox Christians, who, like other religious minorities of this country, without Russian participation in this conflict were threatened with destruction, expulsion or, at least, humiliating lack of rights .