1. Introduction ….................. ............................ .. .............................. ................. ..3
2. Russian language reforms
2.1 Reform of Peter I.................................................... ............... .........................3
2.2 Reform of M.V. Lomonosov............................................... ... ......................4
2.3 Reform of 1918.................................. .................... .......... .........................5
3. Conclusion......................... ............................... ..................................... ................ .8
1. Introduction
Russian language is official language Russia, and this is more than a language of interethnic communication. This is our only instrument of communication, which has always been a guarantor of mutual understanding and friendship of all peoples of Russia, and the unity of the state and society. But is it possible to reform a language that develops according to its own inherent laws? Usually language reforms languages are exposed to the so-called. traditional spelling system, i.e. those in which the spelling system is built on the use of traditional spelling of words, instead of the natural rule “I write as I hear” (according to the latter, phonetic spelling systems are formed, which are characteristic of new languages, writing for which was formed not so long ago compared to traditional languages, the history of writing of which can go back thousands of years).
What is characteristic is that the Russian language has been reformed several times throughout history, while the reforms themselves always fell on critical periods in the life of the Russian people. For example, the last most serious reform, which abolished the so-called. “pre-revolutionary spelling” was produced by the Bolsheviks after 1917. This state of affairs indicates that language reform carries within itself not so much an attempt to facilitate learning and use, but rather something else that is not declared by the reformers.
2.Reforms of the Russian language
Reforms of the Russian language are official changes made in the language and enshrined in special documents.
Three reforms were carried out in the Russian language:
- reform of Peter I;
reform of Mikhail Lomonosov;
reform of 1918 (last).
Proposals to improve Russian spelling are by no means a new phenomenon. Peter I was a decisive reformer of Russian writing. On January 29 (February 8), 1710, Peter’s reform ended in Russia Cyrillic alphabet, where Peter I personally changed and approved new alphabet and the font, supposedly to simplify the Russian language, by removing five letters and changing the style of several more. The essence of Peter’s reform was to simplify the composition of the Russian alphabet by excluding from it such redundant letters as “psi”, “xi”, “omega”, “Izhitsa” and others. Also, the letterforms were rounded and simplified; the reformed font was called the civil font. It establishes uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) letters for the first time.
2.2 Reform M.V. Lomonosov
The following reforms of the Russian literary language and the system of construction of the 18th century were made by Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov. He was the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language. He also owns the doctrine of three styles, the essence of which is that the “dilapidated” system of church-book speech hinders the development of literature. Lomonosov calls for the development of a living, understandable, figurative language, and for this you need to learn from folk speech and introduce its healthy elements into literary works. With this call, the great scientist took a new major step towards the nationalization of the Russian literary language.Comprehensive knowledge native language, extensive information in exact sciences, excellent familiarity with Latin, Greek and Western European languages, literary talent and natural genius allowed Lomonosov to lay correct reasons Russian technical and scientific terminology. His recommendations in this area are still relevant today great importance: first of all, foreign words and terms must be translated into Russian; leave words untranslated only when it is impossible to find an equivalent Russian word or when a foreign word has already become widespread, and in this case give foreign word form closest to the Russian language.A significant contribution to the Russian alphabet was made by N.M. Karamzin, who introduced the letter ё (instead of the combination of letters io), publishing in 1797 a collection of poems “Aonids” with its use. However, it has not yet been determined how obligatory the use of this letter is, and its position has not become stable.
Throughout the 19th century, discussions about Russian writing continued. Some authors published their works with one or another spelling innovation: with sequential spellings such as poshol, prelschon (this is how I.I. Lazhechnikov published one of his novels), noch, zazhech, and without ъ at the end of words, quite a few books were published .
Among other things, monstrous inconsistency reigned in Russian spelling of the 19th century. Y.K. tried to correct this partly. Grot in his works “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (1873, 1876 and 1885) and “ Russian spelling" (1885).
In 1901, on the initiative of teachers, the Moscow Pedagogical Society came up with a very radical spelling reform project.
In 1904, a commission was formed at the Academy of Sciences. Formally, its head was Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich. The linguists who composed the color worked in it national science: F.F. Fortunatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A.A. Shakhmatov and others. In the same year, she published “Preliminary Reports”, and in 1912 (the matter was somewhat delayed due to turbulent political events) - “Resolutions”, which contained a slightly softer draft reform.
The war slowed down the implementation of the reform, but in 1917 the Provisional Government began to implement it, and the Bolsheviks completed its implementation (including with the help of revolutionary sailors who removed the canceled letters from printing houses). By decree signed by the Soviet People's Commissar for education A.V. Lunacharsky, published on December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918), “all government and state publications” were ordered from January 1, 1918 “to be printed according to the new spelling.”
2.3 Spelling reform of 1917-1918
The spelling reform of 1917-1918 consisted of changing a number of Russian spelling rules, which most noticeably manifested itself in the form of the exclusion of several letters from the Russian alphabet.
In accordance with the reform:
- Were letters excluded from the alphabet? (yat), ? (fita), І (“and decimal”); instead of them, E, F, I should be used, respectively;
excluded solid sign(Ъ) at the end of words and parts difficult words, but was preserved as separator(rise, adjutant);
the rule for writing prefixes in s/s changed: now all of them (except s- proper) ended in s before any voiceless consonant and in s before voiced consonants and before vowels (break, break apart, part > break, burst, but part);
in genitive and accusative cases adjectives and participles ending -ago, -yago were replaced by -ogo, -ego (for example, new > new, best > best, early > early), in the nominative and accusative cases plural feminine and neuter gender -yya, -iya - on -yy, -y (new (books, publications) > new);
word forms of the feminine plural he?, one?, one?хъ, one?мъ, one?мъ were replaced by they, one, one, one, one;
genitive word form singular her (neya) - on her (her).
In the documents of the spelling reform of 1917-1918. nothing was said about the fate of the letter, which was rare and out of practical use even before 1917? (Izhitsy); in practice, after the reform, it also completely disappeared from the alphabet.
The reform reduced the number of spelling rules that had no support in pronunciation, for example, the difference in gender in the plural or the need to memorize a long list of words spelled with “yat” (and there were disputes among linguists regarding the composition of this list, and various spelling guidelines in places contradicted and each other).
The reform led to some savings in writing and typography, eliminating Ъ at the end of words (according to L.V. Uspensky’s estimates, the text in the new orthography becomes approximately 1/30 shorter).
The reform eliminated pairs of completely homophonic graphemes (yat and E, fita and F, I and I) from the Russian alphabet, bringing the alphabet closer to the real phonological system of the Russian language.
Despite the fact that the reform was developed long before the revolution without any political goals by professional linguists (moreover, among its developers was a member of the far-right Union of the Russian People, academician Aleksey Ivanovich Sobolevsky, who proposed, in particular, to exclude yat and endings -yya /-ія), the first steps towards it practical implementation occurred after the revolution, but it was actually adopted and implemented by the Bolsheviks. This determined a sharply critical attitude towards it on the part of political opponents of Bolshevism (this attitude was aphoristically expressed by I. A. Bunin: “By order of Archangel Michael himself, I will never accept the Bolshevik spelling. If only for one reason that I will never human hand did not write anything similar to what is now written according to this spelling"). It was not used in most publications published in white-controlled territories, and then in emigration. The majority of Russian publications abroad switched to the new spelling only in the 1940s - 1950s, although some are still published in the old way.
In 1956, a set of “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” and the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” based on it were published. Then many spellings were streamlined and some were changed. These rules still constitute the Russian system modern spelling. They form the basis of all currently published dictionaries and reference books on spelling and punctuation and are the basis of content school programs In Russian. However, most of the famous Grotto unresolved issues Russian spelling" remained so.
By 1964, the Spelling Commission, headed by V.V. Vinogradov (the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences now bears his name), and in soul - the wonderful linguist M.V. Panov, proposed her project. Scientists tried to make Russian spelling as simple and logical as possible. Here are some excerpts from the provisions of their work:
- Leave one separating sign: entrance, volume, etc.
- After ts always write i: tsigan, compasses, cucumbers, paleface, sestritsin, etc.
- After w, ch, w, sch, c write under the stress o, without stress - e: yellow, acorn, seam, flow, surrounded, burn, but turn yellow, acorn, cheek, turn black, cry, etc. After f, w, h, sch do not write b: daughter, mouse, face, cut, bake, read, etc.
- Cancel the alternation in the roots: -zar-//-zor, -rast-//-growth, -gar-//-hors, -plav-//-pilaf-, etc.
Cancel double consonants in foreign words.
Simplify the writing n - nn in participles. In prefixed participles it is written nn (wounded, written, overloaded), in non-prefixed participles - n (wounded in the hand, oil paintings, car loaded with bricks).
Combinations with pol- (half) followed by the genitive case of a noun or ordinal number should always be written with a hyphen.
Write all particles separately.
Remove exceptions: 1) write a jury, a brochure, a parachute; 2) write bunny, little bunny, little bunny, 3) write a) worthy, b) bunny, bunny; 4) write wooden, tin, glass.
3. Conclusion
Reform of the Russian language? - an event to codify and approve the changed rules of the Russian language, carried out with the aim of facilitating the learning and (or) use of the language by its native speakers. Usually language reforms (of any kind) are carried out when conversational norms deviate too far from spelling norms. Usually language reforms (any kind) are carried out when conversational norms deviate too far from spelling norms. On the other hand, no one defines the criteria for divergence, therefore, in the opinion of an outside observer, reforms are carried out according to the principle “it’s inconvenient for us to use, therefore we will reform.”
Usually the so-called languages are subject to language reforms. traditional spelling system, i.e. those in which the spelling system is built on the use of traditional spelling of words, instead of the natural rule “I write as I hear” (according to the latter, phonetic spelling systems are formed, which are characteristic of new languages, writing for which was formed not so long ago in comparison with traditional languages, the history of writing of which can go back thousands of years).
History report. History of the Russian language. Major reforms.
The Russian language is the state language of Russia, and it is more than a language of interethnic communication. This is our only instrument of communication, which has always been a guarantor of mutual understanding and friendship of all peoples of Russia, and the unity of the state and society.
The history of the Russian language goes back thousands of years Proto-Slavic language, the date of formation of which no one can accurately indicate. Presumably in the 3rd millennium BC. e.* in the Indo-European language family, the Proto-Slavic dialect emerged, in the 2nd millennium BC. e. transformed into the Proto-Slavic language. In the VI-VII centuries. n. e. it split into three groups: eastern, western and southern. According to the Slavic-Aryan calendar, abolished by Peter I in 1699 AD*, or in Summer 7208 AD*, and found artifacts that are more than 6000 years old ( Etruscan inscriptions in Italy, painting of household utensils, etc.) the date of formation of the Proto-Slavic language goes far into the past - tens of thousands of years.
To begin with, let us recall the famous ancient monuments of ancient Russian writing that have survived and survived to this day, like direct evidence the existence of the Old Russian language - the parent of the modern Russian language. Famous monuments Old Russian writing is the “Russian Law” and the “Russian Charter”, mentioned in treaties with the Greeks. At the same time, in later texts dedicated to Yaroslav’s approval of the “Russian Truth”, it is reported that the prince gave the Novgorodians “Truth and Rules”. In the “Tale of Bygone Years,” one of the oldest East Slavic chronicles written in Cyrillic, there is a message according to which, during the siege of Chersonesos by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, one of the inhabitants of this city named Anastasy shot an arrow into Vladimir’s camp with the inscription: “The treasures are behind you from east, from that the water is flowing through the pipe." There are indications of the existence of writing among the Slavs, in particular in Rus', and in the treaties of Russian princes with Byzantium, which have come down to us in lists XIV - XV centuries AD. Two of them were concluded on behalf of Prince Oleg in 907 and 911 AD*, one on behalf of Prince Igor in 944 AD. In 907 AD. the first treaty was concluded with Byzantium, as evidenced by the treaty document, which has not reached us, but has been preserved in the “Tale of Bygone Years” in a retelling.
We will also present artifacts of Slavic writing such as fragments from the “Life” of Cyril, excerpts from Procopius of Caesarea, from Constantine Porphyrogenitus, from Al-Masudi, from Thietmar of Merseburg, from Ahmed ibn Fadlan, from the epic about Sadko - very impressive material found by P. A. Lavrov, S. Gedeonov, A.Ya. Garkavi, M. Sasyulevich, A.V. Anichkov and other researchers. We will also present tales and chronicles, the originals of which are not readable either in Cyrillic or modern Russian, but only in initial letters, such as The Tale of Igor’s Campaign, Veles’s Book, Yarilin’s Book, White Krynnitsa and many other manuscripts mentioned in A.I. Sulakadzev’s catalogs , an archaeographer of the 19th century AD. It is worth mentioning the “Boyan Hymn”, which was in the original a couple of hundred years ago, now preserved in the archives of the Russian National Library only as a handwritten copy early XIX century AD..
In addition to documentary sources, the existence of writing among the Slavs in the pre-Cyril period is also confirmed by linguistic data. After all, the words “write”, “read”, “letter”, “book” are common to Slavic languages. And of course, inscriptions on weapons and household utensils, found in hundreds of different regions Rus', and not only. Let us summarize the presence of the Old Russian language and writing among the Rus before IX century AD in the words of M.L. Seryakova: “ So, based on these, as well as on the facts presented in subsequent chapters, we can say with absolute confidence that there was writing in Rus' in the pre-Christian era. This is indisputable and only a biased person would deny this fact» .
What Rus' in Vedic times before IX century AD was united and had a high cultural level, as evidenced by the indisputable existence of the great, unified Old Russian language, which has a more developed phonetics and grammatical structure than the modern Russian language. Thousands of birch bark documents found during excavations of the cultural layer of Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Torzhok, Moscow, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, Zvenigorod Galitsky (near Lvov) dating XI - XV centuries have proven this. And as Tyunyaev A.A. writes. about Novgorod charters XI century AD: “Between the Russian writing of birch bark letters XI century and Church Slavonic texts of the same period cannot be equated, since these two writing systems belong to different ethnic groups people: the writing of birch bark letters was formed by the Russian people, and Church Slavonic - Slavic peoples Byzantine territories" , which means that the peasants did not know the Church Slavonic “Cyrillic alphabet” even in XI - XII centuries, but they wrote Old Russian language on birch bark, as the most accessible and cheapest material in this region.
Fig.1. Old Slovenian initial letter (left) and Birch bark letters and writing (right).
Direct proof high culture Russ are evidenced by the “Ancient Slovenian initial letter” (Fig. 1.) - as the basis of the Russian language. “Ancient Slovenian initial letter” is the most priceless and main artifact, which did not disappear anywhere and was printed in Russia until XX century AD, and then kept in museums and libraries. After reading it and understanding the figurative meaning encrypted in it, any person who knows the modern Russian language will understand and admire the wisdom of our ancestors. Russian is a figurative language. Here are some examples of transcripts. To facilitate understanding of the semantic image, additional verbal connectives will be introduced into the text that are not directly related to the image itself:
Fig.2. Encrypted instructions in the Old Slovenian initial letter.
First line: A With B oga IN eats G lagolya D bro, what E there is life (existence).
Second column: B ogi Z ate (many times) L to people T they said: go and return to your origins (roots, foundations)
Fourth column: G you lag AND initial N ashe for the development of the Soul
The alphabet is read entirely in rows and columns, along diagonals to the right and in the opposite direction, completely from Ac to Izhe. The student received such instructions while studying the alphabet, forming harmonious development, imaginative thinking and correct worldview.
Here are a few figurative meanings letters:
1. Az (a): God who lives and creates on Earth; Start; origin; source; one; single; the only thing; Human; I.
2. Gods (b): many Gods; Divine; a bunch of; superior (predominant); more.
3. Lead (in): I know wisdom on Earth and Heaven; a multitude gathered together; certainty; direction; connecting link between two systems (interconnection); fullness; wisdom; knowledge.
4. Verbs (g): transfer of wisdom; movement; expiration; flow; direction.
5. D - Good (d): development; wealth; accumulation; multiplication; acquisition; a creature that is above something; predominance; beyond what is; completeness; harmony; elevation; lifting; prosperity; integrity.
6. E - Yes: five elements of life; earthly (planetary) form of life-being; being in a manifested state. And so on …
The Ancient Slavic Initial Letter had 49 Initial Letters. In 863 AD. To translate the Bible into Russian, Cyril and Methodius created the “Cyrillic alphabet” - Church Slavonic language. According to one version, having remade the ancient Slavic initial letter, they removed 5 letters and changed the meaning of several more. According to another version, Cyril wrote his alphabet from Greek, but then they are comparable, and we will see that more than fifteen letters were not in Greek, and the differences with the Old Slovenian initial letter are minimal (Fig. 3, Fig. 4).
Fig.3. Comparison of the Cyrillic alphabet with the Greek letter (left) and comparison of the Cyrillic alphabet with the initial letter (right).
January 29 (February 8), 1710 AD (7218 from s.m.z.h.) Peter’s reform of the Cyrillic alphabet was completed in Russia. Peter I personally changed and approved the new alphabet and civil font, supposedly to simplify the Russian language, removing five letters and changing the style of several more. Peter I considered five letters redundant "psi", "xi", "omega", "yus small", “yus big”, and changed the style of the letters “fert”, “earth”, “izhe” (Fig. 4.). Also, the letterforms were rounded and simplified, the reformed font was called “Civil font”. It establishes uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) letters for the first time.
Fig.4. Reprints of the first civil font of Peter I, 1709. (left) and Decree No. 804 “On the introduction of a new spelling” of 1918. (on right).
After the revolution, December 23, 1917 A.V. Lunacharsky carried out a reform of the Russian language, according to which our language lost three and recognized new letter“Yo”, unofficially introduced back in 1797 by N.M. Karamzin. The alphabet has lost its lettersѢ (yat), Ѳ (fita), I (and decimal), instead of them E, F, I were introduced respectively. And after the release of Decree No. 804 (Fig. 4.) printed edition stopped using the letter too V (Izhitsa), thereby excluding it from the Russian language. Lunacharsky also removed semantic basis of our language - images, leaving only phonemes, i.e. the language has become unimaginative - ugly. After this reform, the Russian alphabet turned into phonetic alphabet, consisting of 33 letters and phonemes.
The last reform was carried out in 1991-1998, which did not greatly affect grammar, but rather the protection of the Russian language - since 1991, the Russian language has become defenseless. Adopted October 25, 1991 The Supreme Council RSFSR No. 1808/1-I "Declaration on the languages of the peoples of Russia" recognized the "linguistic sovereignty of every people and individual", proclaimed "the right of every person to freely choose the language of instruction, education and intellectual creativity, the right of every person to freely choose the language of communication" and etc. What kind of state is it? different peoples and any person will choose their own language of communication? Yes, and peoples may cease to understand each other, and for each people in the state, knowledge of a single language of communication is the primary necessity, otherwise it is no longer united. Intelligent research into the legal intricacies of existing laws was carried out by Andrei Mitin, director of the USSR. Let's not go into details passed laws In the 90s, the problem of the defenselessness of the Russian language existed.
The last attempt at a large-scale reform of Russian grammar failed in 2009 due to public outcry in Russia.
And today, reading the classics of Russian poetry XV - XIX centuries AD, or rather their translations into modern Russian, we cannot look into the deep meaning of the imagery of the novels they wrote. For example, what meaning did L.N. Tolstoy give to the word “peace”? in his immortal work “War and Peace”? After all, until 1917 the word “peace” was in three semantic meanings: peace is peace, truce, peace is the universe, and peace is community, society.
Nowadays there is a degradation of our language. “So that with this word we can build up what exists, and not destroy it, depriving it further of the Image, through which we move further and further from Rule, but draw closer to Navi.” Our current Russian language is only a shadow of the ancient Proto-Slavic language.
Since its appearance, 16 letters have disappeared from the Russian alphabet. We see that the sounds of these letters are still preserved in some words, proverbs and sayings of the Russian language. The fact that the Russian people created and preserved them shows that the common people understood what a treasure was given to them in ancient Slavic alphabet. Those dozens of proverbs are a special group among all the proverbs and sayings of the Russian people: “Start with the basics”, “Firmly, he is - and even then it’s propped up (locked)”, “Stand with a fence, prop up with a fence (with both hands on your sides)”, and etc. But even in this form, the modern Russian language is the only one, of all modern Slavic languages, deformed less than others, in relation to common language Proto-Slavs Knowing modern Russian, you can read Old Bulgarian, Old Germanic (Prussian), Polish and other ancient texts from East Slavic countries.
*accepted abbreviations: n.e. - our era, b.h. - Nativity of Christ (chronology of Christians), s.m.z.h. - Creation of the World in the Star Temple (chronology of the Slavs).
Bibliography
1. Tyunyaev A.A., Ancient Rus': archeology, mythology, language, state.
M.: White Alva. 2011
2. Kazakov S.A. Old Slovenian initial letter. -2008. Perm, Publishing House "Presstime", shooting gallery. 500 copies
3. Seryakov M.L. Russian pre-Christian writing. St. Petersburg, 1997, 107 pp., illus., dash. 500 copies
4. G. S. Grinevich. Proto-Slavic writing. Decryption results.— 1993.— 328 pp.— ISBN 5-85617-001-6. Reply. for the release of V. G. Rodionov ( Chief Editor magazine "Russian Thought"). Encyclopedia of Russian Thought: Russian Physical Society. Publishing house "Public Benefit": - M.: General. benefit, 1993 —— ISBN 5-85617-100-4.
5. Gorshkova K.V., Khaburgaev G.A. Historical grammar of the Russian language: Tutorial for univ. - M.: Higher. school, 1981. - 359 p.
6. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State in 12 volumes. T. II-
III/ Ed. A. N. Sakharov. - M.: Nauka, 1991. - 832 p.
7. Printing house V.S. Balasheva., ABC with corrections of Emperor Peter the Great and his decree on the introduction of civil font into use., 1877.
8. Many thanks to the Internet portal http://www.rusyaz.ru, and research Andrey Mitin to the director of the USSR - http://www.rusyaz.ru/is/zoyz.html
9. Many thanks to the Internet portals http://gbooks.archeologia.ru, http://historyru.com/, http://www.ruscenter.ru/.
Yaroslav Yar.
Changes in language under Peter I
On January 29 (February 8), 1710, Peter’s reform of the Cyrillic alphabet was completed in Russia, where Peter I personally changed and approved a new alphabet and font, supposedly to simplify the Russian language, removing five letters and changing the style of several more. The essence of Peter’s reform was to simplify the composition of the Russian alphabet by excluding from it such redundant letters as “psi”, “xi”, “omega”, “Izhitsa” and others. Also, the letterforms were rounded and simplified; the reformed font was called the civil font. It establishes uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) letters for the first time.
Reform of Mikhail Lomonosov
The following reforms of the Russian literary language and versification system of the 18th century were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. He was the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov's grammar was published 14 times and formed the basis for Barsov's Russian grammar course (1771), who was Lomonosov's student.
Reform 1917-1918
The most important spelling reform took place in 1917-18. Already since 1912, single publications have appeared, printed according to new spelling standards. In accordance with the reform, letters were excluded from the alphabet ѣ (yat), Ѳ (fita), V(Izhitsa) and і (І (Cyrillic)), instead of them the familiar E, F, I should be used. One of the most significant changes is the exclusion of the hard sign Kommersant(er) at the end of a word, it was retained as a separator. The rule for writing prefixes to z, s (s before a voiceless consonant, z before a voiced consonant and vowels) has changed. In the genitive and accusative cases of adjectives and participles, the endings -ago, -yago, were replaced by -ogo, -him (novago - new). The form of the personal pronoun is genitive singular. from her (her) changed to her (her).
Failed reform of 2009
In 2009, a list of mostly spelling changes (yogurt, treaty, etc.) was compiled, which was never adopted due to negative public reaction. This unaccepted reform was widely discussed in the media.
Notes
Links
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See what “Russian language reforms” are in other dictionaries:
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Books
- Controversial issues of Russian spelling, Y.K. Grotto. The reader is invited to the classic fundamental work the outstanding Russian philologist J. K. Grot (1812 1893), dedicated to the problems of Russian spelling. In this book the author...
Myth No. 5. The spelling reform of 1917–18 was conceived and prepared by the Bolsheviks.
The reform of 1917–18, as a result of which the letters “yat”, “fita”, “I” were excluded from Russian writing, the spelling of Ъ at the end of words and parts of complex words was canceled, and some spelling rules were changed, is inextricably linked in our minds with October Revolution. The first edition of the decree introducing a new spelling was published in the Izvestia newspaper less than two months after the Bolsheviks came to power - December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918, new style). Even before the decree on Russia's transition to Gregorian calendar! And the pre-reform spelling itself is usually called pre-revolutionary and is associated with old Russia.
Similar associations developed back in Soviet era. The spelling reform of 1917–1918, largely thanks to which (this fact cannot be denied) illiteracy was eliminated in the shortest possible time in a huge country, was presented as a achievement of the revolution, as a merit exclusively of Soviet power. In well-known popular science books about the Russian language, beloved by several generations of readers, stories about the old spelling were accompanied by corresponding ideological comments. This is how L. V. Uspensky describes the “struggle with a hard sign” in his famous book “A Word about Words”:
It is not surprising, therefore, that when last years XX century in the assessment of many events associated with October 1917, the “plus” sign changed to “minus” (and vice versa), this also affected the spelling reform of 1917–18: after the collapse of the Soviet system, it was given opposite assessments, among them quite harsh : “the atrocity of the Bolsheviks,” “forcible simplification of Russian spelling.” Professor V.V. Lopatin recalls that at one of the conferences held in the mid-1990s and dedicated to the problems of Russian spelling, the question of returning to the old spelling was even raised, while “the current spelling was most often called “Bolshevik”, and those who accepted participation in the conference of clergy is “satanic.” The letters “er” and “yat” (especially the first) removed during the reform in the early 1990s again became one of the symbols as “old”, pre-revolutionary Russia, and opposition to Soviet power. One of the most bright ones examples - Kommersant in the name of the newspaper Kommersant, which performs both of these functions: “When Kommersant began publishing in 1990, they were still alive Soviet authority, Communist Party, KGB, and Gorbachev was also called general secretary, not the president. The proud “er” of “Kommersant” looked at the time like a frank challenge to this system of life, a desire to restore the “connection of times” that had disintegrated over seventy-odd years. The “resurrection” of “era” also meant a claim to “inheritance”: we are not empty space we are building, we are the legitimate successors...” (A. Ageev. The Rebellious “Kommersant” // Znamya. 1995. No. 4).
So, the assessments have changed, but the judgment about the reform as conceived and prepared by the Bolsheviks remains. And today this is one of the most common myths associated with the history of the Russian language. But what was it really like?
Let us once again pay attention to the publication date of the first edition of the decree - December 23, 1917 (old style). Did the Bolsheviks really manage to prepare a plan for reforming Russian writing in the two months that passed after seizing power? And in general, before drawing up new spelling rules, was he in a country engulfed in unrest?
Of course not. The revolutionary soldiers and sailors did not create any spelling rules. The reform was prepared long before October 1917; prepared not by revolutionaries, but by linguists. Of course, not all of them were alien to politics, but here is an indicative fact: among the developers of the new spelling there were people with extreme right-wing (one might say counter-revolutionary) views, for example, Academician A. I. Sobolevsky, known for his active participation in various kinds of nationalist and monarchist activities organizations. Preparations for the reform began in late XIX century: after the publication of the works of Yakov Karlovich Grot, who for the first time brought together all the spelling rules, the need to streamline and simplify Russian spelling became clear.
It should be noted that thoughts about the unjustified complexity of Russian writing occurred to some scientists back in the 18th century. Thus, the Academy of Sciences first tried to exclude the letter “Izhitsa” from the Russian alphabet back in 1735, and in 1781, on the initiative of the director of the Academy of Sciences Sergei Gerasimovich Domashnev, one section of “Academic News” was printed without the letter Ъ at the end of words (in other words, separate examples of “Bolshevik” spelling could be found more than a hundred years before the revolution!).
In the first years of the 20th century, the Moscow and Kazan Pedagogical Societies proposed their projects for the reform of Russian writing. And in 1904, at the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences, an Orthographic Commission was created, which was tasked with simplifying Russian writing (primarily in the interests of the school). The commission was headed by the outstanding Russian linguist Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov, and its members included the largest scientists of that time - A. A. Shakhmatov (who headed the commission in 1914, after the death of F. F. Fortunatov), I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, P. N. Sakulin and others.
The commission considered several proposals, including quite radical ones. At first it was proposed to abandon the letter b altogether, and use b as a dividing sign, while canceling the writing of a soft sign at the end of words after hissing words and writing mouse, night, love. It was immediately decided to remove the letters “yat” and “fita” from the Russian alphabet. A draft of a new spelling was presented by scientists in 1912, but was not approved, although it continued to be widely discussed.
results further work linguists were already assessed by the Provisional Government. On May 11 (May 24, new style), 1917, a meeting was held with the participation of members of the Spelling Commission of the Academy of Sciences, linguists, and school teachers, at which it was decided to soften some provisions of the 1912 project (thus, the commission members agreed with A. A. Shakhmatov’s proposal to preserve soft sign at the end of words after sibilants). The result of the discussion was the “Resolution of the meeting on the issue of simplifying Russian spelling,” which was approved by the Academy of Sciences. Just 6 days later, on May 17 (May 30, new style), the Ministry of Education issued a circular proposing to introduce reformed spelling in schools from the new school year.
Thus, the reform of Russian writing should have taken place without the Aurora’s salvo. True, it was assumed that the transition to the new spelling would be gradual. “The Bolsheviks,” writes V.V. Lopatin, “as soon as they seized power, they very skillfully and quickly took advantage of finished project, applying their revolutionary methods."
One of these revolutionary methods was the removal from printing houses of all letters with the letter Ъ. Although new spelling abolished not Kommersant at all (this proposal, considered in 1904, was subsequently abandoned by the Spelling Commission), but only its spelling at the end of words (the use of Kommersant as a dividing mark was retained), letters were selected everywhere. “This is how a surgeon cuts out a malignant tumor to the last cell” - these are the words L. V. Uspensky describes these events. Typesetters had to use an apostrophe to indicate a separator, which is how spellings like going up, going down.
The new spelling was introduced by two decrees: after the first decree, signed by the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky and published on December 23, 1917 (January 5, 1918), followed by the second decree of October 10, 1918, signed by the Deputy People's Commissar M.N. Pokrovsky and Council Manager People's Commissars V. D. Bonch-Bruevich. Already in October 1918, the official bodies of the Bolsheviks, the newspapers Izvestia and Pravda, switched to the new spelling. At this time, the Civil War was already raging in the country, and old spelling, abolished by Bolshevik decrees, became one of the symbols of resistance new government; She played the same role for the Russian emigration. Behind the political disputes and ideological guidelines, in the fire of the Civil War, during the decades of fierce hostility between the two systems, the purely linguistic meaning of the reform - the desire of linguists to simply rid the Russian letter of extra letters that denoted sounds that had long disappeared or coincided with other sounds - was almost completely forgotten ...
But today, in beginning of XXI century, we have the opportunity objective assessment events of the past. Therefore, let’s remember elementary truth No. 5: modern spelling- not a consequence of “Bolshevik arbitrariness”, “forced simplification of the language”, but the result of many years of work by the best Russian linguists aimed at improving spelling rules. According to V.V. Lopatin, “the new spelling, whatever the history of its adoption, after many years, which removed the political urgency of the issue, has become familiar to native speakers of the Russian language and quite successfully serves the cultural needs of modern society.”
Literature:
Lopatin V.V. The multifaceted Russian word: Selected articles on the Russian language. M., 2007.
Russian language: Encyclopedia / ed. Yu. N. Karaulova. M., 2003.
Uspensky L.V. A word about words. You and your name. L., 1962.
Shaposhnikov V. N. Russian speech of the 1990s: Modern Russia in linguistic display. – 3rd ed. M., 2010.
Encyclopedia for children. Volume 10. Linguistics. Russian language. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional M., 2004.
V. M. Pakhomov,
Candidate of Philology,
editor-in-chief of the portal "Gramota.ru"
On September 24, 1964, “Proposals for improving the Russian language” were published in the Izvestia newspaper. The new rules proposed by the authors were quite radical: “night”, “jury”, “hare” and “cucumbers” shocked the readers of the newspaper, caused a lot of discussion in society and, in the end, were never adopted.
Wherein amazing offers There have been efforts to reform Russian grammar almost since the advent of the Cyrillic alphabet. Rules and regulations became outdated and changed, and people again and again had to discuss and agree on how to write correctly.Reforms of Peter I
The first serious reform of Russian spelling was carried out during Peter I and is associated with the transition to a civilian font: the emperor eliminated the letters of the church Cyrillic alphabet (omega and yusy) unnecessary for the Russian language. The situation with consonants was interesting at that time: for example, before that the word “fairy tale” was written as “skazka” due to the presence of special vowel sounds incomplete education, the so-called “deaf” or “reduced”, which later disappeared from speech.
High "calm"
Work Lomonosov"Grammar" of 1755 was intended to improve the Russian language and resolve many controversial issues. Lomonosov's “Grammar” with its categorical division of speech into “high and low calms” was actively criticized for its stiltedness, cumbersomeness and desire to complicate speech. That didn't stop it from being republished 14 times. At the same time, for example, Pushkin believed that Lomonosov’s influence on Russian literature was rather harmful.
Karamzin's contribution
In the very late XVIII century, the letter “ё” appeared in the Russian language, replacing the combination io. It is believed that she was introduced Nikolay Karamzin: “е” first appeared in his collection of poems “Aonids”. Disputes about the necessity of this letter in the Russian language are still going on. In addition, Karamzin, who dreamed of simplifying the language, which Lomonosov himself was actively complicating, tried to introduce into the language as many simple accessible words as possible (though many of them were tracings from French), for example, “impression”, “falling in love”, “influence” ”, “touching”, “entertaining”, “moral”, “era”, “scene”, “harmony”, “catastrophe”, “future”.
Should I be a Yatu?
In the 60s, an extended meeting of teachers of Russian literature was held in St. Petersburg, at which a reform project to eliminate unnecessary letters - Ћ (“yatya”) and Ъ (“era”) was discussed. However, the teachers turned out to be conservative people, and the project did not go further.
Remove what is not heard
In 1904, under Imperial Academy Sciences, a spelling commission appeared that dealt with the issue of simplifying graphics according to phonemic principle, that is, eliminating letters that do not mean any sound. For example, Ъ at the end of words, as well as “yat” and “izhitsa”, which are duplicates of other letters and mean essentially the same sounds.Another change is the introduction of the endings “ee” and “ee” in nominative case plural of adjectives. Proposals were also made to exclude from the spelling the rule requiring to write “her” in genitive case and convey the sound “o” where it is clearly heard after “ch” and “sch” - “pcholka”, “black”.
Another proposed rule: do not write “ь” in the position after “ch”, “sch” and at the end of words: “night”, “tot point”, “thing”, “help”. In general, make the rules as simple and understandable as possible: it was assumed that this would help students who are lagging behind in grammar to catch up with those who are successful, and generally improve general literacy population. But this reform did not reach the point of total implementation: war, revolution, Civil War. The proposals of imperial linguists will be remembered already under Soviet rule.
New power new country, and there was no time to carefully study the reform of the new language in 1917-1918. Change was needed, so Soviet reform, in fact, accumulated the proposals of the commission at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Only two amendments were added: the existing rules for the use of the letters “o” and “e” after hissing ones were preserved without changes and a hard sign was left in all cases where the letter was used in modern, rather than pre-revolutionary spelling: “rech”, “rezh”, “hodish”. " Only then will the hard sign be replaced by a soft one, but for now, so be it.
Even easier!
The Soviet government began to introduce new rules with its characteristic energy, that is, according to the idea, at one point everyone had to relearn. Primers and reference books with explanations were not published, people complained that new grammar it is very difficult for them. At the same time, the level of illiteracy in the country remained extremely high. Soon, advocates began for even greater simplification of spelling: for example, eliminating the letters “ya”, “e”, “ё”, “yu”, replacing them with the letter combinations “ya”, “ye”, “yo”, “yu” after the separating “ ъ" and "ь" at the beginning of a word and after a vowel.
Cultural enlightenment
In the 1930s, another spelling commission was convened, the purpose of which was to carry out a spelling reform that would certainly increase the cultural level of the working people. Here are their suggestions:
The only dividing sign left was the solid one - “congress”, “drink”, “announcement”.
Do not write a hard sign after hissing words: “dir”, “daughter”, “moesh”, “strich”.After “zh”, “ch”, “sh”, “sch”, write “o” under the accent: “pcholka”, “zsolty”, “yesho”, “zhony”.
After “zh”, “sh”, “sch”, “ch”, “ts” write “s”: “fat”, “socialism”, “revolutionary”.
The project was radical, so it did not receive approval in government circles and the reform was not implemented. In 1932, the Decree of the Central Election Commission of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated August 25, 1932 “On the curriculum and regime in primary and secondary schools” was issued, which indicated the need to comply strict standards, but no innovations were proposed. Finally, in 1956, a truly successful project— “Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation”, which are still in force. But attempts at reform did not stop there either.
"News"
In 1963, the Izvestia newspaper published an article Professor Efimov about the low level of literacy in the country and the need to simplify spelling. Soon, a Commission for the Improvement of Russian Orthography was created at the USSR Academy of Sciences, which was ordered to short time submit your proposals. In 1964, the same Izvestia published an article “Proposals for improving the Russian language.” The new rules proposed by the authors were quite radical: for example, write “daughter”, “night”, “mouse”, “jury”, “hare”, “dress”, “cucumbers”. Here are some rules:
- After “ts” you don’t write “y”, but write “i”: “tsigan”, “cucumbers”.
- After hissing words, “o” is written under stress: “cheeks”, “yellow”, but “yellow”, “cheek”.
- After Ж, Ш, Ш, Ш, do not write b: “mouse”, “namazh”.
- Eliminate double consonants in foreign words (keep them only in the words bath, sum, gamma).
- Write “wooden”, “tin”, “glass”, etc.
As linguists note, many of the proposals were quite reasonable, but caused such a shock in society that they were immediately subjected to harsh criticism.
The cessation of discussion of the scandalous proposals coincided with the removal from office Nikita Khrushchev. Later they tried to forget about the proposals.
Another attempt
In the early 70s, a spelling commission was again created at the Russian Language Institute, which acted much more carefully than its predecessors. Sufficiently balanced proposals were formulated and submitted to the presidium Soviet Academy sciences, but no progress occurred, and they were soon forgotten.
One of the latest movements is the publication in 1999 of a new “Big Russian spelling dictionary"for 160 thousand words, which spelledly regulated hundreds of new words in the Russian language.
Behind closed doors
In 2000, under the heading “Project”, the “Code of Russian Spelling Rules” was released. Spelling. Punctuation”, which has not yet received wide circulation or scientific discussion.
And most innovations are now carried out “behind closed doors” and without public discussions - probably scientists do not want the experience of 1964 to be repeated. New rules simply appear in dictionaries, and the public is introduced to them after the fact. This is how Russians learned in 2009 that neuter coffee is no longer a mistake, but a rule approved by four newly published dictionaries. Equivalent variants of stress suddenly became “on Wednesdays and on Wednesdays”, “yogurt” and “yogurt”, “agreement” and “agreement”.