Literacy in Rus' in the pre-Christian (pre-Kiev) period
The emergence of the school in Rus', in the understanding that is familiar to us, is associated by the bulk of researchers with the process of Christianization of Slavic tribes and directly with the Kyiv period of development of the Old Russian state. The generally accepted idea that before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' there was no written language or any culture at all is contained in the writings of many authors both in the pre-revolutionary and modern periods. It is interesting that The Tale of Bygone Years, the main source on the history of Ancient Rus', contains precisely this point of view. Nestor connects the spread of literacy directly with the adoption of Christianity and the activities of Prince Vladimir. The Tale does not contain any mention of the existence of literacy before this period. The same point of view is supported by the great Russian historian N.M. Karamzin: “The Bohemian, Illyrian and Russian Slavs did not have any alphabet until 863...” The first Russian taxonomist of the world history of pedagogy, L.N., speaks about this. Modzalevsky in his work “Essay on the history of education and training from ancient times to our times.” HER. Golubinsky in “History of the Russian Church” also believes that it was during the Kiev period that “enlightenment according to the Greek model was established in our country for a very short time in the upper (boyar) class...”. This version eventually became official, which means that it was included in all school and university textbooks back in the Soviet period. However, despite the abundance of new data obtained in the course of research by archaeologists, historians, philologists, etc., this same version is contained in all modern textbooks, as well as in books on the history of Russia for children and youth. Obviously, the authors of the textbooks consider Nestor’s opinion indisputable and the only correct one. They simply ignore all currently available data on the literacy of the Slavs in the pre-Christian period. From early childhood, I put into our heads the idea of the backwardness of the Slavic civilization, thus instilling admiration for the West. It is difficult to say for what purpose this is done. Perhaps the authors of textbooks simply do not bother themselves with any analysis and generalization of the available data, copying the same version from one textbook to another. However, if we consider that the authors of many textbooks are major historians, such as A.N. Sakharov, B. Rybakov, S. Orlov and others, such an approach to the presentation of national history becomes incomprehensible. It is interesting that in the school textbook Academician A. N. Sakharov defends Nestor’s version, and in the textbook for universities he significantly deviates from this version. But, one way or another, we’ll leave this to the conscience of the authors.
A very interesting theory of the emergence of literacy in Rus' is proposed by A.V. Kartashev in his two-volume work “Essays on the History of the Russian Church.” He also believes that before Christianization the Slavs did not know literacy, and only with the adoption of Christianity did writing begin to spread. However, the adoption of Christianity by Western and Eastern Slavs A.V. Kartashev connects it not with the reign of Prince Vladimir and the date of the official baptism of Rus' in 988, but with the events of the creation of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril and Methodius and even earlier. He believes that by 860 Christianity was no longer just widespread in the lands of the Slavs, but a Russian diocese already existed with a bishop at its head. This version is also supported by the modern historian Svetlana Zhuk, saying that “by the time of Oleg’s reign, Kyiv was already on the list of Greek metropolises; there was a Russian bishopric here.” At the same time, A.V. Kartashov mentions the existence of a certain Slavic language into which Cyril and Methodius translated Greek books back in 855. But it is difficult to say which Slavic language we are talking about: either it is the Slavic alphabet created by the Solun brothers, or it is a Slavic language that existed before the official creation of the Slavic alphabet. The appearance of the first schools in the Slavic lands of A.V. Kartashov also connects with the activities of the brothers. It was they who founded the first schools for the Slavs and trained the first teachers. The purpose of these schools was to teach the Slavs to read and write in the newly created Slavic language and to spread Christianity among the Slavs. “... As soon as Constantine reached Moravia, he immediately set up a crowded school and unfolded a wide range of liturgical books in front of it.” Here the historian makes a reservation that “... the matter is about the continuation of the Slavic doctrinal and liturgical mission already begun by Byzantium and only about its application to a new territory and a new people.” The missionary activity of the Thessaloniki brothers began with the Bulgarian lands, after which all the southern Slavs were converted to Christianity, and then the brothers went to the lands of the Western Slavs and from there to Rus'. The baptism of the Eastern Slavs or the Russian population itself, as well as the fact of the beginning of the spread of literacy in Rus', A.V. Kartashov associates it with the year 862. In his work, he clearly indicates that “... 862 is not the year of the beginning of the Russian state, but the year of the beginning of the Russian church with a bishop at its head.” However, the great Russian historian V.N. Tatishchev was the first to draw attention to the fact that the Slavs had writing long before the adoption of Christianity and the creation of the Slavic alphabet. “Indeed, the Slavs long before Christ and the Slavic-Russians actually had a letter before Vladimir, as many ancient writers testify to us and, firstly, what is generally told about all the Slavs.” In support of his conclusions, V.N. Tatishchev cites the story of various Slavic historians, without mentioning what kind of historians they are, about a certain Jerome, a teacher of the Slavs, who translated the Bible into the Slavic language back in the 4th century. This fact, according to Tatishchev, proves that the Slavs had their own written language. The historian provides other evidence based on sources that have not survived to our time. At the same time, Tatishchev is trying to trace the process of the emergence of writing among the Slavs from the Greeks in the south, because the Slavs, the same Scythians, Sarmatians and other tribes, lived in close proximity to the Greeks and had the closest communication with them. He also believes that the northern Slavic tribes, which had close trade ties with European countries, could well have adopted runic writing from them. However, archaeological excavations do not confirm the fact that the Slavs had such a letter, so Tatishchev himself stipulates that this is just an assumption.
Opinion of V.N. Tatishchev is supported by historian A.N. Sakharov, saying that the existence of writing in Rus' in the pre-Kiev period is beyond doubt. At the same time, A.N. Sakharov does not make any comments about the nature of writing. He cites the testimony of the Arab bibliographer an-Nidin about the correspondence of the Russian prince, which took place on the eve of the Christian reform. This fact is Academician A.N. Sakharov does not consider the pre-Christian period to be the norm for Ancient Rus', since, in his opinion, this is isolated evidence, just as archaeological finds with ancient Slavic writings are isolated. “However, the letter that came to Rus' from the southern Slavs did not receive any widespread distribution in pre-Christian Rus', and there is no reason to talk about the appearance of literature in Rus' before Vladimir.” Thus, following V.N. Tatishchev A.N. Sakharov believes that writing came to Rus' from the south. Since the Slavs, both eastern and southern, had very close contacts with the Greek world, it is quite reasonable to assume that the Slavs could use the Greek language directly. However, we do not find any explanations on this matter in V.N. Tatishchev, nor A.N. Sakharov. V.N. Tatishchev only claims that the Slavs had their own language, but does not explain with what letters it was depicted when written. It is important to note that V.N. Tatishchev testifies that the Slavic princes knew Greek well and used it when writing. This fact is confirmed by the famous historian S.M. Soloviev. At the same time, he says that V.N. Tatishchev wrote his work on the basis of many sources that have not reached us, and there is no reason to doubt the authenticity of Tatishchev’s collection of chronicles.
The possible presence of runic writing among the ancient Slavs is indirectly confirmed in his work by A.V. Kartashev. He points out: “This Rus' of the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th centuries - a mobile mixture of peoples: Slavic, Norman and maybe partially Scythian-Iranian, or even Turkic, wandered and was scattered along all the northern shores of the Black Sea region, already long Christianized by Byzantium.” Hence, it is likely that the Slavs could use runic writing, borrowing it from the peoples of the North. N.M. Karamzin also provides indirect evidence that runic writing existed among the ancient Slavs. “The Baltic Slavs worshiped Wodan, or the Scandinavian Odin, having learned about him from the Germanic peoples with whom they lived in Dacia and who had been their neighbors since ancient times.”
It is worth paying close attention to the monograph of the domestic pre-revolutionary researcher Yegor Klassen. He claims that “the Slavs had literacy not only before the general introduction of Christianity among them, but also long before the Nativity of Christ, as evidenced by acts that trace the literacy of the Slavic-Russians from the tenth century ago to ancient times...” E. Klassen cites numerous testimonies from both Western and Eastern writers, travelers and rulers, and also refers to the texts of ancient Russian treaties and various Western chronicles. Using a large number of sources allowed E. Klassen to draw surprising conclusions. First of all, he believes that the Slavs had writing much earlier than the Greeks and Romans. Secondly, he convincingly proves that the process of spreading literacy did not go from West to East, but from East to West, i.e. from the ancient Slavic peoples to the Greeks, and from there further to the Romans and to Europe. Thirdly, E. Klassen believes that the origin of runic writing exclusively from Scandinavia is erroneous. In his opinion, the Slavs had their own runic writing, which was widespread everywhere.
Archaeological finds throughout the European part of Russia tell us about the widespread distribution of runic writing. However, a comparison of Scandinavian and Slavic runes shows us their complete identity. Therefore, the statement about the existence of Slavic runes proper does not seem entirely plausible to us. There is no reason to talk about the borrowing of runic writing by the Scandinavians and Germans from the ancient Slavs. From here we can assume that the borrowing was still on the part of the Slavs due to close trade ties.
The opinion about the antiquity of Slavic writing is also supported by the famous Russian historian Dmitry Ivanovich Ilovaisky. Studying the problem of the Slavic origin of the Bulgarians, he comes to the conclusion about the existence of Slavic writing already in the 7th-8th centuries. At the same time, he stipulates that Slavic writing has more ancient roots. D. Ilovaisky associates the flourishing of this writing with the period of the 9th-10th centuries. and believes that it was Slavic writing that became the basis for all subsequent Slavic-Christian education. Thus, the official adoption of Christianity gives a new powerful impetus to the development of writing and education, although D. Ilovaisky does not write about this directly.
Modern researcher Sergei Berdyshev proves this version on the basis of archaeological finds made in the territory of Central and Southern Russia in the 40-50s. XX century. Runic writings were discovered on clay jugs in settlement sites of representatives of the so-called Chernyakhov culture, which had a fairly large settlement area and dated back to the 3rd-4th centuries, and partly the beginning of the 5th century. “Thus,” points out S.N. Berdyshev, “the Chernyakhov culture can be considered intertribal: in addition to the Slavs, the Germans and Sarmatians were involved in its creation.” These finds are important for us because the Slavs used writing long before the baptism of Rus'. But, apparently, runic writing was used in cases of emergency and by very narrow circles of the population. This conclusion is supported by the fact that there are few finds with runic writings, despite the rather large territory (from northwestern Europe to southern Rus') of the spread of the Chernyakhov culture. In addition, this fact also testifies to the fact that in the chronological period indicated by S. Berdyshev, the Slavs did not have their own written language, and we also cannot talk about the general spread of literacy among the bulk of the Slavic population.
Thus, it becomes clear that the highest circles of Slavic society had Greek writing and actively used it. Part of the trade and craft circles, if necessary, could use runic writing when making large transactions. As for the bulk of the population, it is quite reasonable to assume that a certain “folk” Slavic language existed, as well as primitive Slavic writing in the form of dashes and dimples squeezed out on clay or birch bark. Many peoples at the stage of the primitive system had primitive writing, as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds around the world.
Modern researcher S. Zhuk confirms these guesses in the work “Kievan Rus”, saying that “the Slavs already had the simplest writing. On wooden tablets they scratched or cut out dashes, indentations, with the help of which they stored or transmitted the necessary information, that is knew how to read and write." Somewhat later, the Slavs switched to the alphabet created by Cyril, which “was much simpler, clearer and much more convenient to use. It had 43 letters and included numbers.” We find very interesting evidence of ancient Slavic writing in the work of modern researcher Alexander Asov, “The Sacred Ancestral Homes of the Slavs.” The author sets out tales about two roots of the Slavs: northern, Hyperborean, and southern, Atlantic. But what is important for us is that A. Asov cites excerpts from the most ancient monuments of Slavic not just writing, but literature that existed in the 3rd-4th centuries. AD These are excerpts from “The Book of Carols”, “The Book of Veles” and others. He cites “Yarilina’s book,” a chronicle of the Russians dating from the same time, in full. But more importantly, in A. Asov’s work there is a photograph of the first page of Yarilin’s Book, where we clearly see Greek letters. So what happens? It is clear that such works as “Veles’s Book”, “The Book of Carols”, “Yarilin’s Book” could only be written by Slavic Magi. The titles of the books themselves speak about this. The books are written in Greek letters, i.e. in Greek. This means that the highest circles of ancient Slavic society, which included the Magi, were not just literate, but well educated. They knew Greek and could read and write in it. And, no less surprising, they had access to paper, since the most ancient books of the Slavs were written on paper. The lower layers used the simplest writing and used clay tablets or birch bark for it, as the most accessible material. Paper was obviously in great short supply and was very expensive. Magi or Slavic priests created imperishable books, but not as literary works, but as repositories of sacred knowledge. That is why these books were so carefully hidden and were accessible only to a very narrow circle of people. They were created and read only by those initiated into secret knowledge. That is why we can hardly talk about the existence of ancient Slavic literature in the pre-Christian period. However, the question remains: where and how did the ancient Slavs teach literacy? S. Zhuk, like other researchers, does not write about this. The work contains references to the students of Cyril and Methodius, but what kind of people they were and whom they taught is not said. Nevertheless, from the same S. Zhuk we find the following evidence: “The Russian peasant and his wife still make everything they need for their daily use...”. From which a simple conclusion follows that training took place at home in the process of household work. There is clearly no need to talk about the presence of schooling in the pre-Kiev period.
Researcher S. Egorov, creator of the Reader on the history of pedagogy in Russia, developing his point of view about Slavic writing in the pre-Christian period, cites inscriptions on the wall of the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral, discovered during archaeological excavations by S.A. Vysotsky, as well as clay vessels discovered in 1949 by archaeologist D. Avdusin near Smolensk, numerous birch bark letters dated 953-972, and Oleg’s treaties with Byzantium in 907 and 911. Based on this, S. Egorov concludes that the Russian population was universally literate long before Vladimir, and all layers of the urban population were literate. At the same time, the researcher cites a vessel discovered by archaeologist D.A. Avdusin in 1949, on which there is an inscription in Slavic, dated to the mid-10th century. This fact only confirms, in our opinion, the version of A.V. Kartashev that literacy in Rus' began to spread since the creation of the Slavic alphabet, i.e. long before the official adoption of Christianity. The point of view of S. Egorov is confirmed by the modern historian O.A. Kudinov in his course of lectures on the history of Russia. He relies on the same evidence of the presence of writing among the Slavs in the 9th century, which S. Egorov also refers to. However, he does not believe that literacy was widespread. In his opinion, it was Christianity that gave a powerful impetus to the rapid and widespread development of written culture. As for the peasantry, there is no mention of this class in any of the authors. It is interesting that S. Egorov does not talk about literacy as some kind of unique phenomenon. This concept is woven into the concept of “Slavic pedagogy” and is its integral part. We do not find any evidence from any of the researchers about teachers or schools where they taught literacy and educated the younger generations in the pre-Kiev period. Then the question arises: how did literacy spread in Rus' and where was it taught? S. Egorov gives a very vague answer to this question: “Unfortunately, from ancient times little direct evidence has reached us about the way of life and way of life of our ancestors, and even more so about the methods of teaching children. But modern archeology, history, linguistics, etymology has sufficient material to present in general terms the process of transferring life and social experience, knowledge, skills and abilities from the older generation to the younger." Thus, we are again convinced that learning to read and write did not take place in schools or in the homes of any teachers, but in the family, in the process of household work. Such a pedagogical system, apparently, existed in peasant families. As for the highest circles of society, as well as urban families, the role of the first teachers was played by close relatives, most often uncles, to whom boys were given to be raised at a certain age. Girls stayed with their mothers and learned the skills of housekeeping and the art of relationships with men. Many researchers talk about the existence of such a system of education and training. So in “The Tale of Bygone Years” we find a mention that Prince Vladimir himself was raised by his uncle Dobrynya. The same system of education is described by S.N. Berdyshev in the above work, A. Asov and other authors.
So, now we can say with complete confidence that writing existed among the Slavs long before the adoption of Christianity. The population of Ancient Rus' in the pre-Kiev period was universally literate, but this applies specifically to the urban population. The princes and high society of the boyars used the Greek letter, because spoke Greek perfectly. The upper strata of society were not just literate, but well educated. In everyday life they used the Slavic language, but for writing they used the Greek language, which was well known to them due to the close contacts of Rus' with Byzantium. From Byzantium, books were supplied to Rus', which were read by the princes and their immediate circle without translation, i.e. in original. The Greek script was also used by the Magi to create sacred books. The Slavic Magi, as representatives of the upper class, also had an excellent command of the Greek language and used it to read and write books. But we cannot talk about ancient Slavic literature, since the books created by the Magi were a repository of secret knowledge and were accessible to a very narrow circle of people. As for schools and teachers in Rus' in the pre-Christian period, we can definitely say that the Slavs did not have such during this period.
Writing in Rus' existed even before the adoption of Christianity (for example, the text of Oleg’s treaty with the Greeks in 911 was written in Russian and Greek). By the time Christianity was adopted, an alphabet had developed.
In 1949, Soviet archaeologist D.V. Avdusin, during excavations near Smolensk, found a clay vessel dating back to the beginning of the 10th century, on which was written “gorushna” (spice). This meant that already at that time writing was in use in the East Slavic environment, there was an alphabet. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the spread of literacy, the development of writing, and education. This is also evidenced by the testimony of the Byzantine diplomat and Slavic educator Kirill. While serving in Chersonesus in the 60s of the 9th century. he became acquainted with the Gospel written in Slavic letters. Subsequently, Cyril and his brother Methodius became the founders of the Slavic alphabet, which, apparently, was in some part based on the principles of Slavic writing, which existed among the Eastern, Southern and Western Slavs long before their Christianization.
The history of the creation of the Slavic alphabet is as follows: the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius spread Christianity among the Slavic peoples of southeastern Europe. Greek theological books had to be translated into Slavic languages, but there was no alphabet corresponding to the peculiarities of the sound of Slavic languages. It was the brothers who decided to create it, since Kirill’s education and talent made this task feasible.
A talented linguist, Kirill took the Greek alphabet, consisting of 24 letters, as a basis, supplemented it with sibilants characteristic of Slavic languages (zh, sch, sh, h) and several other letters. Some of them have been preserved in the modern alphabet - b, ь, ъ, y, others have long gone out of use - yat, yus, izhitsa, fita.
So, the Slavic alphabet originally consisted of 43 letters, similar in writing to Greek. Each of them had its own name: A - “az”, B - “buki” (their combination formed the word “alphabet”), C - “lead”, G - “verb”, D - “good” and so on. The letters on the letter denoted not only sounds, but also numbers. "A" - number 1, "B" - 2, "P" - 100. In Rus' only in the 18th century. Arabic numerals replaced "letter" ones. In honor of its creator, the new alphabet was called “Cyrillic”.
The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the further development of writing and literacy. Since the time of Vladimir, church scholars and translators from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia began to come to Rus'. Numerous translations of Greek and Bulgarian books of both ecclesiastical and secular content appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. In particular, Byzantine historical works and biographies of Christian saints are translated. These translations became the property of literate people; they were read with pleasure in the princely, boyar, merchant circles, in monasteries, churches, where Russian chronicle writing originated. In the 11th century such popular translated works as "Alexandria", containing legends and traditions about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, and "The Deed of Deugene", which is a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis, are becoming widespread.
Thus, a literate Russian person of the 11th century. knew much of what was available in the writing and book culture of Eastern Europe and Byzantium. The cadres of the first Russian scribes, scribes, and translators were formed in schools that were opened at churches from the time of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise, and later at monasteries. There is a lot of evidence of the widespread development of literacy in Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. However, it was widespread mainly only in the urban environment, especially among wealthy townspeople, the princely-boyar elite, merchants, and wealthy artisans. In rural areas, in remote, remote places, the population was almost entirely illiterate.
Under Yaroslav the Wise, a school was opened in Kyiv, where more than 300 children studied. His daughter Anna, one of the first literate women to become Queen of France, was educated. About the son of Yaroslav the Wise - Vsevolod - the chronicler says with respect that he “sitting at home, he was speechless.”
The widespread development of writing is evidenced by inscriptions on handicraft products: women signed spinning wheels, potters signed clay vessels, shoemakers carved the names of their customers on lasts.
In 1951, archaeologists first discovered birch bark letters in Novgorod. More than 500 letters were found in Novgorod, Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Pskov and other cities. Among the charters there are business documents, letters, wills.
Modern Russian is based on Old Church Slavonic, which, in turn, was previously used for both writing and speech. Many scrolls and paintings have survived to this day.
Culture of Ancient Rus': writing
Many scientists claim that before the ninth century there was no trace of writing. This means that during the times of Kievan Rus, writing did not exist as such.
However, this assumption is erroneous, because if you look at the history of other developed countries and states, you can see that each strong state had its own written language. Since it was also part of a number of fairly strong countries, writing was also necessary for Rus'.
Another group of scientific researchers proved that there was writing, and this conclusion was supported by a number of historical documents and facts: Brave wrote the legend “About Writings”. Also “in the Lives of Methodius and Constantine” it is mentioned that the Eastern Slavs had a written language. The records of Ibn Fadlan are also cited as evidence.
So when did writing appear in Rus'? The answer to this question is still controversial. But the main argument for society, confirming the emergence of writing in Rus', are the treaties between Russia and Byzantium, which were written in 911 and 945.
Cyril and Methodius: a huge contribution to Slavic writing
The contribution of Slavic enlighteners is invaluable. It was with the beginning of their work that they developed their own alphabet, which was much simpler in pronunciation and writing than the previous version of the language.
It is known that the enlighteners and their disciples did not preach among the East Slavic peoples, but researchers say that, perhaps, Methodius and Cyril set such a goal for themselves. Sharing your views would not only allow you to expand your range of interests, but would also simplify the introduction of a simplified language into East Slavic culture.
In the tenth century, books and lives of great enlighteners came to the territory of Rus', where they began to enjoy real success. It is to this moment that researchers attribute the emergence of writing in Rus', the Slavic alphabet.
Rus' since the appearance of its language alphabet
Despite all these facts, some researchers are trying to prove that the alphabet of the enlighteners appeared during the times of Kievan Rus, that is, even before baptism, when Rus' was a pagan land. Despite the fact that most historical documents are written in Cyrillic, there are papers that contain information written in Glagolitic. Researchers say that, probably, the Glagolitic alphabet was also used in Ancient Rus' precisely in the period of the ninth-tenth centuries - before Russia adopted Christianity.
More recently, this assumption has been proven. Research scientists found a document that contained records of a certain priest of Upir. In turn, Upir wrote that in 1044 the Glagolitic alphabet was used in Rus', but the Slavic people perceived it as the work of the enlightener Cyril and began to call it “Cyrillic.”
It is difficult to say how different the culture of Ancient Rus' was at that time. The emergence of writing in Rus', as is commonly believed, began precisely from the moment of widespread dissemination of the books of the Enlightenment, despite the facts indicating that writing was an important element for pagan Rus'.
The rapid development of Slavic writing: the baptism of a pagan land
The rapid pace of development of the written language of the East Slavic peoples began after the baptism of Rus', when writing appeared in Rus'. In 988, when Prince Vladimir converted to Christianity in Rus', children who were considered the social elite began to be taught using alphabetic books. It was at this same time that church books appeared in written form, inscriptions on cylinder locks, and there were also written expressions that blacksmiths embossed to order on swords. Texts appear on princely seals.
Also, it is important to note that there are legends about coins with inscriptions that were used by princes Vladimir, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav.
And in 1030, birch bark letters became widely used.
The first written records: birch bark letters and books
The first written records were those on birch bark letters. Such a document is a written record on a small fragment of birch bark.
Their uniqueness is that today they are perfectly preserved. For researchers, such a find is of great importance: in addition to the fact that thanks to these letters one can learn the features of the Slavic language, writing on birch bark can tell about important events that took place during the period of the eleventh to fifteenth centuries. Such records have become an important element for studying the history of Ancient Rus'.
In addition to Slavic culture, birch bark letters were also used among cultures of other countries.
At the moment, the archives contain many birch bark documents, the authors of which are Old Believers. In addition, with the advent of birch bark “paper”, people learned to peel birch bark. This discovery was the impetus for writing books on Slavic writing in Rus' began to develop more and more.
A find for researchers and historians
The first writings made on birch bark paper that were found in Russia were in the city of Veliky Novgorod. Anyone who has studied history knows that this city was of no small importance for the development of Rus'.
A new stage in the development of writing: translation as the main achievement
The southern Slavs had a huge influence on writing in Rus'.
Under Prince Vladimir, books and documents from the South Slavic language began to be translated in Rus'. And under Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the literary language began to develop, thanks to which such a literary genre as church literature appeared.
The ability to translate texts from foreign languages was of great importance for the Old Russian language. The first translations (of books) that came from the Western European side were translations from Greek. It was the Greek language that largely changed the culture of the Russian language. Many borrowed words were used more and more in literary works, even in the same church writings.
It was at this stage that the culture of Rus' began to change, the writing of which became increasingly more complex.
Reforms of Peter the Great: on the way to simple language
With the advent of Peter I, who reformed all the structures of the Russian people, significant amendments were made even to the culture of the language. The appearance of writing in Rus' in ancient times immediately complicated the already complex In 1708, Peter the Great introduced the so-called “civil font”. Already in 1710, Peter the Great personally revised every letter of the Russian language, after which a new alphabet was created. The alphabet was distinguished by its simplicity and ease of use. The Russian ruler wanted to simplify the Russian language. Many letters were simply excluded from the alphabet, thereby simplifying not only spoken language, but also written language.
Significant changes in the 18th century: introduction of new symbols
The main change during this period was the introduction of such a letter as “and short”. This letter was introduced in 1735. Already in 1797 Karamzin used a new sign to indicate the sound “yo”.
By the end of the 18th century, the letter “yat” lost its meaning, because its sound coincided with the sound of “e”. It was at this time that the letter “yat” was stopped being used. Soon it also ceased to be part of the Russian alphabet.
The last stage of development of the Russian language: minor changes
The final reform that changed the written language in Rus' was the reform of 1917, which lasted until 1918. It meant the exclusion of all letters whose sound was either too similar or even repeated. It is thanks to this reform that today the hard sign (Ъ) is a dividing sign, and the soft (b) has become a dividing sign when denoting a soft consonant sound.
It is important to note that this reform caused enormous dissatisfaction on the part of many prominent literary figures. For example, Ivan Bunin strongly criticized this change in his native language.
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Give an idea of the spread of literacy and education in Kievan Rus.
- Educational: to bring to the understanding of students that the concept of “culture” is associated with the activities of people in the material and spiritual fields; note that the invention of the Slavic alphabet was a necessary condition for the spread of literacy in Rus'; show what Yaroslav the Wise did to spread literacy.
- Correctional and developmental: continue to work on developing the ability to give complete answers to posed questions, skills in working with a history notebook; learn to listen to excerpts from fiction.
- Educational: to evoke a feeling of respect for working people; develop in students a sense of love for their native language and culture.
Basic knowledge
- Cyril and Methodius are the creators of Slavic writing;
- Slavic alphabet, bookmaking, schools, handwritten books.
Basic terms and concepts
- Scribes, charter, Bible, library, parchment, wrote.
Equipment and materials
- Presentation, cards, vocabulary words, object writing (a bag of earth, an arrow, a leather trail), birch bark, cards with letters, the Bible.
Lesson type
- Communication of new knowledge
During the classes
I. Organizational moment
1. Motivational beginning of the lesson
Guys, today we have an unusual lesson. Today we will travel back to ancient times and travel through the labyrinths of history. We will find out from what sources modern people can learn about events that occurred in the history of Rus' a long time ago.
(Slide 1) Let's open the door to the past
- This school year we began to study a new science for you, what kind of science is it? (Slide 2)
(Story)
- Let's remember what history studies?
(History is a science that studies the past.)
- The history of which state are we studying?
(History of Russia)
- Why should you study and know the history of your state?
(Children's answers)
- How do historians learn about events that happened a long time ago?
( They are helped by various documents and things that have survived to this day)
- What science helps us uncover the secrets of the earth? (Slide 3)
(Archeology)
It is archaeologists who find what our land hides from us. These are various things, documents that have survived to this day, and help us learn more about long-past events. Various documents play a huge role in the study of history. But the documents did not appear immediately.
- How did people transmit messages to each other before writing arose?
(Slide 4)
(Children's answers)
II. Updating basic knowledge, communicating the topic and goals of the lesson.
Let's open the next door to the past of the Slavs (Slide 5)
1. Introduction to the topic
We will determine the topic of our lesson after analyzing two situations.
Situation one:
In ancient times, the composition of herbal mixtures from which medicinal decoctions were prepared was passed down from mouth to mouth. But it happened that a medicinal decoction could become poison and bring not recovery, but death to the patient.
- Guess why such cases could occur.
- Think of a way to avoid this situation.
(Write down the composition of the collection.)
Now let's look at the second one situation. (Slide 6)
One day the young prince received from his father through a foreign merchant subject letter: an arrow, a bag of earth and a footprint cut from leather.
The son understood his father’s message as follows: “Soon we must wait for my father to visit, since his trace has already disappeared on his native land, and he is rushing towards me like an arrow.”
The son waited for a long time for his father, and the father, meanwhile, waited for his son. After all, with his message the old prince asked for help: “Help us, the enemies are trampling our native land, and there are so many of their arrows that they have eclipsed the sun.” Showing items
- Why? Explain your answer.
2. Communicating the topic and objectives of the lesson
Today in the lesson we will continue to study the history of Ancient Rus' and get acquainted with the spread of literacy and education in Kievan Rus, we will find out what Yaroslav the Wise did to educate the Russian people.
The topic of our lesson is Education and literacy in Rus'. (Slide 7)
(Write down the date and topic of the lesson in a notebook)
III. Learning new material
(Slide 8) We approached the next door, which we met in the labyrinth of history.
3. Explanatory conversation.
We do not know the exact date of the emergence of Slavic writing. But there is reason to believe that it existed in the 9th century, i.e. it originated even before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' .
(988, X century)
- Under which prince did the baptism of Rus' begin?
(Under Prince Vladimir the Saint)
- Who taught the Slavs to read and write? ? (Slide 9)
(Cyril and Methodius)
In the 60s In the 9th century, two brothers from the Byzantine city of Thessaloniki - Cyril and Methodius - created the Slavic alphabet, which was based on the Greek alphabet. The Slavs had a legend about the creation of the Slavic alphabet in the 5th century by the Christian preacher Jerome; this is evidenced by a clay vessel discovered by archaeologists near Smolensk.
(Slide 10) It says GORUSHNA, those. vessel for spices.
(Slide 11) There is also information that letters in Rus' in ancient times were carved on wooden tablets and called CUTS.
The writing created by Cyril and Methodius in the second half of the 9th century penetrated into Rus' in the 10th century.
(Slide 12) There are two versions of the Slavic alphabet: Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Let's get acquainted with some letters of one of them.
(Slide 13) Note card
(Slide 14) These plates are arranged as follows
So, for example, the letter indicated the sounding word [baba].
- Find the letter a in this word and show it. (Show the desired card)
Now the name of this letter is “a”, but in the 9th century it was called “az”.
- Find the letter b in this word and show it.
Now the name of this letter is “be”, but in the 9th century it was called “buki”
- Arrange the named letters in alphabetical order and name them.
(az, beeches) (Slide 15)
(By the names of the first letters.)
This alphabet was called Glagolitic - the word verb is translated as word, speech.
4. Task on the slide
(Slide 16) Insert the missing word into the sentence, having previously analyzed the information given in brackets.
With the help of the Glagolitic alphabet it was possible... oral speech. (Special letter icons were needed to record speech.) (Using the Glagolitic alphabet it was possible to record oral speech.)
Currently, you and I are using a different version of the Slavic alphabet. It is called Cyrillic. He's familiar to you (Slide 17)
(Cyril and Methodius)
Conclusion: The creation of the alphabet by Cyril and Methodius is the most important historical event that created favorable conditions for the development of the culture of the people.
5. Work in notebooks (Slide 18)
Cyril and Methodius are the creators of Slavic writing.
(Write in notebook)
Before the adoption of Christianity, there were few people who could write and read in Rus', but since 988. Literacy began to spread: the clergy were literate, the princes and many boyars and townspeople learned to write.
(Slide 19) In the 11th century, Yaroslav the Wise ordered the creation of schools at churches and monasteries. In schools, priests taught children and adults.
(Slide 20) They taught us to write, count and read. Under Yaroslav the Wise, many residents of the country became literate. Having learned to write, people began to write down contracts and important documents, write letters and notes to each other, and keep business papers. (Slide 21)
(Slide 22) The potters’ products on which they put their signature have survived to this day.
(Slide 23) Often, townspeople left inscriptions on the walls of churches, which have also survived to this day.
- You might be interested in knowing what and with what they wrote in Ancient Rus'?
To do this we will open the next door (Slide 24)
(Showing birch bark) In ancient times in Rus', the cheapest and most common material for writing was birch bark. It was removed from the trunk in an even strip, boiled in salt water and placed under a press. Texts were scratched out on the damp inner side of the bark using a writing tool (a sharp bone or metal stick). (Slide 25)
Vocabulary work: wrote
Scribes are found in many cities of our country, although birch bark scrolls are rare. After all, birch bark is a very fragile material. The scrolls were called birch bark letters. (Slide 26)
More than 500 birch bark letters have survived to this day, but, of course, there were many more. Their content is varied - these are notes about household affairs, letters from family members to each other, and even children's scribbles and drawings.
The birch bark letters of the boy Onfim are known. (Slide 27) The boy learned to read and write on them, and when he was tired he amused himself with drawing. On the document - Onfim himself, riding a horse and with a sword in his right hand, strikes the enemy with a spear. However, all birch bark letters are very interesting for scientists. They brought to us the spoken language of the ancient Slavs, as if they transported us into the past. (Slide 28)
Most of the ancient books that have survived to this day were written on parchment, which was made from calfskin. To make parchment, the skin was carefully processed: soaked, rubbed with chalk to absorb fat, smoothed with pumice, and dried. (Slide 29)
(Slide 30) Parchment was a very expensive material for a book; a whole herd was required. Because of the high cost of parchment, the text that was once written was often scraped out or washed away, and then a new one was written down. They wrote on parchment with a pen.
Vocabulary work: parchment
- What and with what did they write in Ancient Rus'?
(Children's answers)
6. Work on the card (Slide 31)
In Rus' they wrote in: and:, using for this: and:.
(Slide 32) They began to rewrite and translate books in Rus' under Vladimir the Saint, and this work was continued by his son Yaroslav the Wise
(Slide 33) In the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built by his will in 1037.
(Slide 34) We opened a workshop for creating books and a book depository with it.
Monks began to work there - scribes who not only translated books from Greek into Slavic, but also rewrote them.
7. Pimen’s monologue from the opera by M.P. Mussorgsky "Boris Godunov".
Close your eyes and imagine a narrow monastery cell. A monk sits within four blank walls. There is a candle in front of him. (Slide 35)
(Writes a book.)
- How did you determine this?
(The creaking of a pen can be heard.)
Indeed, in the recording one can hear the scratch of a pen on parchment paper.
(Slide 36) Census takers We lined a sheet of parchment with a special device to get an even line. The scribes' handwriting was large and clear, such handwriting is called charter. Each letter stood separately from one another, the text was written in a continuous line, and there was no division into words and phrases yet. The first letter on each page was necessarily decorated with patterns and written in red paint. (Slide 37)
Ink was made from ink nuts, cherry glue and other substances. The monks-scribes wrote mainly with goose quills, subjecting them to special treatment: they stuck them into sand or ash for a short time, and then scraped off what was unnecessary and sharpened them sharply.
(Slide 38) And how beautiful the finished book looked! Its pages are decorated with miniatures, its binding is made of thin wooden boards covered with leather, the binding has gold clasps, and there are metal corners on the corners so that the leather does not wear off. It is not surprising that our ancestors looked at the book as a treasure.
Only 493 books from the 11th-13th centuries have survived to this day.
8. Working with the textbook
Read the first paragraph on page 163 and answer the question
- What books did the scribes copy? (Slide 39)
(Bible, church books)
The Bible is the main book of all Christians. (Bible display, book)
- What books were considered handwritten?
(Books that were copied by hand)
- Who rewrote the books?
(Monks are scribes)
- Why are handwritten books considered the greatest value?
(Children's answers)
Vocabulary work: scribe, charter, Bible
(Slide 40) In the old days, the lives of famous people were often described. These records were called Lives. The Lives of many holy people, warriors, and princes have survived to this day: the Collection of Svyatoslav, the Ostromir Gospel, the Life of Fyodor of Pechersk, the Mstislav Gospel.
The library of Yaroslav the Wise became the first Russian library. Books from it were kept at the main temple of Kyiv - St. Sophia Cathedral and could be used by all residents
Vocabulary word: library
- Where were the books kept?
(In the library of St. Sophia Cathedral)
(Slide 43, 44) To strengthen the Orthodox faith and spread enlightenment in Rus', Yaroslav the Wise began to build new churches and monasteries. He invited artists and builders from Byzantium. They taught Russian craftsmen to build churches, paint icons and frescoes.
9. Working with the textbook
Read the last paragraph on page 163
- What did Yaroslav the Wise do to educate people?
(Opened schools, created books, built temples, monasteries)
IV. Consolidation
Let's open the last door of the distant past. (Slide 45)
1. Frontal conversation
- What events accelerated the creation of Slavic writing?
(The emergence of Christianity in Rus')
- What were the names of the first teachers of the Slavs? (Slide 46)
(Cyril and Methodius)
And our dear Rus' will glorify
Holy Apostles of the Slavs,
And, with the sweet sound of their names
Announcing your prayers,
From century to century, from generation to generation
She honors their memory! D. S. Likhachev
- What role did Yaroslav the Wise play for the development of literacy and education in Rus'?
(Slide 47)
(Under Yaroslav the Wise, literacy and Christian education spread in Rus')
2. Game "Third Man" (Slide 48)
- Cyril - Methodius - Vladimir.
- Copyist - scribe - artist.
- Birch bark - paper - parchment.
- Cyrillic - Glagolitic - hieroglyphics.
3. Work with cards
Connect concepts with their definitions
4. Task (Slide 49)
What happens if: “take a little oak, alder, and ash bark, boil them in water, and then throw in a piece of iron, add a ladle of sour cabbage soup and a mug of honey kvass” (Ink)
5. Mysterious letter (Slide 50)
In this mysterious letter, all the letters in the words were scattered and mixed up.
GAN TO I, KU B VA, N U CHECKS, BU A KZA, OLSA P And (Book, letter, students, alphabet, wrote)
(The underlined letter is the beginning of the word)
- What topic did we learn about in class today?
(Education and literacy in Rus')
- What new did you learn in class today?
(Children's answers)
VI. Grading
(Slide 51) We successfully walked through the labyrinths of history, opened all the doors and found a casket of knowledge.
Bibliography.
1. Gerasimova V.A. Class hours and conversations about Russian history: grades 7-11. - M.: TC Sfera, 2004. - 64 p.
2. Solovyova T.A., Rogaleva E.I. Historical topics of the course "The World around us": Activity-based developmental approach. 4th grade. - M.: VAKO, 2006. - 320 p. - (Teacher's Workshop).
3. Puzanov B.P., Borodina O.I., Sekovets L.S., Redkina N.M. History of Russia: Textbook. For 7th grade. special (correctional) educational institutions of the VIII type. - M Humanit. Ed. VLADOS Center, 2006. - 312 pp.: ill.
4. Puzanov B.P., Borodina O.I., Sekovets L.S., Redkina N.M. History lessons in the 7th grade of a special (correctional) general education school of the VIII type: textbook. - method. manual / Puzanov B.P., Borodina O.I., Sekovets L.S., Redkina N.M. - M.: Humanitarian. ed. VLADOS center, 2004. - 215 p. - (Correctional pedagogy)
CULTURE OF KIEVAN RUS
Writing and literacy in Kievan Rus. Literature. Architecture. Painting. Folklore. Craft.
In pre-revolutionary historiography, there was an opinion that Christianity brought culture to Rus', and before that the Slavs arrived in darkness and ignorance. The Russian Orthodox Church has always held the same opinion. Archaeological and written data available to historians today convince us that this is far from the case. Of course, Christianity had a great influence on Russian culture, but historical justice requires recognition. That long before the introduction of Orthodoxy by Vladimir, Rus' had its own rich and original culture.
WRITING AND LITERACYINKIEVAN Rus'
By the time Rus' adopted Christianity, Russia already had its own written language, epic epics, religion, rich traditions of wooden architecture, sculpture, many cities, and crafts had reached a high level of development. However, of course, Christianity gave impetus to the development of Russian culture, new types of art appeared, literacy and education took a step forward.
Literacy, writing and education became widespread in Kievan Rus. This is confirmed by both written and archaeological sources. From written sources, it should be noted the life of Cyril, in which he reports that he met a Slav in Chersonesos with the Gospel in the Slavic language, treaties concluded by Oleg with Byzantium written in two charters (copies) in Russian and Greek, etc. Among the archaeological finds, it is worth noting a clay vessel found by archaeologists near Smolensk dating back to the beginning of the 10th century with the inscription “gorushna” that spice, spindle whorls signed by girls, handicrafts signed by masters, and of course the famous birch bark letters. The first of which was found in 1951 during excavations in Novgorod by an archaeological expedition led by the famous archaeologist Yanina. Nowadays, the number of such letters is in the hundreds.
Thus. Writing and literacy in Rus' became widespread. This was facilitated by a number of favorable circumstances, which should include concern for the development of education of the Kiev princes - Vladimir and his son Yaroslav the Wise, who opened the first schools at the monasteries, the use of the native Slavic language as a church and literary language, as well as the complication of social relations and social life .
LITERATURE
The widespread literacy of the population of Kievan Rus contributed to the emergence, development, and rise of bright and original ancient Russian literature. The extent to which the educated people of the Old Russian state understood the benefits and importance of reading is indicated by the words of the chronicler: “There is great benefit from the teachings of books; books are instructing and teaching us on the path of repentance, for from the words of books we gain wisdom and abstinence. These are the rivers that fill the universe, these are the sources of wisdom, there is an invisible depth in books, with them we console ourselves in sorrow; they are the reins of temperance.”
Translated literature with religious, historical, and natural science content became very popular and widespread in Rus'.
The main works from which world history was studied were:
Chronicle of George Amartol
, dedicated to the events of world history from the Flood to 842.
Josephus' War of the Jews , which tells about the war (66-73 AD) between the Jews and the Romans and the events preceding it.
Chronicle of John Mala , consisting of eighteen books and containing retellings of Greek myths, biblical history, and major events of ancient history.
Alexandri I, a story about the life and campaigns of Alexander the Great.
As for religious literature, the works of ancient theologians were well known in Kievan Rus: Athosius of Alexandria, Basil of Kesoria, George the Theologian, John Chrysostom.
Of the numerous works of a religious nature, the lives of saints were especially popular in Kievan Rus. Of these, it should be noted:
Life of St. Alexia
, about a rich young man who left his father’s house, wife, wealth for the sake of spiritual service to the Lord.
Life of St. St. George the Victorious
, telling about the life, exploits and death of the Roman Youth George, famous for his victory over the serpent, and who accepted martyrdom for opposing the persecution of Christians organized by Emperor Diocletian.
At the same time, national literature is actively developing. Such bright and original works of ancient Russian literature have come down to us as the Word on Law and Grace of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion, the Teaching of Vladimir to the Monomakhs to children, the Legend of Boris and Gleb, the Prayer of Daniel the Zatochnik, the Life of Theodosius of Pechersk, the Walk of Abbot Daniel, the Word of Paul Igor, the apocryphal Walk Mother of God in agony.
A Word on Law and Grace , the first national work of Kievan Rus that has come down to us, spoken by the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion (1051-1054) . In his Word, Hilarion makes a brief overview of biblical events, from which he gradually moves on to the baptism of Rus' by Vladimir. Thus, proclaiming the political equality of Rus' with other Christian powers.
Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh , contains Monomakh’s story about his life and instructions to children: live in peace, respect elders, do not offend the weak, etc.
The Legend of Boris and Gleb talks about the strife in Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise and the murder of his brothers Boris and Gleb by Yaropolk.
A Word about Igor's Campaign tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor against the Polovtsians in 1185. The word contains a call for the unity of the Russian land and a condemnation of princely civil strife.
In apocrypha Walking of the Virgin Mary According to the torment, which became widespread in Rus', it tells about the descent of the Mother of God into hell, accompanied by the Archangel Michael, who showed her the torment of sinners.
In this book there is no point in listing all ancient Russian works and retelling their contents. These days these works are widely known and publicly available. They are included in the golden fund of Russian literature. And some, like the Tale of Igor’s Campaign, have worldwide fame and recognition.
ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is an important indicator of the level of cultural development. Before the adoption of Christianity by Russia, most architectural structures were wooden. But with the adoption of Orthodoxy in Rus', stone construction appeared. From Byzantium, Rus' borrowed the cross-domed type of temple construction. The basis of the cross-domed church was a square divided by four or six pillars, which created an architectural cross, above which the dome rose.
One of the first stone buildings in Rus' was the Church of the Tithes, erected by Vladimir in honor of the baptism of Rus'. Unfortunately, this architectural monument was destroyed during the Mongol Tatar invasion. Only the foundation has survived to this day.
Another masterpiece of Kievan Rus' architecture was the famous St. Sophia Cathedral, built in Kyiv by Vladimir's son Yaroslav the Wise. With the construction of this temple, Yaroslav sought to emphasize the religious independence of Rus' from Byzantium. St. Sophia Cathedral for a long time became the main temple of Kievan Rus.
In the 11th century their own St. Sophia cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk. Other architectural monuments include the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl built by Yuri Dolgoruky in honor of the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb, as well as the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Cathedral of St. George in Yuryev. A large number of churches were built in other cities of Kievan Rus. Among secular architectural buildings, mention should be made of the white stone palace of Andrei Bogolyubsky in Bogolyubovo, which he rebuilt with extraordinary pomp.
PAINTING
Painting in Kievan Rus was also at a very high level. The walls of the temples were decorated with frescoes, mosaics, and smalt.
Fresco - painting with water paints on wet plaster. As a rule, frescoes were painted on religious themes. They depicted the Mother of God, angels, saints, and scenes of the Last Judgment. One of the few secular frescoes that have come down to us is the image of the family of Yaroslav the Wise in Sophia of Kiev, which depicts Yaroslav himself, his daughters Anna, Elizabeth, Irina, and sons Vladimir, Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod and Vyacheslav. In addition to the Kyiv Sofia, churches in Rostov, Suzdal, Chernigov and other cities were decorated with frescoes.
Another decoration of the temples was mosaics. Kievskaya. Mosaic is a pattern or image made of pieces of smalt, ceramics, marble, stone. For example, a mosaic image of the praying Mother of God is in the Kyiv Sophia Church.
The mosaic was made of smalt - opaque colored glass. Smalt had a huge number of shades. There are 130 shades in the mosaic palette of the St. Sophia Cathedral.
Icons were a necessary element in the decoration of churches. The first icon painters in Rus' were Greek masters. In particular, the main shrine of Rus', the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, was painted by an unknown Greek icon painter. But very soon icon painters began to appear in Rus', not inferior in skill to the Greeks. History has preserved for us the names of Russian icon painters XI in Alimpia, Georgiy, Olisia. Icons made by Russian masters have survived to this day: Angel with golden hair, Savior not made by hands. Dormition of the Virgin Mary and others.
FOLKLORE
Oral folk art in Rus' was very rich and varied - folklore: epics, fairy tales, tales, songs, spells, riddles, proverbs and sayings, etc. Oral folk art reflected the soul of the people, their level of culture, character and worldview. Therefore, oral folk art is a whole layer of folk, rich, original culture.
Of course, epic stories in which real events of the past are reflected deserve special attention from historians. In Kievan Rus there were two main epic cycles: Kievan and Novgorod. The main characters of the Kyiv cycle were the prince and the heroes. In the image of Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, as historians believe, the features of two real Vladimirs merged: Vladimir the Saint and Vladimir Monomakh. Epic heroes are the main defenders of the people and the Russian land from external enemies. The main heroes of the Kyiv cycle were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. The Kyiv epics reflected the real struggle of the Russian people with the nomads: the Pechenegs and Polovtsians. The heroes of the Novgorod cycle were merchants and boyars. The Novgorod cycle reflected the features of the veche system of the boyar Novgorod republic.
It should be noted that oral folk art had a significant impact on the development of Russian national literature.
CRAFT
Soviet archaeologists, based on the found remains of craft workshops and handicraft products, established that craft in the pre-Mongol period in Rus' also reached a high level of development. In Kievan Rus, there were artisans of many specialties: blacksmiths, potters, jewelers, carpenters, coopers, tanners, glassmakers, stonemasons. In total, Academician B.A. Rybakov in his famous book “The Craft of Ancient Rus'” lists more than 60 craftsmen in Rus'.
Blacksmiths were able to produce technically more complex products, such as a lock consisting of forty parts or knives with a self-sharpening blade, high-quality armor and weapons. The products of Russian blacksmiths were in great demand far beyond the borders of Rus'.
Jewelers made gold and silver items, which were decorated with granulation, filigree, and cloisonné enamel.
Grain - tiny droplets of metal that were applied to the metal surface of the product. Along the previously drawn lines of the design, thus forming a pattern on the jewelry.
Filigree
- a pattern made of the finest gold, silver or copper wire, which was then soldered to the surface of the object or soldered with another pattern.
Cloisonne enamel is a technique of artistic metal processing, when the contour of the future image is scratched on a metal base with a thin wire, then metal strips-partitions are soldered along the applied contour, which create closed cells. These cells are filled with enamel to the upper edge of the partitions. Then the surface of the resulting product is fired and polished.
Glassmakers made glass bracelets. beads, vessels, window glass. The houses of the feudal nobility were usually decorated with mica windows, while for princely mansions and churches glass windows were common.
Potters, using a potter's wheel and a forge, made various clay products: amphora, pots, decorative building tiles, toys, dishes, plinths, lamps and many other things. Ceramics were decorated with an enamel pattern, which was not yet known in Western Europe.
Tanners also made a variety of leather products: wallets, knife sheaths, boots and boots. The main footwear of ancient Russian townspeople were shoes and boots made of leather. For example, in Veliky Novgorod, over 50 years, 20 thousand pairs of boots and more than one pair of bast shoes were found, although archaeologists note that if the bast shoes had been preserved, they should have been preserved in the same way as birch bark letters.
Thus, material and spiritual culture in ancient Rus' was at a very high level. But it was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. More will be said about this later.
Author: © Copyright: Historian, 2014
Certificate of publication No. 214062302137