1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity
Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.
At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, scientific research. By making core values life goals human, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.
3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society
Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.
It is from this cultural and historical period that the history of human civilization begins, man is formed, society emerges, and such forms of human spirituality as religion, morality, and art are born.
4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture
The main features of the culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious beliefs and the cult of the dead. Characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.
Literary memos: “Texts of the pyramids”, “ Book of the Dead", "Texts of the Sarcophagi", "Song of the Harper".
5. Ancient mythology in world culture
Writers and artists from various European countries began to take episodes from ancient Greek mythology as the plots of their works. Some works of outstanding Italian artists of the Renaissance are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities -
Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. The outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto took the plot from the images of ancient Greek mythology for his wonderful statue of Perseus Cellini.
A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.
Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.
Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,
Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.
6. Main characteristics of Greek culture
Greek culture entered the arena of history earlier than Roman culture and developed in the territory that occupied southern part the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the coasts of Asia Minor, the Aegean and Ionian seas and the adjacent islands. Moreover, researchers note that civilization on Greek soil arose, as it were, twice with a fairly large time gap.
The Greeks actively adopted scientific and technical advances other peoples. Therefore the whole story Ancient Greece now it's common to share in the following way:
I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);
II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);
III. The era of ancient civilization itself:
1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);
2. classical period(V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture, the development of democracy;
3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.
7. Artistic culture of classical Greece
At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths it reflected the struggle of the people against external enemies, for political equality and social justice.
5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order. The heroic character of classical art is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.
The great sculptor Myron, who worked in the middle of the 5th century in Athens, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of visual arts. This is his bronze “Discobolus”, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their totality made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.
For the Greek painter, realistic depiction of nature became a top priority. To a famous artist Polygnotus (who worked between 470 and 440) was responsible for an innovation in this area that now seems to us perhaps naive, but which then produced a revolution in painting.
8. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome
Rome becomes the heir to Hellenic civilization. Unlike Athens, Rome did not create a high culture during the period of its formation and prosperity as a city-country. Roman mythology was more primitive than Greek. Only under the influence of the Greeks did images of gods begin to be made and temples were built. The Greek gods were taken as an example.
9. Interaction of Byzantine and Old Russian culture
IN last years Historians, philosophers, philologists, and art historians are actively developing a wide range of topics on the problem of dialogue of cultures. Among them is the question of the stylistic correlation of ancient Russian art. The thesis that the Eastern Christian civilization that developed in Byzantium had great importance and a long period of influence on the formation and development of the cultures of the Slavic peoples is considered generally accepted today. The study of the perception and processing of this heritage - especially in the field of art - is necessary to understand many processes and phenomena that took place both in Byzantium itself and in the countries adjacent to it.
Research on Byzantine-Russian contacts in the artistic and aesthetic field was carried out in Russian and foreign science more than two centuries, during which a significant amount of information was accumulated about Byzantine reminiscences in Russian medieval art. The range of opinions is quite wide. Until recently, there have been debates around the terminology to denote the cultural relations of Byzantium and Rus' (influence, transplantation, mimesis, dialogue, etc.), due to the polysemanticism of concepts typical of humanitarian knowledge. Scientists are determining the intensity of this process in specific chronological periods, the degree of Byzantine influence on ancient Russian architecture, painting, iconography, arts and crafts.
10. Fundamentals of the worldview of Byzantium and its role in the development of culture
Byzantine culture absorbed the ancient heritage and culture of the peoples who inhabited it. However, the influence of antiquity was emasculated by the church and despotism. In Byzantium there was folk culture: epics, fables, folk songs, pagan festivals. The difference between Byzantine culture and Western culture is the weak cultural influence of the barbarians.
The centers of Byzantine culture are Constantinople, provincial centers, monasteries, feudal estates. Through Byzantium, which existed until the 12th century. the most cultural state in Europe, Roman law and ancient literary sources that were lost in the West have reached us. Greek scientists and artists made a significant contribution to the world cultural process and its development. Byzantine craft technology, architecture, painting, literature, natural science, civil canon law contributed to the formation medieval culture other peoples.
11. Basic forms of Byzantine art
1. Architecture.
2. Temple painting (mosaic, fresco).
3. Iconography
4. Book miniature.
12. Historical conditions for the formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages
The condition for the formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages was Christianity in the form of capitalism. This was no longer the primitive Christianity characteristic of the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire.
13. Formation of artistic principles of medieval art
Religion is more than wary of female beauty. In Christianity, physical beauty is traditionally recognized as illusory and deceptive, and the inquisitors generally saw almost the same in a beautiful female face sure sign witchcraft is like flying on a broom.
Meanwhile, the attitude towards female beauty in itself in Judaism is perhaps even more strict than in Christianity. Listen to women's singing, admire woman's face forbidden. And in the Talmud you can find many statements like the following: “Whoever passes money from hand to hand to a woman with the intention of looking at her will not escape hell, even if he is full of Torah and good deeds, like Mosherabeinu” (Iruvin 18).
But still, in continuation of the previously touched upon topic of “Day of Love,” I would like to talk today about an “unpopular” alternative approach. I would like to consider the question of whether there is a positive religious meaning in female beauty, and if so, what is it.
Cult female beauty essentially known to only one single culture - European. This cult, if not born, was at least formed under the skies of Provence in the work of the troubadours, who discovered the so-called “courtly love,” i.e. - selfless admiration for the Lady. This cult, of course, made sense only in the broader context of knightly service.
Introduction
The transformations of Peter the Great, his activities, personality, role in the fate of Russia are questions that interest and attract the attention of researchers of our time no less than in past centuries.
Peter was not like his predecessors either in appearance or in his lively and open character. Peter's personality is very complex and contradictory, but at the same time Peter I was a very integral person. In all his endeavors, sometimes very contradictory, there was still a rational grain. It is impossible to consider the activities of Peter without taking into account the fact that out of the 36 years of his reign, only about 1.5 years Russia was in a state complete peace. Constant military actions influenced the course of reforms and, in general, all domestic and foreign policies.
The old never leaves the public stage voluntarily, and the new is always born in tough battles with the outdated. Peter had to fight many prejudices and remnants, which sometimes turned out to be too strong to break them at the first blow.
Over the course of several decades, a new control system is built, the first printed newspaper, the first military and vocational schools were opened, and the first printing houses arose. The first museum in the country. First public library. The first public theaters. The first parks. Finally, the first decree on the organization of the Academy of Sciences.
This list can be continued for a long time, but I would like to highlight the navy, which is rightfully considered the brainchild of Peter, since it was previously absent from Russia. Also a regular army, superbly trained, and equally well armed.
Evaluating positive value Peter's transformations in the history of Russia, we must remember that Peter's policy was of a class nature. The transformation of the era was carried out at the expense of huge losses of the working population. It was through his efforts that St. Petersburg was built, ships were built, fortresses, ditches and palaces were built. New burdens fell on the shoulders of the people: taxes were increased, recruitment was introduced, mobilizations were carried out for construction works. Russian soldiers showed miracles of courage in battles glorious victories near Lesnaya, Poltava, Gangut and Grengam.
Thanks to Peter's foreign policy, political isolation was ended, and Russia's international prestige was strengthened. The rapid growth of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century amazes not only us, but also amazed Peter’s contemporaries. All of Europe at that time watched and marveled at how this state awakened the forces dormant within and revealed the energy potential that it had hidden in its depths for so long.
In my essay, I would like to move away from the personality of Peter and delve more deeply into the depths of the transformations themselves.
But before proceeding directly to reforms, I think we need to think about the reasons for the need for such serious reforms.
Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I
Before considering the reform activities of Peter, let us remember what Russia was like at the end of the 17th century.
The vast territory and “otherness” of Russia from Western countries immediately struck the eyes of foreigners who visited Russia. Many of them Moscow State seemed backward and even “half-wild.” This lag was due to a number of reasons. It took many years to overcome the devastation caused by the “turmoil” and intervention early XVII c., when the most economically developed regions of the country were devastated. But ruinous wars, of course, are not the only and main reason this backlog. The decisive influence on the development of the country, according to a number of historians (V.O. Klyuchevsky, N.I. Pavlenko, S.M. Solovyov), was exerted by its natural, geographical and social conditions.
Industry was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.
Russian army a significant part consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.
Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Education hardly penetrated the masses, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.
Russia XVII century, the very course of historical development was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure its worthy place among the states of the West and the East.
It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country, significant shifts in its development had already occurred.
The first ones arose industrial enterprises manufacturing type, handicrafts and crafts grew, trade in agricultural products developed. The social and geographical division of labor has continuously increased - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market. The city was separated from the village. Fishing and agricultural areas were identified. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Belinsky was right when he spoke about the affairs and people of pre-Petrine Russia: “My God, what eras, what faces! Yes, there would be several Shakespeares and Walter Scotts!” The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with it, used its technology and science, perceived its culture and enlightenment. Studying and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was necessary. This was a time of accumulation of strength of the Russian people, which made it possible to implement the grandiose reforms of Peter, prepared by the very course of the historical development of Russia.
Peter's reforms were prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "demanded by the people." Already before Peter, a fairly integral reform program had been drawn up, which in many ways coincided with Peter’s reforms, in others going even further than them. A general transformation was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could last for whole line generations. The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal matter, an unparalleled violent matter and, however, involuntary and necessary.
The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: military, government and administration, class structure of Russian society, taxation, church, as well as in the field of culture and everyday life.
Transformations carried out by Peter I in the 18th - 18th centuries. were not consistent and did not have a single plan; their order and features were dictated by the course of the war, political and financial opportunities in a given period. Historians distinguish three stages in the reforms of Peter I:
The first (1699-1709\10) - changes in the system of government institutions and the creation of new ones, changes in the local government system, and the establishment of a recruitment system.
The second (1710\11-1718\19) - the creation of the Senate and the liquidation of previous higher institutions, the first regional reform, holding a new military policy, extensive construction of the fleet, establishment of legislation, transfer of government institutions from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
The third (1719\20-1725\26) - the beginning of the work of new, already created institutions, the liquidation of old ones; second regional reform; expansion and reorganization of the army, reform of church government; financial reform; introduction new system taxation and new order civil service.
The judicial reform carried out in 1719 streamlined, centralized and strengthened the entire judicial system of Russia. Judicial reform has appeared constituent element reforms of central and local authorities state apparatus. The Justice Collegium, court courts in the provinces and lower courts in the provinces were established.
The main objective of the reform is to separate the court from the administration. However, the idea of separating the court from the administration and, in general, the idea of separation of powers, borrowed from the West, did not correspond Russian conditions beginning of the 18th century The idea of separation of powers is characteristic of feudalism in the conditions of its growing crisis, which is disintegrating under the onslaught of the bourgeoisie. In Russia, the bourgeois elements were still too weak to “master” the concession they made in the form of a court independent of the administration.
At the head of the judicial system was the monarch, who decided the most important state affairs. He was the chief judge and dealt with many cases on his own. On his initiative, “offices of investigative cases” arose, which helped him carry out judicial functions. The prosecutor general and chief prosecutor were subject to the king's trial.
The next judicial body was the Senate, which was the court of appeal, gave explanations to the courts and examined some cases. Senators were subject to trial by the Senate (for official crimes).
The Justice Collegium was a court of appeal in relation to the court courts, was the governing body over all courts, and tried some cases as a court of first instance.
Regional courts consisted of court and lower courts. The presidents of the court courts were governors and vice-governors. Cases moved from the lower court to the court court by way of appeal if the court decided the case in a biased manner, by order of a higher court or by decision of a judge. If the verdict concerned the death penalty, the case was also referred to the court for approval.
Almost all boards performed judicial functions, with the exception of the Board of Foreign Affairs. Political affairs were considered by the Preobrazhensky Order and the Secret Chancellery. The order of cases through the courts was confused, governors and voivodes interfered in judicial cases, and judges interfered in administrative ones.
In this regard, a new reorganization of the judiciary was carried out: the lower courts were replaced by provincial ones (1722) and were placed at the disposal of governors and assessors; court courts were liquidated and their functions were transferred to governors (1727).
Thus, the court and administration again merged into one body. Some categories of cases were completely removed from the general judicial system and were placed under the jurisdiction of other administrative bodies (Synod, orders and others). In Ukraine, the Baltic states and Muslim regions there were special judicial systems.
Features of the development of procedural legislation and judicial practice in Russia was the replacement of the adversarial principle with the investigative principle, which was determined by the aggravation class struggle. The general trend in the development of procedural legislation and judicial practice of previous centuries is a gradual increase specific gravity search to the detriment of the so-called court - led to the complete victory of the search at the beginning of the reign of Peter I. Vladimirsky-Budanov believed that “before Peter the Great, in general, adversarial forms of the process should still be recognized a common phenomenon, and investigative ones are an exception.” S.V. Yushkov held a different point of view. He believed that at this time only “less important criminal and civil cases ... were considered in the accusatory process, i.e., the so-called trial.” M.A. Cheltsov spoke about “the last remnants of the adversarial process (the ancient “court”),” which, according to him, disappear under Peter I.. It seems, however, that the search cannot be considered the dominant form of the process even before Peter I, but it cannot be considered an exception.
Speaking about the development of procedural law under Peter I, it is necessary to note the unplanned, chaotic nature of reforms in the field of judicial system and legal proceedings. There were three laws of procedural legislation at the end of the 18th century - beginning of the 18th century. One of them was the Decree of February 21, 1697. "On the abolition of confrontations in court cases, on the existence instead of questioning and searching...", the main content of which was complete replacement wanted by the courts. The decree itself does not create fundamentally new forms of process. He uses already known forms of search that have developed over centuries.
The law is very short, it contains only the basic, fundamental provisions. Consequently, it did not replace the previous legislation on search, but, on the contrary, assumed its use within the required limits. This is clearly seen from the decree of March 16, 1697, issued in addition to and development of the February decree. The March decree says: “which articles in the Code should be searched and those articles should be searched as before.”
The decree of February 21, 1697 was supplemented and developed by a “Brief Description of Processes or Litigations.” The first edition appeared before 1715, perhaps in 1712. The “Brief Image” was a code of military procedure that established general principles search process. It established the system of judicial bodies, as well as the composition and procedure for forming the court. IN " Brief image"contains procedural norms; provides a definition trial, its types are qualified; a definition is given to the new institutions of the process of that time (salf conduction, approval of the answer); the system of evidence is determined; the procedure for drawing up the announcement and appealing the verdict is established; The rules on torture are being systematized.
By decree of November 5, 1723 “On the Form of the Court” the investigative form of the process was abolished and the principle of an adversarial process was introduced. For the first time, it is required that the sentence be based on “decent” (relevant) articles of the substantive law. The changes introduced by the Decree “On the Form of the Court” were not so fundamental. In fact, the decree was created as a development of the “Brief Image”.
The judicial system of the period of Peter's reforms was characterized by a process of increased centralization and bureaucratization, the development of class justice and served the interests of the nobility.
Military reforms
Military reforms occupy a special place among Peter's reforms. Military reforms are important not only in themselves. They had a great, sometimes decisive influence on transformations in other areas. “The war indicated the order of reform, gave it the tempo and the very methods,” wrote the outstanding Russian historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. It was the task of creating a modern, combat-ready army and navy that occupied the young tsar even before he became a sovereign sovereign. WITH early childhood Peter was fascinated by military affairs. In the villages where the little tsar lived, he created two “amusing” regiments: Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - according to completely new rules that met European standards. By 1692 these regiments were finally formed. Other regiments were later created based on their model.
The army that Peter inherited was hereditary and self-sufficient. Each warrior went on a campaign and supported himself in the army for own funds. None special education there was no uniform in the army, just as there was no uniform uniform or weapons. Leadership positions in the army were held not due to merit or special education, and, as stated by the breed. In other words, the army was not the force that could resist the contemporary European army, from which by the end of the 17th century it was more than lagging behind.
“Peter’s father, Alexei Mikhailovich, made attempts to reorganize the army. Under him, in 1681, a commission was created under the chairmanship of Prince V.V. Golitsyn, which was supposed to change the structure of the army. Some changes were made: the army became more structured, now it was divided into regiments and companies, and officers were appointed based on experience and merit, rather than on origin. On January 12, 1682, the Boyar Duma adopted a resolution stating that an ignorant person, but an experienced and knowledgeable one, can become a senior officer, and everyone, regardless of origin, must obey him.”
Thanks to these changes, the Moscow army became more organized and structured. But still this military organization could not be called a real regular army due to the huge number of remnants preserved from ancient times, some of them dating back to the reign of Vasily III.
Thus, Peter received an army, although it did not meet all the requirements military science, but to some extent already prepared for further transformations.
Peter's main step was the destruction of the archers. The essence of military reform was the elimination noble militias and the organization of a permanent combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and regulations. Peter I entrusted military training to Automon Golovin and Adam Weide. The training of officers and soldiers was no longer carried out according to military custom (as in the 17th century), but according to the “article”, according to a single drill manual.
The navy was created during the wars with Turkey and Sweden. With the help of the Russian fleet, Russia established itself on the shores of the Baltic, which raised its international prestige and made it sea power. His life and work were determined by the “Naval Charter”. The fleet was built in both the south and north of the country. The main efforts were focused on creating the Baltic Fleet.
In 1708, the first 28-gun frigate in the Baltic was launched, and 20 years later the Russian fleet in the Baltic Sea was the most powerful: 32 battleships, 16 frigates, 8 ships, 85 galleys and other small vessels. Recruitment into the fleet was also carried out from recruits. For training in maritime affairs, instructions were compiled: “Ship article”, “Instructions and military articles Russian fleet" and etc.
In 1715, it was opened in St. Petersburg Marine Academy, which trained naval officers. In 1716, the training of officers through the midshipman company began. It was then created Marines. At the same time, the army and navy were integral part absolutist state were a tool for strengthening the dominance of the nobility.
With the formation of the fleet, its charter was also created. The beginnings of the naval charter are 15 articles compiled by Peter I during his voyage on galleys to Azov in 1696. In 1715, Peter began to compile a more complete naval charter, which was published in 1720. - “The book of the charter of the sea, about everything that concerns good governance when the fleet is at sea.” Peter's naval regulations were distinguished by their originality and were the result of his many years of combat experience.
Peter I also radically changed the system of military administration. Instead of numerous orders (Discharge Order, Order of Military Affairs, Order of the Commissar General, Order of Artillery, etc.), between which it was previously fragmented military administration, Peter I established the Military and Admiralty Collegiums to lead the army and navy respectively, thereby strictly centralizing military administration.
Thus, reforms in the field of organization of the armed forces were most successful. As a result, Russia became a militarily powerful state that the whole world had to reckon with.
The church reform of Peter played an important role in the establishment of absolutism. In the second half of the 17th century. The position of the Russian Orthodox Church was very strong; it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the tsarist government. The last patriarchs were Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700). pursued policies aimed at strengthening these positions. The turn to a new policy occurred after the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter orders an audit to take a census of the property of the Patriarchal House. Taking advantage of the information about the revealed abuses, Peter cancels the election of a new patriarch, at the same time entrusting Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan with the post of “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.” In 1701, the Monastic Prikaz was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church. The Church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.
Peter sought to protect himself from the influence of the church, in connection with this he begins to limit the rights of the church and its head: a council of bishops was created, which met periodically in Moscow, and then, in 1711, after the creation of the Synod, the head of the church lost the final touches of independence. Thus, the church was completely subordinate to the state. But the king understood perfectly well that subordination of the church to a simple governing body was impossible. And in 1721, the Holy Synod was created, which was in charge of the affairs of the church. “The Synod was placed on a par with the Senate, above all other collegiums and administrative bodies. The structure of the Synod was no different from the structure of any college. The Synod consisted of 12 people. The Synod was headed by a president, 2 vice-presidents, 4 advisers, 5 assessors.”
“By decree of January 25, 1721, the Synod was founded, and already on January 27, pre-convened members of the Synod took the oath and on February 14, 1721 the grand opening took place. The spiritual regulations for guiding the activities of the Synod were written by Feofan Prokopovich and corrected and approved by the tsar.”
Spiritual regulations are legislative act, which determined the functions, rights and responsibilities of the Synod, its members for the management of the Russian Orthodox Church. He equated members of the Synod with members of other government institutions. The Church was now completely subordinate secular power. Even the secret of confession was violated. By decree of the Synod of March 26, 1722, all priests were ordered to inform the authorities of the intention of the confessor to commit treason or rebellion. In 1722, the church reform was completed by establishing the position of chief prosecutor of the Synod. Thus, the church lost its independent political role and turned into component bureaucratic apparatus. It is not surprising that such innovations caused discontent among the clergy; it was for this reason that they were on the side of the opposition and participated in reactionary conspiracies.
Not only did the appearance of church governance change, but radical changes took place within the church. Peter did not favor either “white” or “black” monks. Seeing the monasteries as an unjustified expense, the tsar decided to reduce financial expenditures in this area, declaring that he would show the monks the path to holiness not with sturgeon, honey and wine, but with bread, water and work for the good of Russia. For this reason, the monasteries were subject to certain taxes; in addition, they had to engage in carpentry, icon painting, spinning, sewing, etc. - all that was not contraindicated to monasticism.
Peter himself explained the creation of this type of government and organization of the church as follows: “From the conciliar government, the Fatherland need not fear the rebellions and embarrassment that come from a single spiritual government of its own...” As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and became part of state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.
Related information.
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms
I………………………………………………………4
2.Expansion of noble privileges……………………………………………………..5
3. The policy of mercantilism……………………………………………………...6
4.Judicial reform……………………………………………………………...8
5.Military reforms……………………………………………………………..11
6. Church reform. ………………………………………………………….14
7. Culture under Peter
I ………………………………………………………...15
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………17
Introduction
According to many historians, the most striking example of carrying out an entire complex government reforms over a relatively short period of time, are the reforms of Peter I, which allowed Russia in just a quarter of a century to turn from a culturally, economically and militarily backward country into one of the leading European states.
Peter the Great went down in the history of the Russian State as the Greatest Reformer. The transformations carried out by him affected all aspects of the life of the huge state and covered all areas of domestic and foreign policy.
Peter's reforms, which affected almost all spheres of life Russian state, without a doubt, had a decisive influence on the entire further move historical process in our country.
The great reformer transformed into government system numerous changes: made judicial and military reform, changed the administrative division, actively participated in the drafting of legal codes, etc.
The objectives of my essay are: study of the prerequisites of Peter’s reforms, analysis of Peter’s main reforms I, consideration of the historical significance of Peter's reforms.
1. Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I.
What kind of Russia did Peter get? First of all, it can be noted that in the economy at the beginning of the 18th century. New features that arose in the 17th century developed most strongly. Manufacturing production took shape in places where commodity production developed. If Western European manufactory operated on the basis of civilian labor, then Russian manufactory was based on the labor of serfs, because the civilian labor market in Russia, where it was dominated serfdom, was practically absent.
At the end of the 17th century. Trade developed intensively in Russia. But there were significant obstacles to the development of trade and merchants. The issue of access to the seas was acute, the absence of which hampered the development of trade. Foreign capital sought to seize Russian markets, which led to a clash with the interests of Russian merchants. The Russian merchants demanded that the state protect them from competition with foreign traders. As a result, a new trade charter was adopted (1667), according to which foreign merchants were prohibited from retail trade in Russia.
It can also be noted that in the second half of the 17th century. in Russia there is a developing trend of transition from an estate-based representative monarchy to an absolute monarchy. The power of the tsar is strengthening in the country (change in the composition of the Boyar Duma, towards the nobility; the victory of Alexei Mikhailovich over Patriarch Nikon, who sought to actively intervene in government; the practical cessation of convocations Zemsky Sobors; abolition of localism, principle of occupation public office depending on the nobility of the family and the official position of the ancestors). The issue of reforming the armed forces was acute.
As for foreign policy. Then Russia suffered defeat with Poland, and two unsuccessful campaigns against the Crimean Khanate were also undertaken in 1687 and 1689.
Transformations carried out by Peter I in the 18th - 18th centuries. were not consistent and did not have a single plan; their order and features were dictated by the course of the war, political and financial opportunities in a given period. Historians distinguish three stages in the reforms of Peter I.
The first (1699-1709\10) - changes in the system of government institutions and the creation of new ones, changes in the local government system, and the establishment of a recruitment system.
The second (1710\11-1718\19) - the creation of the Senate and the liquidation of previous higher institutions, the first regional reform, the implementation of a new military policy, extensive construction of the fleet, the establishment of legislation, the transfer of government institutions from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
The third (1719\20-1725\26) - the beginning of the work of new, already created institutions, the liquidation of old ones; second regional reform; expansion and reorganization of the army, reform of church government; financial reform; introduction of a new taxation system and a new civil service procedure.
2. Expansion of noble privileges.
In the first quarter of the 18th century. There was a merger of two forms of feudal land ownership - patrimony and estate. In 1714, a decree on single inheritance was issued. From now on, the estate, like the patrimony, was inherited by the eldest son. Other sons had to go into military or civil service. Noble service under Peter I was for life. In 1722, Peter I issued the Charter of Succession to the Throne, according to which the monarch could determine his successor “recognizing the convenient one” and had the right, seeing “indecency in the heir,” to deprive him of the throne “seeing him worthy.” The legislation of that time defined actions against the tsar and the state as the most serious crimes, and anyone “who will plot any evil” and those who “helped or gave advice or without knowing it” were punished by having their nostrils pulled out, death penalty or deportation to the galleys, depending on the crime.
The civil service was regulated by the “Table of Ranks” introduced in 1722. New law divided service into civil and military. It defined 14 ranks that employees had to pass from step to step. Instead of the localism abolished in 1682, the principle of seniority was introduced. The “Table of Ranks” made it possible for non-nobles to receive hereditary nobility. Anyone who received the rank of 8th grade became hereditary nobleman. The ranks from the 14th to the 9th also gave nobility, but only personal. All nobles, new and old, received land and peasants. During the Peter the Great era, hundreds of thousands of peasants from among the state and palace peasants moved into private ownership.
3. The policy of mercantilism.
In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The encouragement of “useful and necessary” types of production and trades from the state’s point of view was combined with the prohibition and limitation of the production of “unnecessary” goods. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern.
Until the beginning of the 18th century. Russia imported iron, copper, guns, cloth, silver, and tin from abroad. The main supplier of metal was Sweden. Naturally, with the outbreak of the war, supplies from Sweden stopped.
The development of metallurgical production has become a vital need of the country. The government took frantic measures to build factories. Instead of 15-20 pre-Petrine manufactories, about 200 enterprises were created in the first quarter of the 18th century. The main metallurgical center moved to the Urals.
The Nevyansk and Tobolsk factories of N. Demidov appeared, in St. Petersburg the Sestroretsk plant produced weapons, anchors, and nails. The Arsenal and the Admiralty Shipyard grew in the capital, from the stocks of which 59 large and over 200 small ships rolled off during Peter’s lifetime. The first silver smelting plant was built in Nerchinsk in 1704.
By 1725, the country had 25 textile enterprises, rope and gunpowder factories. For the first time, paper, cement, sugar factories and even a trellis factory for wallpaper production. The success of Russian metallurgy in the Petrine era is also evidenced by the fact that by the end of Petrine rule, the export of Russian goods was twice as high as imports. At the same time, high customs tariffs (up to 40% in foreign currency) reliably protected the domestic market.
Height industrial production was accompanied by an intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, who were assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor.
Craft production continued to play a huge role. Urban and rural artisans produced shoes, linens, cloth, leather, saddles, etc. New types of craft appeared. Braid makers, snuff makers, carriage makers, hat makers, and hairdressers appeared in the cities.
Reforms also covered this area of production. According to the decree of 1722, masters of each craft specialty were united into guilds. In the workshops, foremen were elected who monitored the quality of products and the admission to masters. A period of 7 years was established for students, after which they were transferred to apprentices for two years. There were 146 workshops in Moscow. The creation of workshops, on the one hand, reflected the high level of development of the craft, and on the other hand, it complicated its development and singled out artisans as a special class of feudal society.
In the field of internal and foreign trade In Peter's time, the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, furs, lard, caviar, bread, wine, wax, bristles, etc.) played a major role, which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with abroad. At the same time, the importance of the richest merchants of the “trading hundred” fell. Important points fairs remained for the exchange of goods. The development of trade and the all-Russian market was facilitated by the improvement of communications, the construction of canals on waterways (Vyshnevolotsky, Ladozhsky, etc.), as well as the abolition of internal customs duties in 1754.
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Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I
By the beginning of the reign of Peter the Great, Russia could be called a rather backward country. The developing industry was significantly inferior in quality and volume of goods produced to large European countries. At the same time, it used the labor of serfs, and not technology. Agriculture was also based solely on the forced labor of the impoverished and tormented serf peasants.
Prerequisites for the military reforms of Peter I
The Russian army did not have a fleet to conduct combat operations at sea. In addition, it largely consisted of poorly trained and poorly armed representatives of the nobility and archers. Not everything was in order at the managerial level either. Clumsy and complex former state machine with the boyar aristocracy at its head, although it was quite expensive, it no longer met the needs of Russia.
Prerequisites for transformations in the field of culture
No less deplorable things were in the field of culture, science and social life, generally. Education hardly penetrated into the robbed and downtrodden people. It is worth noting that in the ruling circles at that time it was not considered something negative to not know how to read and write. This is not surprising, since there were almost no schools in the country, and book culture and literacy were the property of a select rich class. Contemporaries note that even most of the clergy and boyars were afraid of science and books.
Economic prerequisites for Peter's reforms
At the same time, the economic backwardness of the Russian state was not due to the lack of a competent ruler and policy, but was a consequence of the difficult period that befell the country. The development of Russia was slowed down quite significantly by the Golden Horde. At that time, the rulers looked not at the rapidly developing West, but rather at the necessary East. Feudal-serf relations only worsened the situation.
The Northern War as one of the reasons for the reforms of Peter I
Researchers consider the Northern War, which lasted from 1700 to 1721, to be one of the most basic prerequisites for Peter’s reforms. To develop foreign trade, Russia needed access to Baltic Sea. For this reason, Peter the Great enters into Northern Union, opposing Sweden. After the first defeat at Narva, the Russian Tsar decides to create a regular army and the first Russian fleet.
The local army recruitment system had outlived its usefulness by that time. Therefore, the king begins to take measures (introducing new reforms) to form regular army. The main reason for this was the abolition of the Streltsy regiments after their rebellion in 1699.
According to original plan Petra, for assembly new army two methods were used:
- A set of so-called “dachas,” that is, peasants whom the landowner was obliged to supply in accordance with certain requirements.
- Recruitment of everyone, except those peasants who paid state taxes.
In 1705, Peter's entourage canceled last option and announces a set of “recruits” from peasants. This is how a more stable system began to take shape, which was able to exist until 1874.
However, over a fairly long period Northern War the state treasury could not provide for the created fleet and army. This became the prerequisite for a series of new tax reforms by Peter the Great, which caused negativity in Russian society.
And all because, in addition to basic taxes, indirect taxation was introduced, affecting most areas of life. The following were introduced:
- apply to oak coffins;
- apply to beard, etc.
It is worth noting that during this period Peter had a certain rank that was responsible for inventing new ways to enrich the state treasury.
To suppress any opinion and gain full power, the tsar deprives the Church of its autonomy, abolishing the patriarchate, and then replacing it with a new unified church governing body called the Holy Synod. At the same time, he issues the “Decree on Single Inheritance,” according to which from now on only the current ruler of Russia himself could choose a successor, without basing his choice on blood ties.
The Northern War, taking away significant funds, continued and the tsar was forced to introduce new reforms to replenish the treasury. One of these transformations was the coinage reform. By reducing the share of silver in new coins, the ruler was able to improve the situation of the country.
After the end of hostilities and gaining access to the Baltic in 1721, Peter the Great began the process of Europeanization of the country. For example, its cultural and social reform during this period were caused by the need to correspond to the developed countries of Europe.
Thus, as the main prerequisites for the reforms of Peter the Great, we can highlight his desire to put the state on the path European development and the long Northern War, which required more and more funds.
Historical table: prerequisites for Peter's reforms
| The main prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I |
| The need to restructure the army and navy |
| The country's backwardness in the socio-economic sphere |
| Lack of own industry |
| Lack of a full-fledged judicial system |
| Flaws in the public administration system |
| The need to reform the system of taxes and fees |
| Lack of navy |
| Landlocked |
| “Ossidiousness” of the social system |
Scheme: prerequisites for the transformations of Peter I
Scheme: features of the transformations of Peter I
Video lecture: prerequisites for Peter's reforms
№23 Peter 1—prerequisites, reasons, nature and results of the reforms.
The time of Peter and the era of his transformations is the most important milestone in Russian history. The reforms of Peter I are a huge conglomerate of government activities carried out without a clearly developed long-term program and determined by both the urgent, momentary needs of the state and the personal preferences of the autocrat. The reforms were dictated, on the one hand, by the processes that began to develop in the country in the second half of the 17th century; some historians (Sakharov) came to the conclusion that the reform program matured long before Peter 1 and began under Mikh. And Alexey Romanov. (shortcomings of the localism system), on the other - the failures of Russia in the first period of its war with the Swedes, on the third - Peter’s attachment to European ideas, orders and way of life.
On April 27, 1682, Tsar Fedr Alekseevich died. There were no heirs. (mother wife Alex. Michal. from Miloslavsky). The throne could be inherited by his 2 brothers - Ivan and Peter (from his 2nd wife Alex. Mikh.). Ivan, frail and weak-minded, was not capable of governing the state. Peter remained the only “hope”. As a result, 2 court groups were formed, waging a struggle for power: the Miloslavsky family (who rallied around Sophia (daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich. Ivan Mikh. Miloslavsky. and the Naryshkin mother Peter Natalya Kirillovna.
The Boyar Duma and the Patriarch, clerks, placed 10 people on the throne. Petra. The Miloslavskys were outraged by the choice. In the struggle for power, they found support in the Streltsy army. May 15, 1682 - Streltsy revolt, the cause of which was the discontent of the Streltsy due to the delay in salaries and the arbitrariness of the colonels. - The Naryshkins were blamed for the troubles. The result of the rebellion was the proclamation of both Ivan and Peter as kings, Sophia was proclaimed ruler under the young kings. The 7-year reign of Sophia and her favorite, You, has begun. You. Golitsyn. Over time, Sophia’s position became shaky; V.V.’s campaigns had a negative impact. Golitsyn to Crimea. During Sophia's reign, Peter and his mother Natalya Naryshkina spent time in the Preobrazhenskoye village - here Peter studied grammar, mathematics, and navigation. There were foreign teachers. In 1689 Peter was married to Evdokia Lopukh different... In 1689 Peter fled to the Trinity - Sergius Monastery, he was informed that Sophia was preparing a campaign against Preobrazhenskoye. But the rifle regiments went over to Peter’s side. Golitsyn was exiled to Yarensk, Sophia to the Novodevichy Convent. Ivan formally remained co-ruler until 1696. Until 1695, Peter continued his “military fun.” The first act of his public service was the Azov campaign of 1695. It was not possible to take Azov, a Turkish fortress, but it was taken in 1696. But the defeat in the capture of Azov served as the reason for reforms in the economic and social spheres. In addition to this Causes:
1. economically - it lagged behind the advanced countries of Europe - for example, Sweden had a fleet, Russia and Russia have neither a merchant nor a military fleet, and had no access to the sea; poorly scouted Natural resources, did not mine silver and gold. The manufacturing industry was insufficiently developed during the war years; purchases were made in other states; The noble militia was poorly equipped. The need to develop trade and transport.
2. Government activities institutions - orders, there was no coordination between them, the range of responsibilities was not clearly defined, corruption developed. There are many groups of ships for different groups population, taxes were collected by various orders, expenses were not controlled by one government agency. Peter carried out the following transformations. Spheres: ek-ke,
Economic reforms: THE MAIN REASON FOR THE ECONOMIC REFORM WAS: The Northern War, which called into question the development of manufacturing (with Sweden). The economic policy of the early 18th century was decisively influenced by the concept of mercantilism. According to the ideas of mercantilism, the basis of the state's wealth is the accumulation of money through an active balance of trade, the export of goods to foreign markets and restrictions on the import of foreign goods into one's market. Russia imported many goods from abroad; with the outbreak of the war, it lost its main source of supply of iron and copper. The state took upon itself the regulation of industrial construction. With his money, state-owned manufactories began to be created, primarily for the production of military products. Since 1696 4 large factories were built in the Urals; they began operating in 1702; construction of factories was underway in the Olonets region. Light industry was developed by the state. man-ry: buttons, hosiery, cloth glass, production went to the needs of the army and did not work for the domestic market. – Central district, Moscow then Ukraine, Kazan. Leather and linen production also developed. In the city, for the development of small-scale production and management of merchants and artisans, the Burmist Chamber was created (the Town Hall, then the Chief Magistrate - who also collected taxes from the city population) - which took care of the growth and prosperity of the small. production and manuf. . And in 1722 Decree on the association of artisans into workshops. In the early years, the state intervened in the economy. (Lichman B.V.) Control over the domestic industry was exercised by the Berg and Manufactory boards: they gave permission to open factories, set prices for products, and had a monopoly right to purchase goods from manufactories, exercised administrative and judicial power over owners and workers.
The manufs used the labor of hired “free-walking” people (ruined merchants, artisans), but the strengthening of serfdom and the search for runaway peasants reduced the number of labor forces and the government began to assign state peasants to the manufs. in 1921 - a decree was issued allowing manufacturers to buy villages with serfs for factories - they began to be called POSSESSIONAL. That. Manufacturer's activities were based on forced labor.
The state took over and trade- by introducing a monopoly on the procurement and sale of certain goods. In 1705, a monopoly on salt and tobacco was introduced. Profit on the first doubled. A monopoly was introduced on the sale of goods abroad: bread, flax, hemp, resin, wax, etc. The establishment of a monopoly was accompanied by a strong-willed increase in prices for these goods and regulation of the trading activities of Russian merchants. The consequence of this was the disorganization of free entrepreneurship based on market conditions. (Lichman) As a result, the state increased revenues to the treasury.
By the end of the Northern War, certain changes occurred in the government's trade and industrial policy. Measures have been taken to encourage private entrepreneurship. The Berg Privilege (1719) allowed all residents of the country and foreigners, without exception, to search for minerals and build factories. The practice of transferring state-owned enterprises (primarily unprofitable ones) to private owners has become widespread. The new owners received various benefits from the treasury: interest-free loans, the right to duty-free sales of goods, etc. The state abandoned its monopoly on the sale of goods on the foreign market. (Lichman B.V.)
But entrepreneurs did not receive real economic freedom. In 1715, a decree was adopted on the creation of industrial and trading companies, the members of which, having contributed their capital to a common pot, were bound by mutual responsibility and bore general responsibility to the state. The company actually did not have private property rights. The state pursues a protectionist policy towards industry; for this purpose it was introduced in 1724. Customs tariff - established low duties on exports, a huge - 75% - duty was imposed on those European products, the demand for which could be satisfied with home remedies. The same duty was imposed on unprocessed raw materials exported from Russia. Communication routes and the construction of canals on waterways developed. In agriculture, the state did not carry out such radical reforms; the main role in its administration belonged to the landowners.
State transformations:. According to Klyuchevsky, the administrative reform had a preparatory goal - the creation general conditions to implement other reforms. Peter subjected the entire state to restructuring. Control. When he came to power he inherited the traditional system management XVII century with the Boyar Duma. It was replaced in 1699 by the Near Chancellery of 8 trusted representatives of the king. Since 1704, its functions began to be performed by the “consultation of ministers” - the council of heads of the most important government departments.
The formation of the Senate in 1711 is the next step in organizing a new administrative apparatus. The Senate was created as supreme body management, which concentrated in its hands administrative-managerial, judicial and legislative functions (created drafts of new laws), was in charge of finances, and controlled the actions of officials. The principle of collegiality was introduced in the Senate: without general consent, the decision did not enter into force. Senators took a personal oath. In 1711 An institute of fiscals was established, which exercised control over the administration in the center and locally, identified facts of embezzlement and bribery, and reported to the Tsar and the Senate. Peter freed the fiscals from taxes and jurisdiction local authorities. Control over the Senate was also organized; from 1715 it was exercised by the Auditor General. In 1722, during the reform process in the Senate, the first prosecutor general was introduced - P.I. Yaguzhinsky, chief prosecutor and his assistant.
In 1718-20. Collegiums replaced orders. The “Register of Collegiums” was adopted. Instead of 44 orders, collegiums were established. Their number was 10-11. In 1720, the General Regulations of the Collegiums were approved, according to which each college consisted of a president, vice-president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors. In addition to the four collegiums in charge of foreign, military and judicial affairs (Foreign, Military, Admiralty, Justice Collegium), a group of collegiums dealt with finances (income - Chamber Collegium, expenses - State Office Collegium, control over the collection and expenditure of funds - Revision -collegium), trade (Commerce Collegium), metallurgy and light industry (Berg Manufactory Collegium, later divided into two). The patrimonial board was in charge of the land. Cities since 1720 governed by the Chief Magistrate, who was responsible for legal proceedings, tax collection, and city improvement. The Holy Synod, created in 1721, became a special board; Feofan Prokopovich created regulations. The position of patriarch was abolished. A government official, the chief prosecutor, was placed at the head of the Synod. – Stefan Jaworski. The church actually turned into an integral part of the state apparatus.
In 1707-11. a local government system is being created. In 1707-10 the following were created: Moscow, Kiev, Azov, Arkhangelsk Siberian, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Smolensk, St. Petersburg. The provinces were obliged to finance the needs of the army and navy. Then the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, cat. They were divided into counties or districts. The province was headed by a governor, under him there was a council of 8 people, and at the head of the district was a governor.
Estates: The General Regulations and other decrees of Peter I consolidated the idea of the service of the Russian nobility as the most important form of fulfilling duties to the sovereign and the state. In 1714, a decree on single inheritance was adopted, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the estate. The process of uniting the estates of feudal lords into a single class-estate, which had certain privileges, was completed. The Table of Ranks was adopted in 1722. - according to which the service was divided into military and civilian - 14 classes. To get the next rank you had to go through all the previous ones. Rank 8 - hereditary court, 14-11 - personal. In 1721 Peter was granted the title of Emperor.
Tax transformations: The Northern War required funds, and taxes became the source. Since 1700 “profit-makers” worked, they invented new taxes - on beards, baths, axes. Some. The goods are declared state-owned. Money spent Reform - reduced the amount of silver in coins. Usually taxes came from the yard; in order to reduce the tax, people settled in one yard (several families). In 1718 a population census was carried out, the hiding of souls was discovered. Inspections are carried out from the hoist, because Since 1724 – taxes were replaced by poll tax. The male soul is a unit of taxation.
Army: One of central places Peter's reforms focused on the creation of powerful armed forces. In 1705, conscription was introduced: a certain number of households of the tax-paying classes had to supply recruits to the army. Recruits were enrolled in the class of soldiers for life. Nobles began serving with the rank of private in the guards regiments. The army was rearmed, taking into account foreign and domestic experience, strategy and tactics were changed, Military and Maritime charters. In 1701 The Artillery School and the Engineering School began operating
Fedorov V.A. and Klyuchevsky count. Well, the results were ambiguous - there are both negative and positive. moments of Reform brought the country to European level, they contributed to its economic development. Fedorov: The importance of competition as the main incentive for business development in the economy was insignificant. The negative thing was the strengthening of harsh forms of exploitation of the people. Modernization contributed to the preservation of the autocratic serfdom system; a military-police state was created in which the life of its subjects was regulated. But at the same time, the system of governing the country was streamlined. (V.A. Fedorov) In general, Peter acted in accordance with the spirit of his time. Slavophiles in the 40s. The 19th century came to the conclusion that Peter “turned” Russia from the natural path of development. Solovyov: considers Peter’s reforms a positive moment in the history of Russia, but the main role in his opinion belonged to the people and their efforts; Peter’s reforms brought Russia to the international arena.