Development of sensations.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Development of sensations.
Rubric (thematic category)	Psychology

The simplest but very important mental cognitive processes are Feel.Οʜᴎ signal us about what is happening at the moment around us and in our own body. They give us the opportunity to navigate the surrounding conditions and adapt our actions and actions to them.

/. /. What that's how it feels

Sensations are the initial source of all our knowledge about the world. With the help of sensations, we cognize the size, shape, color, density, temperature, smell, taste of objects and phenomena around us, perceive various sounds, comprehend movement and space, etc.
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It is sensations that provide material for complex mental processes - perception, thinking, imagination.

If a person were deprived of all sensations, he would not be able to cognize the world around him in any way and understand what is happening around him. Thus, people who are blind from birth are not able to imagine what red, green or any other color is; people who are deaf from birth are not able to imagine what the sound of a human voice, birdsong, musical melodies, the sounds of passing cars and flying airplanes, etc.

Required condition the occurrence of sensation is the direct impact of an object or phenomenon on our senses. Objects and phenomena of reality that affect the senses are called irritants. The process of their influence on the senses is usually called irritation.

Already the ancient Greeks distinguished five senses and their corresponding sensations: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. Modern science has significantly expanded our understanding of the types of human sensations.

Sense organ- anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in the internal organs; specialized for receiving the influence of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment. Each such device connects the brain with the outside world and ensures that various information enters the brain. I.P. Pavlov suggested calling them analyzers.

Any analyzer consists of three sections: sensory organ - receptor (from Latin wordʼʼreceptorʼʼ - receiver), which perceives the stimulus acting on it; the conductive part and the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex, where the processing of nerve impulses occurs. All sections of the analyzer work as a single whole. The sensation will not occur if any part of the analyzer is damaged. Thus, visual sensations cease when the eyes are damaged, when the optic nerves are damaged, and when the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex are destroyed.

The surrounding reality, influencing our sense organs (eye, ear, endings of sensory nerves in the skin, etc.), causes sensations. Sensations appear when excitation in a sensory organ caused by some stimulus spreads along centripetal paths to the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex and is subjected to the finest analysis there.

The brain receives information both from the outside world and from the body itself. For this reason, analyzers are external And internal. U external analyzers receptors are located on the surface of the body - eye, ear, etc.
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Internal analyzers have receptors located in internal organs and tissues. Occupies a peculiar position motor analyzer.

The analyzer is complex nervous mechanism, which produces a subtle analysis of the surrounding world, that is, it identifies its individual elements and properties. Each analyzer is adapted to highlight certain properties of objects and phenomena: the eye reacts to light stimuli, the ear to auditory stimuli, etc.

The main part of each sense organ is the receptors, the endings of the sensory nerve. These are sensory organs that respond to certain stimuli: the eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin, and special receptor nerve endings embedded in the muscles, tissues and internal organs of the body. Sense organs such as the eye and ear combine tens of thousands of receptor endings. The impact of a stimulus on the receptor leads to the generation of a nerve impulse, which is transmitted along the sensory nerve to certain areas of the cortex cerebral hemispheres brain.

Feeling is a reflection individual properties objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Today there are about two dozen different analyzer systems that reflect the effects of the external and internal environment on the body. Different types of sensations arise as a result of the influence of different stimuli on different analyzers. We receive sensations using the senses. Each of them gives us its own special sensations - visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, etc.

1.2. Types of sensations

Visual sensations- these are sensations of light and color. Everything we see has some color. Only a completely transparent object that we cannot see can be colorless. There are colors achromatic(white and black and shades of gray in between) and chromatic(various shades of red, yellow, green, blue).

Visual sensations arise as a result of the influence of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the sensitive part of our eye. The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones, so named for their external shape. There are a lot of such cells in the retina - about 130 rods and 7 million cones.

In daylight, only cones are active (such light is too bright for rods). As a result, we see colors͵ ᴛ.ᴇ. there is a feeling of chromatic colors - all the colors of the spectrum. In low light (at dusk), the cones stop working (there is not enough light for them), and vision is carried out only by the rod apparatus - a person sees mainly gray colors (all transitions from white to black, ᴛ.ᴇ. achromatic colors).

There is a disease in which the functioning of the rods is disrupted and a person sees very poorly or sees nothing at dusk and at night, but during the day his vision remains relatively normal. This disease is usually called “night blindness”, since chickens and pigeons do not have rods and see almost nothing at dusk. Owls and bats, on the contrary, have only rods in their retinas - during the day these animals are almost blind.

Color has different effects on a person’s well-being and performance, and on the success of educational activities. Psychologists note that the most acceptable color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red color excites, dark blue depresses, and both tire the eyes. In some cases, people experience disturbances in normal color perception. The reasons for this include heredity, diseases and eye injury. The most common type of blindness is red-green blindness, called color blindness (named after the English scientist D. Dalton, who first described this phenomenon). Colorblind people do not distinguish between red and green, and do not understand why people denote color in two words. Such a feature of vision as color blindness should be taken into account when choosing a profession. Colorblind people cannot be drivers, pilots, painters, fashion designers, etc.
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Complete absence Sensitivity to chromatic colors is very rare.

How less light͵ the worse a person sees. For this reason, you should not read in poor lighting, at dusk, so as not to cause unnecessary strain on the eyes, which should be harmful to vision and contribute to the development of myopia, especially in children and schoolchildren.

Auditory sensations arise through the organ of hearing. There are three types auditory sensations: speech, music And noises. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer identifies four qualities: sound power(loud-weak), height(high Low), timbre(originality of voice or musical instrument), sound duration(playing time), and also tempo-rhythmic features sequentially perceived sounds.

Hearing to speech sounds usually called phonemic. It is formed based on the speech environment in which the child is raised. Mastering a foreign language involves the development of a new system of phonemic hearing. A child’s developed phonemic hearing significantly influences the accuracy of written speech, especially in elementary school. Ear for music The child is brought up and formed, as is speech hearing. Here great importance has an early introduction of the child to the musical culture of humanity.

Noises can evoke a certain emotional mood in a person (the sound of rain, the rustling of leaves, the howl of the wind), sometimes serve as a signal of approaching danger (the hiss of a snake, the menacing barking of a dog, the roar of an oncoming train) or joy (the patter of a child’s feet, the steps of an approaching loved one , thunder of fireworks). IN school practice More often we have to deal with the negative influence of noise: it tires the human nervous system. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. A person gets such sensations, for example, when he touches the lid of a sounding piano with his hand. Vibration sensations usually do not play a role important role for humans and are very poorly developed. At the same time, they achieve very high level development in many deaf people, for whom they partially replace missing hearing.

Olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is commonly called the sense of smell. The olfactory organs are special sensitive cells that are located deep in the nasal cavity. Individual particles of various substances enter the nose along with the air that we inhale. This is how we get olfactory sensations. In modern man, the olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But blind-deaf people use their sense of smell, just as sighted people use their vision and hearing: they identify familiar places by smell, recognize familiar people, receive signals of danger, etc.

A person’s olfactory sensitivity is closely related to taste and helps to recognize the quality of food. Olfactory sensations warn a person about danger to the body. air environment(smell of gas, burning). The incense of objects has a great influence on a person’s emotional state. The existence of the perfume industry is entirely due to the aesthetic need of people for pleasant smells.

Olfactory sensations are very significant for a person in cases where they are associated with knowledge. Only by knowing the characteristics of the odors of certain substances can a person navigate them.

July, carrying dandelion fluff, burdock in her clothes,

July, home through the windows

Everyone talking loudly out loud.

An unkempt, disheveled steppe, smelling of linden and grass, tops and the smell of dill, July meadow air.

Pasternak B. July

Taste sensations arise with the help of the taste organs - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four types of basic taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sweet-sour, etc. A small number of qualities of taste sensations does not mean, however, that taste sensations are limited. Within the limits of salty, sour, sweet, bitter, a whole series of shades arise, each of which gives the taste sensations a new uniqueness.

A person’s sense of taste is highly dependent on the feeling of hunger; tasteless food seems tastier in a state of hunger. The sense of taste is very dependent on the sense of smell. With a severe runny nose, any dish, even your favorite, seems tasteless.

The tip of the tongue tastes sweets best. The edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, and its base is sensitive to bitter.

Skin-sensations- tactile (touch sensations) and temperature(feelings of warmth or cold). There are different types of nerve endings on the surface of the skin, each of which gives the sensation of touch, movement, or heat. The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each type of irritation is different. The touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the tips of the fingers; the back is less sensitive to touch. The skin of those parts of the body that are usually covered by clothing, the lower back, abdomen, chest, is most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold. Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. Thus, average temperatures are accompanied by a positive feeling, the nature of the emotional coloring for warmth and cold is different: cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth as a relaxing one. High temperatures, both in the cold and warm directions, cause negative emotional experiences.

Visual, auditory, vibrational, gustatory, olfactory and skin sensations reflect the influence of the external world, and therefore the organs of all these sensations are located on the surface of the body or near it. Without these sensations, we could not know anything about the world around us.

Another group of sensations tells us about changes, condition and movement in our own body. These sensations include motor, organic, sensations of balance, tactile, pain. Without these sensations we would know nothing about ourselves. Motor (or kinesthetic) sensations- These are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Thanks to the activity of the motor analyzer, a person gains the opportunity to coordinate and control his movements. Receptors of motor sensations are located in the muscles and tendons, as well as in the fingers, tongue and lips, since it is these organs that realize precise and subtle working and speech movements.

The development of kinesthetic sensations is one of the important tasks of learning. Lessons in labor, physical education, drawing, drawing, and reading should be planned taking into account the capabilities and prospects for the development of the motor analyzer. For mastering movements, their aesthetic expressive side is of great importance. Children master movements, and therefore their bodies, in dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and other sports that develop beauty and ease of movement.

Without the development of movements and mastery of them, educational and work activities are impossible. The formation of speech movement and the correct motor image of a word increases the culture of students and improves the literacy of written speech. Learning a foreign language requires the development of speech-motor movements that are not typical for the Russian language.

Without motor sensations, we could not normally perform movements, since the adaptation of actions to the outside world and to each other requires signaling about every smallest detail of the act of movement.

Organic sensations tell us about the work of our body, our internal organs- esophagus, stomach, intestines and many others, in the walls of which the corresponding receptors are located. While we are full and healthy, we do not notice any organic sensations at all. Οʜᴎ appear only when something in the body’s functioning is disrupted. For example, if a person ate something not very fresh, the functioning of his stomach will be disrupted, and he will immediately feel it: pain will appear in the stomach.

Hunger, thirst, nausea, pain, sexual sensations, sensations associated with the activity of the heart, breathing, etc. - these are all organic sensations. If they were not there, we would not be able to recognize any disease in time and help our body cope with it.

“There is no doubt,” said I.P. Pavlov, - that not only analysis of the external world is important for the body, but signaling upward and analysis of what is happening in itself is also extremely important for it.

Organic sensations are closely related to organic needs person.

Tactile sensations are combinations of skin and motor sensations when feeling objects, that is, when a moving hand touches them.

Small child begins to explore the world by touching and feeling objects. This is one of the important sources of obtaining information about the objects around it.

For people deprived of vision, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of exercise, it reaches great perfection. Such people can thread a needle, do modeling, simple construction, even sewing and cooking.

The combination of skin and motor sensations that arise when feeling objects, ᴛ.ᴇ. when touched by a moving hand, it is customary to call touch. The organ of touch is the hand. For example, deaf-blind Olga Skorokhodova writes this in her poem “Kbustu A.M.” Gorky:

I have never seen him, my sense of touch replaces my sight, I look at him with my fingers, and Gorky comes to life before me...

The sense of touch is of great importance in human work, especially when performing various operations that require precision.

Feelings of balance reflect the position occupied by our body in space. When we first get on a two-wheeled bicycle, skate, roller skate, or water ski, the most difficult thing is to maintain balance and not fall. The sense of balance is given to us by an organ located in the inner ear. It looks like a snail shell and is commonly called labyrinth.

When the position of the body changes, a special fluid (lymph) oscillates in the labyrinth of the inner ear, called vestibular apparatus. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. When the organs of balance are strongly overexcited, nausea and vomiting are observed (the so-called seasickness or air sickness). With regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly.

The vestibular system gives signals about the movement and position of the head. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand, nor sit, nor walk; he will fall all the time.

Painful sensations have a protective meaning: they signal a person about trouble that has arisen in his body. If there were no sensation of pain, a person would not even feel serious injuries. Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings serious trouble to a person.

Painful sensations have a different nature. Firstly, there are “pain points” (special receptors) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give the sensation of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise from the action of a super-strong stimulus on any analyzer.
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Blinding light, deafening sound, extreme cold or heat radiation, and a very strong smell also cause pain.

1.3. Basic patterns of sensations

Not everything that affects our senses causes sensation. We don’t feel the touch of dust particles falling on our skin, we don’t see the light of distant stars, we don’t hear the ticking of the clock in the next room, we don’t feel those faint odors that a dog following the scent can easily catch. Why? For a sensation to arise, the irritation must reach a certain magnitude. Stimuli that are too weak do not cause sensation.

The minimum magnitude of the stimulus that gives a noticeable sensation is usually called absolute threshold of sensation.

Each type of sensation has its own stage. This is the smallest force on the senses that they are able to perceive.

The absolute threshold value characterizes absolute sensitivity of the senses, or their ability to respond to minimal influences. The lower the threshold of sensation, the greater the absolute sensitivity to these stimuli.

The absolute sensitivity of certain analyzers different people different. There are no completely identical people in the world, and therefore everyone’s thresholds of sensation are different. So, one person hears very faint sounds (for example, the ticking of a watch located at a great distance from his ear), but another does not hear. In order for the latter to experience an auditory sensation, it is necessary to increase the strength of this stimulus (for example, bring a ticking clock closer to a closer distance). In this way it is possible to discover that the absolute auditory sensitivity of the former is higher than that of the latter, and to accurately measure the difference observed here. Or one person may notice a very weak, dim light, but for another the given light must be a little brighter in order to be felt.

Thresholds of absolute sensitivity do not remain unchanged throughout a person’s life: sensitivity in children develops, reaching the highest level by adolescence: the thresholds become lower, and sensitivity reaches the optimal level. With old age, sensitivity thresholds increase. Changes in thresholds are greatly influenced by activities during which a person relies on these types of sensitivity.

Children with reduced auditory and visual sensitivity study not only in special schools, but also in regular schools. In order for them to see and hear clearly, care must be taken to create conditions for them to best distinguish between the teacher’s speech and the notes on the board.

In addition to absolute sensitivity, the analyzer has another important characteristic - the ability to distinguish changes in the strength of the stimulus.

Another important characteristic of the analyzer is its ability to distinguish changes in the strength of the stimulus.

That smallest increase in the strength of the active stimulus, at which a barely noticeable difference occurs in the strength or quality of sensations, is usually called threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.

In life, we constantly notice changes in illumination, an increase or decrease in sound intensity, but will we feel, for example, the difference in the strength of a light source of 1000 and 1005 W? The discrimination threshold is constant for a certain type of sensation relative size and is expressed as a ratio (fraction). For vision, the discrimination threshold is 1/100. If the initial illumination of the hall is 1000 watts, then the increase should be at least 10 watts so that a person feels a barely noticeable change in illumination. It is important to note that for auditory sensations the discrimination threshold is 1/10. This means that if you add 7-8 of the same singers to a choir of 100 people, the person will not notice an increase in sound, only 10 singers will barely noticeably strengthen the choir.

The development of discriminative sensitivity is important vital meaning. It helps to correctly navigate the environment, makes it possible to act in accordance with the slightest changes in environmental conditions.

Adaptation. In life, adaptation (from the Latin word ʼʼadaptareʼʼ - to adjust, to get used to) is well known to everyone. We go into the river to swim, at first the water seems terribly cold, then the feeling of cold disappears, the water seems quite tolerable, quite warm. Or: leaving a dark room on bright light, in the first moments we see very poorly, the strong light blinds us and we involuntarily close our eyes. But after a few minutes, the eyes will adapt, get used to the bright light and see normally. Or: when we come home from the street, in the first seconds we smell all the smells of home. After a few minutes we stop noticing them.

This means that the sensitivity of analyzers can change under the influence of existing stimuli. This adaptation of the sense organs to external influences is called adaptation. The general pattern of changes in sensitivity: when moving from strong to weak stimuli, sensitivity increases, when moving from weak to strong, it decreases. This shows biological expediency: when the stimuli are strong, fine sensitivity is not needed; when they are weak, the ability to perceive weak stimuli is important.

Strong adaptation is observed in visual, olfactory, temperature, skin (tactile) sensations, weak - in auditory and pain. You can get used to the noise and pain, ᴛ.ᴇ. distract yourself from them, stop paying attention to them, but you don’t stop feeling them. But the skin ceases to feel the pressure of clothing. Our senses do not adapt to pain because pain is an alarm signal. Our body gives it when something is wrong with it. Pain warns of danger. If we stopped feeling pain, we would not have time to help ourselves.

1.4. Interaction of sensations

Sensations, as a rule, do not exist independently and in isolation from each other. The work of one analyzer can affect the work of another, strengthening or weakening it. For example, weak musical sounds can increase the sensitivity of the visual analyzer, and sharp or strong sounds, on the contrary, they worsen vision. Rubbing the face with cool water (temperature sensations), weak sweet and sour taste sensations can also sharpen our vision.

A defect in the operation of one analyzer is usually compensated by increased work and improvement of other analyzers when one of them is lost. The analyzers that remain intact compensate for the activity of the “retired” analyzers with their clearer work. Thus, in the absence of vision and hearing, the activity of the remaining analyzers develops and intensifies so much in the blind-deaf that people learn to navigate their surroundings quite well. For example, blind-deaf O.I. Skorokhodova, due to her well-developed sense of touch, smell and vibration sensitivity, was able to achieve great success in understanding the world around her, in mental and aesthetic development.

1.5. Development of sensations

Sensitivity, ᴛ.ᴇ. The ability to have sensations, in its elementary manifestations, is innate and is certainly a reflex. A child who has just been born already reacts to visual, sound and some other stimuli. Human hearing is formed under the influence of music and sound speech. All the wealth human sensations is the result of development and education.

Often insufficient attention is paid to the development of sensations, especially in comparison with more complex cognitive processes - memory, thinking, imagination. But it is sensations that lie at the basis of all cognitive abilities, constitute a powerful development potential for the child, which most often is not fully realized.

The structure of our senses allows us to feel much more than what we actually feel. It’s as if a complex device is not working properly full force. Is it possible to somehow change or enhance our sensations? Of course you can.

The development of sensations occurs in connection with the practical, primarily labor activity of a person and depends on the demands that life and work place on the work of the senses. A high degree of perfection is achieved, for example, by the olfactory and gustatory sensations of tasters who determine the quality of tea, wine, perfume, etc.

Painting places special demands on the sense of proportions and color shades when depicting objects. This feeling is more developed among artists than among people who do not paint. The same goes for musicians. The accuracy of determining sounds in pitch is influenced, for example, by the instrument a person plays. Playing music on the violin places special demands on the violinist's hearing. Therefore, violinists’ pitch discrimination is usually more developed than, for example, pianists’ (Kaufman’s data).

It is known that some people distinguish melodies well and repeat them easily, while others think that all melodies have the same motive. There is an opinion that an ear for music is given to a person by nature and if someone does not have it, then they will never have it. This idea is wrong. During music lessons, any person develops an ear for music. Blind people have especially acute hearing. They recognize people well not only by their voice, but also by the sound of their steps. Some blind people can distinguish trees by the noise of leaves, for example, distinguish a birch from a maple. And if they saw, then they would not have any particular urgent need to pay attention to such small differences in sounds.

Our visual senses are also very little developed. The capabilities of the visual analyzer are much wider. It is known that artists distinguish many more shades of the same color than most people. There are people with a well-developed sense of touch and smell. These types of sensations are especially important for the blind and deaf. They recognize people and objects by touch and smell; walking along a familiar street, they recognize by smell which house they are passing by.

Here, for example, is what Olga Skorokhodova writes: “No matter what time of year it is: spring, summer, autumn or winter, I can always smell a big difference between the city and the park. In spring I feel the pungent smell wet ground, the resinous smell of pine, the smell of birch, violets, young grass, and when lilacs bloom, I hear this smell. Even approaching the park, in the summer I smell different colors, grass and pine trees. At the beginning of autumn, I hear in the park a strong, unlike other smells, the smell of fading and already dry leaves; at the end of autumn, especially after rain, I feel the smell of wet earth and wet dry leaves. In winter, I distinguish the park from the city, because the air here is cleaner, there are no those pungent smells of people, cars, various foods, smells that come from almost every house in the city...ʼʼ

In order to develop your sensations, you need to train them. We do not use all the opportunities given to us by nature. You can exercise and train your sensations, and then the world around you will open to a person in all its diversity and beauty.

A feature of the human sensory organization is that it develops during life. Research by psychologists shows: sensory development is the result of long-term life path personality. Sensitivity is a potential human property. Its implementation depends on the circumstances of life and the efforts that a person puts into their development.

Questions and tasks

1. Why is sensation called the source of knowledge?

2. What are “sense organs”?

3 About what sensations we're talking about in the poetic lines of the deaf-blind O. Skorokhodova:

I will hear the smell and coolness of dew, I catch the light rustle of leaves with my fingers...

4. Observe yourself: what sensations do you have the most developed? Topic 2 PERCEPTION

Development of sensations. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Development of sensations." 2017, 2018.

At preschool age, the child’s sensory experience is enriched and subdued, mastery of specific forms of perception and thinking, rapid development of imagination, formation voluntary attention and memory and. A child’s knowledge of the world around him through sensations and perception creates the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of complex cognitive processes (thinking, memory, imagination). Developed sensory skills - the basis for improvement practical activities child. Changes in the baby’s body do not occur independently, but as a result of the fact that the preschooler masters new perceptual actions aimed at examining objects and phenomena of reality, their various properties and relationships. In the middle of preschool age, the child has a desire to understand the forms, to compare what are their similarities and differences with the objects she sees.

Development of basic types of sensation in preschool age

The most characteristic changes during the first years of a child’s life are determined primarily by the development of the basic types of her senses

feeling called the reflection of individual properties, qualities of objects and phenomena objective world, as well as internal states of the body when they directly influence the corresponding receptors

The development of a child’s sensations is largely determined by the development of her psychophysical functions (sensory, mnemonic, verbal, tonic, etc.)

The material sense organs are analyzers. According to the physiological mechanisms of sensation, it is a reflex process, the body’s response to an effective influence (I. Sechenov, I. Pavlov). The sensitivity of its analyzers increases every year. For example, the visual acuity of younger preschoolers increases by 15-20%, and that of older preschoolers by 25-30%. The level of visual acuity depends on the conditions of activity: it improves significantly in a play situation (on average by 17.2% - in children 4-5 years old; 29.8% - in children 5 years old; 30.2% - in children 6 years old). 7 years).

Color discrimination also develops in the preschool period, before its accuracy increases. Up to 2 years of age, children with direct perception clearly distinguish 4 primary colors: red, blue, green, yellow; more difficult - intermediate tones: orange, blue and purple. 4-year-old children are able to establish a connection between primary colors and their names, 5-year-old children - with intermediate colors. In middle preschool age, children begin to distinguish between light shades, which is facilitated by the designation of relationships with the words “dark”, “light”, “light”.

Hearing sensitivity also actively develops in preschool age: in older preschoolers, hearing acuity is 3-4 times higher than in younger ones. There is a slow development of tonal hearing acuity. Threshold of gi sensitivity. 4-year-old children exceed the sensitivity thresholds of adults by 7-11. Db, 5-6 year olds - by 5-8. DDb.

During the preschool period, the ability to recognize pitch of sound develops. However, phonemic (speech) and musical hearing are formed at the same pace. Phonemic hearing begins to develop at the end of the baby’s 1st year of life, and by the beginning of the preschool period the child distinguishes all sounds native language, masters passive and active speech. The perception of the pitch of sounds and the relationships between them is not easy for many 5-year-old children. The perception of sounds, especially the recognition of their pitch and timbre, has individual characteristics While listening to musical works, preschoolers focus primarily on their dynamics (rhythm, tempo); they perceive melody and harmony worse.

To develop children's musical ear they use various methods and techniques. For example, the indirect modeling method allows you to teach children to model the properties and relationships of certain objects with the help of other objects. It is used in preschool institutions, especially with older preschoolers, to form the concept of high and low, long and short sounds, to separate them, to recognize the direction of movement of a melody (pre-note learning period).

During this period, kinesthetic and tactile sensations improve, as evidenced by the ability to recognize the weight of objects, which improves by about half from the age of 4 to 7

Olfactory sensations also develop in preschool age, so older preschoolers make fewer mistakes when recognizing odors, or rather they are called

Development of sensations

Sensations can and should develop, and this process begins immediately after the birth of the child. Experiments and simple observations show that already a short time after birth the child begins to respond to stimuli of all kinds.

Sensations of different modalities have different dynamics in development, the degree of their maturity in different periods is different. Immediately after birth, the child's skin sensitivity is most developed. This may be due to the fact that in the process of phylogenesis this sensitivity is the oldest.

Observing a newborn, you can notice that the child is trembling due to the difference in the mother’s body temperature and the air temperature. A newborn baby also reacts to simple touches. The most sensitive at this age are the lips and the entire mouth area. Obviously, this is due to the need to eat. Newborns also feel pain.

Already in the first days after birth, the child’s taste sensitivity is quite highly developed. Newborn babies react differently to the introduction of a solution of quinine or sugar into their mouth. A few days after birth, the child distinguishes mother's milk from sweetened water, and the latter from plain water.

Olfactory sensitivity is very well developed in newborns, especially related to nutrition. Newborn babies can tell by the smell of their mother's milk whether their mother is in the room or not. If a child has been fed mother's milk for the first week, he will turn away from cow's milk as soon as he smells it.

Olfactory sensations still have a long way to go. Even at four or five years of age, a child’s sense of smell is far from perfect.

Vision and hearing in their development go through a more complex path, which includes a number of stages. These organs are much more complex; they are busy processing huge amounts of information and therefore require high organization of functioning.

In fact, so to speak, people are born blind and deaf. In the first days after birth, the typical baby does not respond to sounds, even very loud ones. The auditory canal of a newborn is filled with amniotic fluid, which resolves only after a few days. Usually the child begins to respond to sounds during the first week, sometimes this period lasts up to two to three weeks.

When a child begins to hear, his reactions to sound have the character of general motor excitation, in particular:

The child throws up his arms,

Moves his legs

Makes a loud scream.

Sensitivity to sound gradually increases in the first weeks of life.

After two to three months, the child begins to find the direction to the source of the sound. Outwardly, this manifests itself in the fact that he turns his head towards this source. Starting from the third or fourth month, some children begin to respond to singing and music.

Once a child begins to hear normally, he gradually develops speech hearing. He begins to distinguish his mother's voice from the voices of other people. Already in the first months of life, the baby's humming in its timbre begins to correlate with the mother's voice.

In his overt reactions, the child first of all begins to respond to the intonation of speech. This is observed in the second month of life, when a gentle tone has a calming effect on the child.

In the future, you can detect the child’s reaction to the perception of the rhythmic side of speech and the general sound pattern of words.

Fairly accurate discrimination of speech sounds, creating minimum required for the development of one’s own speech occurs only at the end of the first year of life. From this moment the development of speech hearing itself begins. The ability to distinguish vowels occurs earlier than the ability to distinguish consonants.

A child's vision develops even more slowly. Absolute sensitivity to light in newborns is very low, but increases markedly in the first days of life. From the moment visual sensations appear, the child reacts to light with various motor reactions.

Color discrimination increases slowly. Only by the fifth month does color discrimination usually begin, after which the child begins to show interest in brightly chromatic objects.

Another obstacle that the child must overcome is mismatch in eye movements. The child begins to sense light, but at first cannot see objects. One eye may look in one direction, the other in another, or may be completely closed. The child begins to control eye movements only at the end of the second month of life.

In the third month, the child begins to distinguish between objects and faces. At the same time, a long process of development of the perception of space, shapes of objects, their sizes and distance begins.

In the process of developing sensations of all modalities, one more circumstance is important - one must learn to distinguish sensations. Although by the end of the first year absolute sensitivity reaches a high level, the discrimination of sensations improves during the school years.

It is also important to note that in the dynamics of development sensations are of great importance individual differences: genetic features, the health of the child, the presence of an environment quite rich in sensations. The process of development of sensations can be controlled within certain (not very large) limits: through regular training and exposure to new stimuli. The development of hearing in infancy can be a good foundation for a future musical career.

Once I thought about how to make my memory work better and not have to turn to specialists to remember the most important things. important points in life.

And I realized that it is necessary to use all channels of perception - vision, hearing, smell, taste, sensations, feelings - then the events will leave a vivid trace in the memory.

Moreover, such memories are treasures for the soul.

Perceiving events with all senses allows you to live life to the fullest, and it is they who transform simple moments life in jewels.

In this article I want to suggest ways how to develop 5 senses, improve information perception and saturate life with new emotions.

I suggest starting every day with the motto: I am discovering this wonderful world around me!

It is necessary to pay attention and conduct small studies.

Development of the 5 senses: 5 simple and effective exercises

1. Development of visual perception: treat your eyes

Remember the expression “the eye pleases”? This is usually said when something is pleasant to look at.

It is important to please yourself and expand your visual perception. These may not be new things, but when you begin to consciously pay attention to things - their volume, color, texture, unusualness and uniqueness - this triggers a reaction in the brain

“yeah, how many different things I see” - “seeing is wonderful!”

Ask yourself: what pleases my eyes? What do I enjoy looking at?

It can also be a beautiful sunset, when the sun glows crimson.

And how the river flows, bypassing the rapids.

And the movement of ears of wheat on the field.

In addition, to develop visual perception, notice the details of the world around you:

• what is the name of the seller in the store,
• how many columns does the building you pass by on your way to work have?
• what pattern is laid out on the tiles in the store?

The question is: how to bring back the joy and spring of life?

Let's think, if the center of sensory perception is our heart, then the antennas that saturate it are our fingers, skin, ears, eyes, nose, tongue.

This means that the more we please ourselves, allow ourselves to see and hear beauty, discover the whole spectrum of tastes and smells - the more we feel this world, we feel happy.

Why pay attention to your feelings?

Feelings are what constitute the experience of the soul and the richness of our lives.

Feelings are directly related to memory. Feelings are the instrument of the soul. What remains with us from life to life.

They influence us so much that sometimes it is difficult for those who have a lot of pain and experiences to remember their childhood; memory blocks such memories and acts as a fuse.

Good news: the sensory perception of life can be restored.

Remember what you loved to do as a child, and what brought you a lot of joy, fun and enthusiasm?

Plunge into childhood memories and, with childlike spontaneity and the excitement of a researcher, look at the world in a new way.

I would like to finally quote one thinker:

He who can fill every moment with deep content prolongs his life endlessly.

P.S. I'm sure you will find practical use this information.

I would be grateful if you share this article with your friends.

Write what feeling you will develop today.

Classification of sensations.

In life, we constantly notice changes in illumination, increase or decrease in sound. These are manifestations of the discrimination threshold or differential threshold. Children are like their parents. Sometimes we cannot distinguish the son's voice from the father's voice, at least in the first seconds telephone conversation. It’s difficult for us to tune a guitar: when we tune one string to another, we don’t hear a difference in sound. But our friend with a conservatory education says that we still need to tighten it up by a quarter of a tone. Consequently, there is a value of physical difference between stimuli, more than which we distinguish them, and less than which we do not. This value is called the differential threshold, or differential sensitivity threshold.
Reality. If you ask two or three people to divide a line about a meter long in half, we will see that each will have their own dividing point. You need to measure the results with a ruler. The one who divided more accurately has the best sensitivity of discrimination. Attitude certain group sensations to an increase in the magnitude of the initial stimulus is a constant value. This was established by the German physiologist E. Weber (1795-1878). Based on Weber's teachings, the German physicist G. Fechner (1801 - 1887) experimentally showed that the increase in the intensity of sensation is not directly proportional to the increase in the strength of the stimulus, but more slowly. If the strength of the stimulus increases in geometric progression, the intensity of the sensation increases in arithmetic progression. This position is also formulated this way: the intensity of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the strength of the stimulus. It is called the Weber-Fechner law.

6.Classical laws of psychophysics.

Weber's law is one of the laws of classical psychophysicists, asserting the constancy of the relative differential threshold(over the entire sensory range of the variable stimulus property). Differential threshold is a type of sensory threshold, meaning smallest difference between 2 stimuli, above which the subject gives a reaction to them (usually in the form of a message about the appearance of a feeling of difference, difference between them) as to 2 different stimuli and below which the stimuli seem to him the same, indistinguishable. Thus, d.p. is usually expressed in the form differences between the values ​​of variable and constant (background, standard) stimuli. Syn. difference threshold, discrimination threshold. The inverse value of the d.p. is called the difference sensitivity.

Stevens law option basic psychophysical law, proposed by Amer. psychologist Stanley Stevens (1906-1973) and establishing power rather than logarithmic (see. Fechner's law) relationship between strength Feel and intensity of stimuli.

Fechner's law is a basic psychophysical law , claiming that intensity of sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. Formulated G . Fechner in his seminal work Elements of Psychophysics (1860). Fechner's threshold theory component psychophysicists, created G.Fechner. G. Fechner divided the entire process of reflection into 4 stages: irritation(physical process), excitation (physiological process), feeling(mental process), judgment(logical process). The threshold was considered as the point of transition from the 2nd to the 3rd stage - from arousal to sensation. However, not being able to quantify the process of excitation, Fechner, without denying the existence and importance of the physiological stage, excluded it from consideration and tried to establish a direct relationship between irritation and sensation. Basic psychophysical law functional dependence the magnitude of the sensation from the magnitude of the stimulus. Syn. psychophysical law, psychophysical function (not to be confused with psychometric curve, or function). There is no single formula for O. p. z., but there are its variants: logarithmic ( Fechner's law), power ( Stevens law), generalized (Baird, Zabrodin), etc. See also Psychophysics,Fechner G.T. (I. G. Skotnikova.)

Monocular vision (seeing with one eye) determines the correct distance estimate within a very within limited limits. With binocular vision, the image of an object falls on disparate ones, i.e. to not quite corresponding points of the retina of the right and left eyes. These points are located at slightly unequal distances from the central fossa of the retina (in one eye - to the right of the central fovea, in the other - to the left of it). When the image falls on identical ones, i.e. completely coinciding points of the retina, it is perceived as flat. If the disparity of the image of an object is too great, then the image begins to double. If the disparity does not exceed a certain value, depth perception occurs.

For depth perception, the muscular-motor sensations that occur during contraction and relaxation of the eye muscles are of considerable importance. Slowly moving a finger towards the nose causes noticeable proprioceptive sensations as a result of tension in the eye muscles. These sensations come from the muscles that bring the axes of the eyes closer and apart, and from the muscle that changes the curvature of the lens.

When seeing with both eyes simultaneously, the corresponding excitations from the right and left eyes are integrated in the brain part of the visual analyzer. There is an impression of the volume of the perceived object.

When objects are distant, the relative position of light and shade, which depends on the location of objects, is of great importance in the perception of space. A person notices these features and learns, using chiaroscuro, to correctly determine the position of objects in space.

Attention as selection.

This approach was focused on the study of selection mechanisms (choosing one object from several). An example of selection is a “cocktail party” situation, when from a variety of sounding voices a person can randomly select the voices of certain people and recognize their speech, ignoring the voices of other people.

View Functions

Representation, like any other cognitive process, carries out a number of functions in mental regulation human behavior. Most researchers identify three main functions: signaling, regulating and tuning. The essence of the signal function of representations is reflection in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also a variety of information about this object, which, under the influence of specific influences, is transformed into a system of signals that control behavior. The regulatory function of ideas is closely related to their signaling function and consists in the selection of the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously influenced our senses. Moreover, this choice is not made abstractly, but taking into account real conditions upcoming activities. The next function of views is customization. It manifests itself in the orientation of human activity depending on the nature of environmental influences. Thus, while studying the physiological mechanisms of voluntary movements, I.P. Pavlov showed that the emerging motor image ensures the adjustment of the motor apparatus to perform the appropriate movements. The tuning function of representations provides a certain training effect of motor representations, which contributes to the formation of an algorithm of our activity. Thus, ideas play a very significant role in the mental regulation of human activity.

37. The concept of thinking. Approaches to the study of thinking.

Thinking is an indirect and generalized reflection of reality, a type mental activity, which consists in knowing the essence of things and phenomena, natural connections and relationships between them. Characteristics of thinking according to Myers: 1. Thinking cognitively. 2. Thinking is a directed process. 3. Thinking is the process of manipulating information, the result of which is the formation of a representation.

The first feature of thinking is its indirect nature.

Thinking is always based on the data of sensory experience - sensations, perceptions, ideas - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge. Indirect knowledge is mediated knowledge.

The second feature of thinking is its generality. Generalization as knowledge of the general and essential in the objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are connected with each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the individual, in the concrete. People express generalizations through speech and language.

38.Types of thinking; In psychology, it is customary to distinguish types of thinking according to content: Visual-effective thinking lies in the fact that problem solving is carried out by actually transforming the situation and performing a motor act. So, in early age children show the ability to analyze and synthesize when they perceive objects at a certain moment and have the ability to operate with them.

Visual-figurative thinking is based on images of ideas, transformation of the situation into a plan of images. Characteristic of poets, artists, architects, perfumers, fashion designers.

Feature abstract (verbal-logical) thinking is that it occurs based on a concept, a judgment, without using empirical data. R. Descartes expressed the following thought: “I think, therefore I exist.” With these words, the scientist emphasizes the leading role in mental activity thinking, and specifically verbal-logical.

Visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking are considered as stages in the development of thinking in phylogenesis and ontogenesis.

By the nature of the tasks: Theoretical thinking consists of knowing the laws and rules. It reflects what is essential in phenomena, objects, and connections between them at the level of patterns and trends. The products of theoretical thinking are, for example, the discovery of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and mathematical (philosophical) laws. Theoretical thinking is sometimes compared with empirical thinking. They differ in the nature of their generalizations. Thus, in theoretical thinking, there is a generalization of abstract concepts, and in empirical thinking, there is a generalization of sensory data, identified through comparison.

The main task practical thinking is a physical transformation of reality. It can sometimes be more difficult than the theoretical one, because it often unfolds under extreme circumstances and in the absence of conditions for testing the hypothesis.

According to the degree of awareness: Analytical thinking (logical)- this type of thinking, unfolded in time, has clearly defined stages, sufficiently conscious of the subject. Based on concepts and forms of thinking.

Intuitive Thinking, on the contrary, is collapsed in time, there is no division into stages, it was presented in consciousness. The process of manipulating an image with fuzzy characteristics.

In psychology there is also a distinction realistic thinking, directed towards the outside world and regulated by logical laws, as well as autistic thinking associated with the realization of one’s own desires and intentions. Preschool children tend to self-centered thinking, its characteristic feature is the inability to put oneself in the position of others.

I. Kalmykova highlights productive (creative) and reproductive thinking according to the degree of novelty of the product that the subject of knowledge receives. The researcher believes that thinking as a process of generalized and indirect cognition of reality is always productive, i.e. aimed at obtaining new knowledge. However, in it, productive and reproductive components are intertwined in dialectical unity.

Reproductive thinking is a type of thinking that provides a solution to a problem, based on the reproduction of already known to man ways. The new task is related to the already well-known scheme solutions. Despite this, reproductive thinking always requires identification a certain level independence. In productive thinking, a person’s intellectual abilities are fully manifested, his creative potential. Creative possibilities are expressed in the rapid pace of assimilation of knowledge, in the breadth of their transfer to new conditions, in independent operation of them.

By the nature of information perception and type of representation (Bruner): From the basic: 1) objective thinking or practical mindset. 2) Imaginative thinking or artistic mindset. 3) Iconic or humanitarian mindset. 4) Symbolic. thinking or mathematical mindset. Six combined implementations. by combining. . By the nature of cognition: 1) Algorithmic (sequential action). 2. Heuristic (search). By the method of putting forward and testing hypotheses (author Guilford): 1. Convergent (one correct answer. 2. Divergent (tasks that require different answers and they can all be correct). By the degree of development: 1. Intuitive. 2. Discursive (expanded) .

39. Theories of thinking Associationist theory. First ideas about universal laws mental life associated with the formation of connections (associations. The development of thinking is imagined as a process of accumulation of associations. Thinking was often compared with logic, conceptual and theoretical thinking was distinguished, which was often wrongly called logical. To intellectual abilities at that time they included “worldview”, logical reasoning and reflection (self-knowledge). Pythagoras is an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, founder of the brain theory of thinking. In the Middle Ages, the study of thinking was exclusively empirical in nature and did not yield anything new. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Würzburg school of psychology (O. Külpe and others) placed thinking at the center of its interests, the works of whose representatives were based on the phenomenology of E. Husserl and the rejection of associationism. In the experiments of this school, thinking was studied by methods of systematic introspection in order to decompose the process into its main stages. Gestalt psychology, represented by M. Wertheimer and K. Duncker, was engaged in research into productive thinking. Thinking in Gestalt psychology was understood as restructuring problematic situation using insight. Within the framework of behaviorism, thinking is the process of forming connections between stimuli and reactions. His merit is the consideration of practical thinking, namely, skills and abilities in solving problems. Contributed to the study of thinking and psychoanalysis, studying unconscious forms of thinking, the dependence of thinking on motives and needs. In Soviet psychology, the study of thinking is associated with the psychological theory of activity. Its representatives understand thinking as the lifetime ability to solve problems and transform reality. According to A. N. Leontiev, internal (thinking) activity is not only a derivative of external (behavior), but also has the same structure. In internal mental activity, individual actions and operations can be distinguished. Internal and external elements of activity are interchangeable. We can conclude: thinking is formed in the process of activity. The pedagogical theories of P. Ya. Galperin, L. V. Zankov, V. V. Davydov were built on the basis of activity theory. One of the newest is the information-cybernetic theory of thinking. Human thinking is modeled from the point of view of cybernetics and artificial intelligence.

Types of imagination

By degree of activity: passive, active By degree of volitional effort - intentional and unintentional

Active imagination - using it, a person, through an effort of will, at will evokes corresponding images.

Active intentional imagination: 1. Recreating imagination - when a person recreates a representation of an object that would correspond to the description. 2. Creative – when recreating, one’s own vision is added. 3.Dream – self-creation new images. The difference between a dream: 1. In a dream, an image of what is desired is created. 2.Process that is not included in creative activity, because it doesn’t give final result. 3. The dream is aimed at the future. If a person constantly dreams, he is in the future. Not here and now. 4. Dreams sometimes come true.

Passive imagination– his images arise spontaneously, regardless of the will and desire of a person. Passive intentional imagination or daydreaming: Dreams are not associated with by willful efforts. They are like a dream. If a person is always in dreams, he does not live in the present. Dreams are not realized. Possible mental disorders

Unintentional passive: 1.Dream 2.Hallucinations - when non-existent objects are perceived, more often in mental disorders.

Productive imagination - in it, reality is consciously constructed by a person, and not simply mechanically copied or recreated. But at the same time, she is still creatively transformed in the image.

Reproductive imagination - the task is to reproduce reality as it is, and although there is also an element of fantasy here, such imagination is more reminiscent of perception or memory than creativity.

55. Functions and properties of imagination.

Represent reality in images and be able to use them when solving problems. This function of imagination is connected with thinking and is organically included in it.

regulation emotional states. With the help of his imagination, a person is able to at least partially satisfy many needs and relieve the tension generated by them. This is vital important function especially emphasized and developed in psychoanalysis.

voluntary regulation cognitive processes and human states, in particular perception, attention, memory, speech, emotions. With the help of skillfully evoked images, a person can pay attention to the necessary events. Through images, he gains the opportunity to control perceptions, memories, and statements.

the formation of an internal plan of action - the ability to carry them out in the mind, manipulating images.

planning and programming activities, drawing up such programs, assessing their correctness, and the implementation process. Properties: 1. Creativity is an activity that results in the creation of new material and spiritual values. 2. A dream is an emotional and concrete image of the desired future, characterized by poor knowledge of how to achieve it and a passionate desire to turn it into reality. 3. Agglutination - the creation of new images based on “gluing” parts of existing images. 4. Emphasis – creating new images by emphasizing, highlighting certain features. 5. Hallucination – unreal, fantastic images that arise in a person during illnesses that affect his mental state.

The concept of sensation. Stages of sensations.

Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as internal state the body through direct influence on the sensory organs. Sensation is the very first connection between a person and the surrounding reality. The process of sensation arises as a result of the influence on the sense organs of various material factors, which are called stimuli, and the process of this influence itself is called irritation. Sensations arise on the basis of irritability. Irritability – general property all living bodies come into a state of activity under the influence of external influences (pre-psychic level), i.e. directly affecting the life of the organism. On early stage In the development of living things, simple organisms (for example, the slipper ciliate) do not need to distinguish specific items for one’s life activity – irritability is sufficient. At a more complex stage, when a living person needs to identify any objects that he needs for life, and, consequently, the properties of this object as necessary for life, at this stage the transformation of irritability into sensitivity occurs. Sensitivity– the ability to respond to neutral, indirect influences that do not affect the life of the organism (example with a frog reacting to a rustle). The totality of feelings creates elementary mental processes, processes of mental reflection. Thus, sensation is a sensory reflection of objective reality. Each stimulus has its own characteristics, depending on which it can be perceived by certain senses. Thanks to sensations, a person distinguishes objects and phenomena by color, smell, taste, smoothness, temperature, size, volume and other characteristics. Sensations arise from direct contact with an object. So, for example, we learn about the taste of an apple when we taste it. Or, for example, we can hear the sound of a mosquito flying or feel its bite. In this example, sound and bite are stimuli that affect the senses. In this case, you should pay attention to the fact that the process of sensation reflects in consciousness only the sound or only the bite, without in any way connecting these sensations with each other, and, consequently, with the mosquito. This is the process of reflecting individual properties of an object.

Nevertheless, sensations are the main source of information for a person. On the basis of this information, the entire human psyche is built - consciousness, thinking, activity. At this level, the subject directly interacts with the material world. Those., sensations are the basis of everything cognitive activity person. Sensation is the simplest element of human consciousness and cognition, on which very complex cognitive processes: perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Both humans and animals have sensations, perceptions and ideas. Human sensations differ from those of animals; they are mediated by his knowledge. By expressing this or that property of things and phenomena, a person thereby carries out elementary generalizations of these properties. A person’s feelings are related to his knowledge and experience. The peculiarity of sensations is their immediacy and spontaneity. Sensations arise immediately upon contact of the senses with objects of the material world. Sensations exist for a very short period of time, after which they are transformed into perceptions.

The need to have sensations is the basis of mental and aesthetic development personality. In their absence, sensory deprivation occurs information hunger. Which leads to drowsiness, loss of interest in work, in people, irritability, short temper, lethargy, apathy, melancholy, and subsequently – sleep disorders and neurosis.

3. Properties of sensations.

The main properties of sensations include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization, absolute and relative thresholds of sensations. Quality is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishes it from other types of sensations and varies within a given type of sensation. For example, taste sensations provide information about certain chemical characteristics item: sweet or sour, bitter or salty. The intensity of the sensation is its quantitative characteristics and depends on the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, if you have a runny nose, the intensity of perceived odors may be distorted. The duration of a sensation is a temporary characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. Sensations have a so-called latent (hidden) period. When a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time.

There are positive and negative sequential images. A positive sequential image corresponds to the initial irritation and consists in preserving a trace of irritation of the same quality as the actual stimulus. A negative sequential image consists in the emergence of a quality of sensation that is opposite to the quality of the stimulus that influenced it. For example, light-darkness, heaviness-lightness, warmth-cold, etc. Sensations are characterized by the spatial localization of the stimulus. The analysis carried out by receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, i.e. we can tell where the light is coming from, where the heat is coming from, or what part of the body the stimulus is affecting.

However, no less important have quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations, in other words, the degree of sensitivity. There are two types of sensitivity: absolute sensitivity and sensitivity to difference. Absolute sensitivity refers to the ability to perceive weak stimuli, and difference sensitivity refers to the ability to perceive weak differences between stimuli.

Classification of sensations.

Sensation is a sensory reflection of objective reality. For sensation to occur, all components of the analyzer must be used. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. Sensations are not at all passive processes - they are active or reflexive in nature.

There are different approaches to classifying sensations. It has long been customary to distinguish between five (based on the number of sense organs) main types of sensations: smell, taste, touch, vision and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. B.G. Ananyev spoke about eleven types of sensations. A.R. Luria believes. That the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic and genetic (in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other. Systematic classification sensations was proposed by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. He divided them into three main types: 1. Interoceptive - combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body (organic sensations; sensations of pain), 2. Proprioceptive - transmit information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation our movements (sense of balance; sensation of movement); 3. Exteroceptive sensations (distant-visual, auditory; olfactory; contact-taste, temperature, tactile, tactile) provide signals from the outside world and create the basis for our conscious behavior. The sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations.

The genetic classification proposed by the English neurologist H. Head allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity: 1) protopathic (more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.); 2) epicritic (more subtly differentiating, objectified and rational), which includes the main types of human sensations. Epicritic sensitivity is younger in genetic terms, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.

5. Psychophysics of sensations. Thresholds of sensations.
Central question psychophysics – the basic laws of the dependence of sensations on external stimuli. Its foundations were laid by E.G. Weber and G. Fechner.
The main question of psychophysics is the question of thresholds. There are absolute and differential thresholds of sensation or thresholds of sensation and thresholds of discrimination (differential). A stimulus acting on the analyzer does not always cause a feeling. The touch of the fluff on the body cannot be felt. If a very strong stimulus is applied, there may come a time when the sensation ceases to occur. We do not hear sounds with a frequency of more than 20 thousand Hertz. Too much stimulus can cause pain. Consequently, sensations arise when a stimulus of a certain intensity is applied.

The psychological characteristic of the relationship between the intensity of sensations and the strength of the stimulus is expressed by the concept of sensitivity threshold. There are such sensitivity thresholds: lower absolute, upper absolute and discrimination sensitivity threshold.

The smallest stimulus force that, acting on the analyzer, causes a barely noticeable sensation is called lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. The lower threshold characterizes the sensitivity of the analyzer. There is a clear relationship between absolute sensitivity and threshold value: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity, and vice versa. Our analyzers are very sensitive organs. They get very excited low strength energy of their corresponding stimuli. This applies primarily to hearing, vision and smell. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding aromatic substances does not exceed 8 molecules. And in order to evoke taste sensations, it is necessary at least 25,000 times more molecules than to create olfactory sensation. The very strength of the stimulus at which a sensation of this type still exists is called upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person. The teacher must foresee this psychological pattern, especially primary classes. Some children have reduced auditory and visual sensitivity. In order for them to see and hear well, it is necessary to create conditions for the best display of the teacher’s language and notes on the board. With the help of our senses, we can not only ascertain the presence or absence of a particular stimulus, but also distinguish between stimuli by their strength, intensity and quality.

Minimally increasing the strength of the current stimulus, which causes subtle differences between sensations, is called discrimination sensitivity threshold.