What are the feelings, emotions and sensations a person has? Basic characteristics of hearing. Specifics of human olfactory sensations

Municipal government special (correctional)

general educational institution for students and pupils with disabilities

"Krasninskaya special (correctional)

general education boarding school of the VIII type"

Types of sensation.

prepared

teacher

S. Krasnoe

The meaning of sensation in human life.

Sensation as such is a rather complex mental phenomenon, as it seems at first glance. Despite the fact that this is a fairly studied phenomenon, the global nature of its role in the psychology of activity and cognitive processes is underestimated by humans. Sensations are widespread in ordinary human life, and in the continuous process of cognitive activity for people they are an ordinary primary form of psychological connection between the body and the environment.

Partial or complete absence of types of sensation (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch) in a person prevents or inhibits his development. Sensations are of great importance on the formation of such cognitive processes as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, attention and perception, as well as on the development of activity as a specific type of human activity aimed at creating objects of material and spiritual culture, transforming one’s abilities, preserving and improving nature, and building society.

At the very beginning of life, in addition to physical development, people first of all develop speech, which is the main means of human communication. Without it, a person would not have the opportunity to receive and transmit a large amount of information, in particular that which carries a large semantic load or captures something that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses. Written speech often acts as a way to remember information. External speech plays mainly the role of a means of communication, and internal speech plays the role of a means of thinking. It should also be noted that speech narrows the boundaries of the chosen type of activity. The formation of speech, in turn, is problematic or even impossible without such types of sensation as vision, hearing, and touch.

Man is an organic part of nature and society; he is a rather complex organism. The origin and development of the human body is aimed, first of all, at the formation of personality. People are not born individuals, but become them in the process of development. Personality structure includes abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions, motivation, social attitudes. The formation and development of personality is greatly influenced by cognitive processes, activities, as well as human relationships. The acquired qualities during personality formation are influenced by the educational process. But how can you imagine the educational process without sensations?

The vital role of sensations is to promptly and quickly convey to the central nervous system, as the main organ of activity control, information about the state of the external and internal environment, the presence of biologically significant factors in it.

The life of every person is complex and multifaceted. It is revealed through a number of important processes. They can be conditionally divided into the individual’s social and business activity, culture, medicine, sports, communication, interpersonal relationships, scientific and research activities, entertainment and recreation.

The full course of all the above processes is problematic, and sometimes even impossible to imagine without the involvement of all our senses. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the role of sensations in a person’s life, since sometimes this knowledge helps in organizing the prosperous existence of an individual in society and achieving success in a business environment.

1. The concept of sensations

In the process of learning about the world around us, in human psychology, researchers highlight such an important phenomenon in the life of every person as sensation.

Feeling is the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that affect the brain through the corresponding sense organs. So, looking at some object, for example a chair, a person uses vision to determine its color, shape, size, through touch he learns that it is hard, smooth, moving it with his hands, he is convinced of its heaviness. All these are individual qualities of a given material object, information about which is provided by sensations.

Ability to sense- this is the only phenomenon of the organism through which the external world penetrates into human consciousness. Despite all the necessity and significance of sensation, it provides an opportunity for orientation in the world around us.

Our sense organs are products of long-term evolution, therefore they are specialized to reflect certain types of energy, certain properties of objects and phenomena of reality, which are adequate stimuli for specific sense organs. Light, for example, is an adequate stimulus for the eye, and sound for the ear, etc. Such differentiation in the field of sensations in humans is associated with the historical development of human society. The human body receives a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment through the senses, in the form of sensations. Sensations are considered the simplest of all mental phenomena. All living beings with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. As for conscious sensations, they exist only in living beings that have a brain and cerebral cortex. This, in particular, is proven by the fact that when the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system is inhibited, the work of the cerebral cortex is temporarily turned off naturally or with the help of biochemical drugs, a person loses the state of consciousness and with it the ability to have sensations, that is, to feel, to consciously perceive the world . This happens during sleep, during anesthesia, and during painful disturbances in consciousness.

As we see, in the process of any cognitive activity the starting point is sensation.

2. Classification of sensations

Currently, there are about two dozen different analytical systems that reflect the effects of the external and internal environment on receptors. Classification allows you to group them into systems and present relationships of interdependence. The following bases for classifying sensations are distinguished:

* by the presence or absence of direct contact with the stimulus causing sensations;

* according to the location of the receptors;

* according to the time of occurrence during evolution;

* according to the modality of the stimulus.

Based on the presence or absence of direct contact with the stimulus, treble and contact reception are distinguished. Vision, hearing, and smell belong to treble reception. These types of sensations provide orientation in the immediate environment. Taste, pain, tactile sensations are contact.

Based on the location of the receptors, exteroception, interoception and proprioception are distinguished. Exteroceptive sensations arise from irritation of receptors located on the surface of the body (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.)

Interoceptive sensations occur when receptors located inside the body are stimulated (feelings of hunger, thirst, nausea). Proprioceptive sensations occur when receptors located in muscles and tendons are stimulated.

According to the modality of the stimulus, sensations are divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, static, kinesthetic, temperature, and pain. There are sensations that occupy an intermediate place between auditory and skin sensations - vibration sensations.

There are peculiar sensations underlying the perception of obstacles that are not recognized by sighted people, but are characteristic of the blind. Blind people can sense an obstacle at a distance, and the more massive the obstacle, the more clearly. It has been established that this occurs with the help of the skin of the face and, above all, the forehead. It is assumed that these are heightened thermal sensations or locational sensations, which are noted in bats.

It should be noted that sensations also greatly influence perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech; in the absence of sensations, other cognitive processes will be limited or impossible.

Perception cannot be imagined without sensations, since it occurs through the influence of our senses on objects and phenomena of the objective world; together with the processes of sensation, perception provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world. The process of perception occurs under the influence of almost all sensations. This, for example, can be visual perception; under the influence of vision, the basic properties of the image are formed, developing in the process and result of perception - objectivity (perception in the form of objects separated from each other), integrity (the image is built up to some integral form), constancy (perception of objects relatively constant in shape, color and size, a number of other parameters of independently changing physical conditions of perception) and categoricality (perception is of a generalized nature).

Attention is also impossible without the senses, since it organizes a variety of sensations. Attention is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.

Memory is the process of reproducing, remembering, storing and processing various information by a person. And information, in turn, as mentioned above, comes through the senses. Let's think logically, how will we be able to remember without sensations? There will be a corresponding answer to this question.

Imagination is a special form of the human psyche, consisting separately from other mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. This is a complex process that occurs in thinking under the influence of the information that enters the brain from the external environment through the senses and is processed through perception, as well as under the influence of those images that are in human memory.

Thinking is a higher cognitive process. It represents the generation of new knowledge, an active form of creative reflection and transformation by man in reality. Thinking can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge and the creative transformation of existing ideas. The formation and development of thinking is influenced by new information and existing ideas that are received and formed through sensations.

Speech is a means of communication. Speech is formed under the influence of sound signals (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, phrases) that individuals exchange using sound sensations. Under the influence of the received signals, active and passive vocabulary and pronunciation skills are formed.

Types of sensation.

All types of sensations have common properties:

quality is the specific features that distinguish one type of sensation from others (auditory sensations differ from other types of sensations in pitch, timbre; visual ones in saturation, etc.)

intensity is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;

duration (duration) is determined by the time of action of the stimulus;

spatial localization - the sensation occurs after some time, the latent period is not the same for different species. This is information about the location of the stimulus in space, which is given to us by distant receptors (auditory, visual).

The grounds on which types of sensations are distinguished:

in connection with the sense organs, they distinguish visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory;

Based on the location of the receptors, they are distinguished:

interoceptive sensations - signaling the state of the internal processes of the body / organic sensations and sensations of pain. They are among the least conscious and always retain their proximity to emotional states.

exteroceptive sensations - receptors located on the surface of the body, provide information about the properties of the external environment.

propreocyte sensations - receptors are located in muscles and ligaments. They provide information about the movement and position of our body/sense of balance, movement.

Based on contact with the irritant, the following are distinguished:

distant sensations - auditory, visual, etc. They provide information about the properties of the stimulus without direct contact of the receptor with the object itself.

contact sensations - skin, taste, organic. Occur when the receptor interacts directly with an object.

Based on genetic classification, the following are distinguished:

protopathic sensations - described by the English neurologist Head in 1918. They are usually understood as more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized, which include organic feelings of hunger, thirst, etc.

epicritic sensations are the highest type of sensations that are not subjective in nature, are separated from emotional states, reflect objective objects of the external world and are much closer to complex individual processes.

a special group of nonspecific sensations stands out - people have vibration receptors, which are especially developed in the blind).

Depending on the nature of the stimuli acting on a given analyzer and the nature of the sensations that arise, separate types of sensations are distinguished.

First of all, we should distinguish a group of five types of sensations that are a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world - visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin. The second group consists of three types of sensations that reflect the state of the body - organic, sensations of balance, and motor. The third group consists of two types of special sensations - tactile and painful, which are either a combination of several sensations (tactile), or sensations of different origins (pain).

Visual sensations.

Visual sensations - sensations of light and color - play a leading role in a person’s cognition of the external world. Scientists have found that from 80 to 90 percent of information from the outside world enters the brain through the visual analyzer, 80 percent of all work operations are carried out under visual control. Thanks to visual sensations, we perceive the shape and color of objects, their size, volume, and distance. Visual sensations help a person navigate in space and coordinate movements. With the help of vision, a person learns to read and write. Books, cinema, theater, television reveal the whole world to us. It is not without reason that the great naturalist Helmholtz believed that of all human sense organs, the eye is the best gift and the most wonderful product of the creative forces of nature.

The colors that a person perceives are divided into achromatic and chromatic. Achromatic colors are black, white and gray in between. Chromatic - all shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. White color is the result of exposure of the eye to all light waves that make up the spectrum. Achromatic colors reflect rods that are located at the edges of the retina. Cones are located in the center of the retina. They function only in daylight and reflect chromatic colors. The sticks function at any time of the day. That's why at night all objects seem black and gray to us.

Color has different effects on a person’s well-being and performance. It has been established, for example, that optimal painting of a workplace can increase labor productivity by 20-25 percent. Color also has a different effect on the success of educational work. The most optimal color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red color excites; dark blue is depressing; both tire the eyes.

The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, you cannot read in poor lighting. At dusk, it is necessary to turn on electric lighting earlier so as not to cause excessive strain on the eye, which can be harmful to vision and contribute to the development of myopia in schoolchildren.

Special studies indicate the importance of lighting conditions in the origin of myopia: in schools located on wide streets, there are usually fewer myopic people than in schools located on narrow streets lined with houses. In schools where the ratio of window area to floor area in classrooms was 15 percent, there were more nearsighted people than in schools where this ratio was 20 percent.

Auditory sensations.

Hearing, like vision, plays a big role in human life. The ability to communicate verbally depends on hearing. Auditory communication is of great importance in human life. Thanks to them, a person hears speech and has the opportunity to communicate with other people. With hearing loss, people usually lose the ability to speak. Speech can be restored, but on the basis of muscle control, which can replace auditory control. The human auditory analyzer can perceive sound waves with a frequency of vibrations per second. Auditory sensations reflect: the pitch of sound, which depends on the frequency of vibration of sound waves; volume, which depends on the amplitude of their vibrations; timbre of sound - vibrational shapes of sound waves. All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, music, noise. Musical is singing and the sounds of most musical instruments. Noises - the sound of a motor, the roar of a moving train, the sound of rain, etc. Hearing for distinguishing speech sounds is called phonemic. It is formed during life depending on the speech environment. Musical ear is no less social than speech; it is educated and formed, just like speech. Strong and prolonged noise passing through the organ of hearing causes people to lose nervous energy, damage the cardiovascular system, reduce attention, reduce hearing and performance, and lead to nervous disorders. Noise has a negative effect on mental activity, so special measures are being taken to combat it.

The irritant for the auditory analyzer is sound waves - longitudinal vibrations of air particles propagating in all directions from the sound source. When air vibrations enter the ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate.

The brain end of the auditory analyzer is located in the temporal lobes of the cortex. Hearing, like vision, plays a big role in human life. The ability to communicate verbally depends on hearing. When people lose their hearing, they usually lose their ability to speak. Speech can be restored, but on the basis of muscle control, which in this case will replace auditory control. This is done through special training. Therefore, some deaf-blind people speak satisfactory spoken language without hearing sounds at all.

Vibration sensitivity is adjacent to auditory sensations. They have a common nature of reflected physical phenomena. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. This type of sensitivity is figuratively called “contact hearing.” No specific vibration receptors/humans have been found. Currently, it is believed that all tissues of the body can reflect vibrations of the external and internal environment. In humans, vibration sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual.

There are three characteristics of auditory sensations. Auditory sensations reflect the pitch of sound, which depends on the vibration frequency of sound waves, loudness, which depends on the amplitude of their vibrations, and timbre, a reflection of the vibrational shape of sound waves. Sound timbre is the quality that distinguishes sounds that are equal in pitch and volume. People's voices and the sounds of individual musical instruments differ from each other in different timbres.

All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, music and noise. Musical sounds - singing and sounds of most musical instruments. Examples of noise are the noise of a motor, the rumble of a moving train, the crackling of a typewriter, etc. The sounds of speech combine musical sounds (vowels) and noise (consonants).

A person quickly develops phonemic hearing for the sounds of his native language. It is more difficult to perceive a foreign language, since each language differs in its phonemic features. The ears of many foreigners simply cannot distinguish the words “Fust”, “dust”, “drank” - the words are completely different for the Russian ear. A resident of Southeast Asia will not hear the difference in the words “boots” and “dogs.”

Strong and prolonged noise causes significant loss of nervous energy in people, damages the cardiovascular system - absent-mindedness appears, hearing and performance are reduced, and nervous disorders are observed. Noise has a negative effect on mental activity. Therefore, in our country we carry out special measures to combat noise. In particular, in a number of cities it is prohibited to give road and railway signals unnecessarily, and it is prohibited to disturb the silence after 11 pm.

Vibratory sensations.

Vibration sensitivity is adjacent to auditory sensations. They have a common nature of reflected physical phenomena. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. No special vibration receptors have been found in humans. Currently, it is believed that all tissues of the body can reflect vibrations of the external and internal environment. In humans, vibration sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual. For deaf and deaf-blind people, vibration sensitivity compensates for hearing loss. Short-term vibrations have a tonic effect on the body of a healthy person, but long-term and intense vibrations tire and can cause painful phenomena.

Taste sensations.

Taste sensations are caused by the action of substances dissolved in saliva or water on the taste buds. A dry lump of sugar placed on a dry tongue will not give any taste sensations.

Taste buds are taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four types; accordingly, there are four elementary taste sensations: the sensation of sweet, sour, salty and bitter: The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combination of these qualities and on the addition of olfactory sensations to the taste sensations: by combining sugar, salt, quinine and oxalic acid in different proportions, it was possible to simulate some of the taste sensations.

Olfactory sensations.

This is one of the most ancient, simple, but vital sensations. The olfactory organs are the olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. The irritants for the olfactory analyzer are particles of odorous substances that enter the nasal cavity along with the air.

In modern man, the olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But when hearing and vision are damaged, the sense of smell, along with other remaining intact analyzers, becomes especially important. The blind and deaf use their sense of smell, just as sighted people use their sight: they identify familiar places by smell and recognize familiar people.

Skin sensations.

This is the most widely represented type of sensuality. There are two types of skin sensations - tactile (sensations of touch) and temperature (sensations of heat and cold). Accordingly, on the surface of the skin there are different types of nerve endings, each of which gives the sensation of only touch, only cold, only warmth. The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each of these types of irritations is different. The touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the tips of the fingers; the back is less sensitive to touch. The skin of those parts of the body that are usually covered by clothing is most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold.

A peculiar type of skin sensation is vibration sensation that occurs when the surface of the body is exposed to air vibrations produced by moving or oscillating bodies. In people with normal hearing, this type of sensation is poorly developed. However, with hearing loss, especially in deaf-blind people, this type of sensation develops noticeably and serves to orient such people in the world around them. Through vibrational sensations, they feel music, even recognize familiar melodies, feel a knock on the door, talk by tapping Morse code with their feet and perceive floor vibrations, learn about approaching traffic on the street, etc.

Organic sensations.

Organic sensations include sensations of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, suffocation, etc. The corresponding receptors are located in the walls of internal organs: the esophagus, stomach, intestines. During normal functioning of the internal organs, individual sensations merge into one sensation, which makes up the overall well-being of a person.

Feelings of balance. The organ for feeling balance is the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, which gives signals about the movement and position of the head. The normal functioning of the balance organs is very important for humans. For example, when determining the suitability of a pilot, especially an astronaut, for the specialty, the activity of the balance organs is always checked. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. With severe overstimulation of the balance organs, nausea and vomiting are observed (the so-called seasickness or air sickness). However, with regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly.

Motor sensations.

Motor, or kinesthetic, sensations are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Receptors of the motor analyzer are located in muscles, ligaments, tendons, and articular surfaces. Motor sensations signal the degree of muscle contraction and the position of parts of our body, for example, how much the arm is bent at the shoulder, elbow joint, etc.

Tactile sensations.

Tactile sensations are a combination, a combination of skin and motor sensations when feeling objects, that is, when touching them with a moving hand. The sense of touch is of great importance in human labor activity, especially when performing labor operations that require great precision. With the help of touch and palpation, a small child learns about the world. This is one of the important sources of obtaining information about the objects around it.

For people deprived of vision, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of exercise, it reaches great perfection. Such people can deftly peel potatoes, thread a needle, do simple modeling, and even sew.

Painful sensations.

Painful sensations have a different nature. Firstly, there are special receptors (“pain points”) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a feeling of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise from the action of a super-strong stimulus on any analyzer. Blinding light, deafening sound, extreme cold or heat radiation, and a very strong smell also cause pain.

Painful sensations are very unpleasant, but they are our reliable guard, warning us of danger, signaling trouble in the body. If it were not for pain, a person would often not notice serious illness or dangerous injuries. It’s not for nothing that the ancient Greeks said: “Pain is the watchdog of health.” Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it does not bring joy to a person, but serious trouble.

List of used literature

1. , Kondratiev: Textbook for industrial. - ped. technical schools. - M.: Higher. school, 1989.

2. Lindsay P., Norman D. Information processing in humans. Introduction to Psychology. - M., 1974.

3. Luria and perception.

4. Nemov. Textbook For students of higher, pedagogical, educational institutions. In 2 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. - M.: Enlightenment: Vlados, 19s.

5. General psychology, edited by others. M. Education 1981.

6. Petrovsky in psychology. Moscow 1995.

7. Psychology and pedagogy: Textbook/, etc.; Rep. ed. Ph.D. Philosopher Sciences, Associate Professor. - M.: INFRA-M;

8. Psychology and pedagogy. Textbook manual for universities. Compiler and executive editor Radugin editor Krotkov, 19s.

9. Rubinstein of general psychology. V2t. T1. M. 1989.

10. Rudik. Textbook for students of physical education technical schools. M., "Physical Education and Sports", 1976.

11. Social psychology. Brief essay. Under the general editorship and. M., Politizdat, 1975.

Human sensation is the form of direct reflection in the human mind of individual properties of objects and phenomena of reality. Human sensations are divided as follows:

What are the types of human sensations?

1) mechanical (touch, kinesthesia, hearing);

2) temperature, caused by thermal changes;

3) chemical (taste, smell);

4) photochemical (vision, since the chemical reaction represents one of the obligatory stages of the visual act in the area between the action of light and the excitation of visual receptors);

5) illness.

In addition, from a physiological and anatomical point of view, there are:

1) exteroceptors, which receive information from the outside.

2) interoreceptors (receptors of internal organs and systems). Therefore, we feel both individual properties and signs of surrounding objects, as well as changes occurring inside our body. Unusual internal sensations of a person are often the first signals of painful changes in the body, and their description makes up most of the patient’s complaints. The vividness of sensations is determined for a person not only by the novelty and unexpectedness of the action of the stimulus. The experience of preliminary encounters with a stimulus and the sensitivity of the sense organ on which the stimulus acts are of great importance. In this regard, an important sensitivity parameter is its threshold.

Human sensation threshold

The threshold of human sensation called the minimum intensity of the stimulus that causes the sensation of the corresponding property. The magnitude of sensitivity is always inversely proportional to the threshold of sensation. The sensitivity of a number of analyzing systems is so high that it surpasses the most modern technical devices. The light sensitivity of the human eye, for example, is almost absolute; the eye captures a light flux with an intensity of two quanta, in other words, two tiny light particles. Sensations are not only one of the simplest categories of cognition, they stimulate the development of the central nervous system and support its activity. Conditions that develop as a result of deprivation of sensations (blindness, deafness, prolonged forced immobility, etc.) are characterized primarily by mental infantilism, and complete social isolation can lead to psychosis. It is known that in persons deprived of some sense organs from birth, the sensitivity of others increases compensatoryly. Denis Diderot described a blind man who had such fine tactile sensitivity that he could mark the beginning of a solar eclipse before specialists with their complex instruments.

Human adaptation

Adaptation- one of the typical properties of sensation. This term refers to a gradual decrease in sensitivity to repeated strong stimuli or, conversely, an increase in sensitivity under the influence of repeated weak stimuli. Adaptation is characteristic of any kind of sensation. If we keep in mind the human taste sensations (taste of sweet, bitter, sour, salty), then the most striking illustration can be the sweetish taste of ordinary drinking water, which it acquires from those who have previously eaten lemon. The so-called dark adaptation is very typical: as the subject remains in the dark, the sensitivity of the eye increases and reaches a maximum after 30–40 minutes. In the adaptation mechanism, a significant role is played by sensitization of the sensory organs, which occurs as a result of the action of threshold stimuli. The presence of adaptation to pain has been confirmed by many clinical observations. Painful sensations are quite often the first signal of a disease, therefore psychotherapeutic interventions aimed at increasing the patient’s adaptation to pain can be justified only in two cases:

1) with a functional or physiological origin of pain (for example, childbirth, hysterical neurosis);

2) for pain of organic origin (for example, due to tissue swelling) to reduce their intensity and alleviate the patient’s suffering.

Changes and disorders of sensations are diverse and it is very important to take them into account in the relationship between the patient and the doctor.

All sensations, depending on temperament, character and characteristics of personal qualities, are divided into:

1) hyposthesia (low sensitivity);

2) hyperesthesia (heightened sensitivity);

3) anesthesia (lack of sensitivity);

4) paresthesia (perversion of sensitivity);

Such changes or disturbances in sensitivity alter the patient’s behavior, alter his understanding of the disease, and can serve as a basis for the doctor to underestimate or overestimate the patient’s condition. In this regard, a simple check of the sensitivity of the analyzers is included in the mandatory minimum examination of the patient by a doctor of any specialty, including a psychotherapist. For example, a patient with severe myopia does not show tactlessness or disrespect if he closely and pointedly examines the doctor’s face (he sees it poorly), but if the doctor does not know about the patient’s myopia, contact between them may never take place, a similar example is with hearing loss ( hearing loss).

Human sensations represent the simplest conscious act, not only biological, but also controlled by the cerebral cortex and subject to directional correction. The sensitivity ranges of analyzer systems are distinguished by an additional parameter - the reserve of excitability capabilities. Some people usually work to almost the entire supply of possibilities, and the limit of the latter is very close. Others, on the contrary, have a significant reserve of usually unused brain systems and therefore a much wider ability to respond to new demands of life, greater opportunities for adaptation to new living conditions. Therefore, such people tolerate intense mental activity more easily and adapt to conflict situations more easily. Thus, instilling in both the patient and the doctor a calm attitude towards internal and external circumstances, orderly, balanced reactions to them is equivalent to the formation of a wide range (reserve) of capabilities of all functional systems.

Human perception

Perception– this is a form of reflection of integral objects of reality in the unity of their inherent properties and qualities. If we receive sensations through individual receptors and sensory organs, then many analyzers participate in the act of perception, with the advantage of one of them. In this regard, they speak, for example, of visual or auditory perceptions. The act of perception can be divided into two stages.

1.Perception is the process of direct reflection of an object: when sensations arise, a certain image appears, conscious of a person. The mechanism of such awareness consists in comparing a given image with other, previously formed ones, comparing it with images accumulated as a result of experience.

2. Apperception is the process of comparing the image of an impression with the individual characteristics of one’s own experience. The fact that there is no absolute identity between the reflected object and the image of the impression is very important. Although the act of perception is associated with the direct action of an object on the senses, the degree of abstraction from the real object in it is more significant than in the act of sensation. The discrepancy between the object and the image of the impression is not a defect or imperfection of perception. On the contrary, such a discrepancy turns out to be the driving force in the development of the psyche and the mechanism of penetration into the nature of things (cognition).

In children, due to deafness and blindness from early childhood, limited access to information, mental development delays occur. If they are not trained at an early age and are not taught special techniques that compensate for these defects through the sense of touch, their mental development will become impossible.

The sensations that arise as a reaction of the nervous system to a stimulus are provided by the activity of special nervous apparatus - analyzers. Each consists of three parts: a peripheral part called the receptor; afferent, or sensory, nerves that conduct excitation to nerve centers; and the nerve centers themselves - the parts of the brain in which the processing of nerve impulses occurs.

However, a person’s sensations do not always give him a correct idea of ​​the reality around him; there are, so to speak, “false” sensory phenomena that distort the original irritations or arise in the absence of any irritation at all. Practicing doctors often do not pay attention to them and classify them as an oddity or anomaly. Researchers interested in higher nervous activity, on the contrary, have recently begun to pay increased attention to them: their careful study allows us to gain new insights into the functioning of the human brain.

Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, a professor at the University of California, San Diego and director of the Center for Brain and Cognition, studies neurological disorders caused by changes in small parts of the brain of patients. He paid particular attention to "false" sensory phenomena in his 2003 Reith Lectures, which were collected in the book The Emerging mind.

“The whole richness of our mental life - our moods, emotions, thoughts, precious lives, religious feelings and even what each of us considers to be our own self - is all just the activity of small jelly-like grains in our heads, in our brains,” - writes the professor. Memory of what no longer exists

One of these “false” sensations is phantom limbs. A phantom is an internal image or persistent memory of a body part, usually a limb, that persists in a person for months or even years after its loss. Phantoms have been known since ancient times. During the American Civil War, this phenomenon was described in detail by the American neurologist Silas Mitchell (1829–1914), who in 1871 was the first to call such sensations phantom limbs.

A curious story about phantoms is given by the famous neurologist and psychologist Oliver Sacks in the book “The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat”:

One sailor had his index finger on his right hand cut off in an accident. For the next forty years, he was tormented by the annoying phantom of this finger, just as elongated and tense as during the incident itself. Every time he raised his hand to his face while eating or to scratch his nose, the sailor was afraid of gouging out his eye. He knew very well that this was physically impossible, but the feeling was irresistible.

Penfield's motor and sensory homunculus. In certain areas of the brain there are “representations” of the muscles of the larynx, mouth, face, arms, torso, and legs. Interestingly, the area of ​​the cortex is not at all proportional to the size of the body parts.

Dr. Ramachandran worked with a patient who had had his arm amputated above the elbow. When the scientist touched his left cheek, the patient assured him that he felt touches on his amputated hand - either the thumb or the little finger. To understand why this happened, we should remember some features of our brain. Penfield's Homunculus

The cerebral cortex is a highly differentiated apparatus; the structure of its various areas is different. And the neurons that make up a certain department often turn out to be so specific that they respond only to certain stimuli.

At the end of the 19th century, physiologists found a zone in the cerebral cortex of dogs and cats, upon electrical stimulation of which an involuntary contraction of the muscles of the opposite side of the body was observed. It was even possible to determine exactly which parts of the brain are connected to which muscle group. Later, this motor area of ​​the brain was described in humans. It is located in front of the central (Rolandic) sulcus.

Canadian neurologist Wilder Graves Penfield (1891–1976) drew a funny little man in this place - a homunculus with a huge tongue and lips, thumbs and small arms, legs and torso. There is also a homunculus behind the central sulcus, only it is not motor, but sensory. Parts of this area of ​​the cerebral cortex are associated with skin sensitivity of various parts of the body. Later, another complete motor “representation” of a smaller body was found, responsible for maintaining posture and some other complex slow movements.

Tactile signals from the surface of the skin on the left side of the human torso are projected in the right hemisphere of the brain, on a vertical section of cortical tissue called the postcentral gyrus (gyrus postcentralis). And the projection of the face on the map of the surface of the brain is located immediately after the projection of the hand. Apparently, after the operation undergone by Ramachandran's patient, the part of the cerebral cortex that relates to the amputated arm, having ceased to receive signals, began to experience a hunger for sensory information. And sensory data coming from the skin of the face began to fill the adjacent vacant territory. And now touching the face was felt by the patient as touching a lost hand. Magnetoencephalography confirmed this scientist's hypothesis about the transformation of the brain map - indeed, touching the patient's face activated not only the face area in the brain, but also the hand area in accordance with Penfield's map. Normally, touching the face activates only the facial cortex.

Later, Ramachandran and his colleagues, while studying the problem of phantom limbs, encountered two patients who had undergone leg amputation. Both received phantom limb sensations from their genitals. Scientists suggest that some minor cross-connections exist even normally. This may perhaps explain why the feet are often considered an erogenous zone and perceived by some as a fetish.

These studies made it possible to make a very important assumption that the adult brain has enormous flexibility and “plasticity.” It is likely that claims that connections in the brain are established at the embryonic stage or in infancy and cannot be changed in adulthood are not true. Scientists do not yet have a clear understanding of exactly how to use the amazing “plasticity” of the adult brain, but some attempts are being made.

Thus, some of Dr. Ramachandran's patients complained that their phantom hands felt “numb” and “paralyzed.” Oliver Sacks also wrote about this in his book. Often in such patients, even before amputation, the arm was in a cast or was paralyzed, that is, the patient after amputation found himself with a paralyzed phantom arm, his brain “remembered” this condition. Then scientists tried to outwit the brain, the patient had to receive visual feedback that the phantom was obeying the commands of the brain. A mirror was installed on the side of the patient, so that when he looked at it, he saw the reflection of his healthy limb, that is, he saw two working arms. Imagine the amazement of the participants and organizers of the experiment when the patient not only saw the phantom hand, but also felt its movements. This experience was repeated several times, the visual feedback really “revitalized” the phantoms and relieved them of the unpleasant sensations of paralysis, the person’s brain received new information - everything was fine, the hand was moving - and the feeling of stiffness disappeared. Mixed feelings, or Luria and his Sh .

In the novel by Alfred Bester (1913–1987) “Tiger! Tiger!" the unusual state of the hero is described:

The color was pain, heat, cold, pressure, the feeling of unbearable heights and breathtaking depths, colossal accelerations and deadly compressions... The smell was a touch. The hot stone smelled like velvet caressing the cheek. Smoke and ash rubbed his skin like a tart, rough corduroy... Foyle was not blind, he was not deaf, he did not faint.

He felt peace. But the sensations emerged filtered through a nervous system that was distorted, confused and short-circuited. Foyle was in the grip of synesthesia, that rare condition when the senses perceive information from the objective world and transmit it to the brain, but there all the sensations are confused and mixed with each other.

Synesthesia is not Bester’s invention at all, as one might assume. This is a sensory phenomenon in which, under the influence of irritation of one analyzer, sensations characteristic of other analyzers arise, in other words, it is a confusion of feelings.

The famous neurophysiologist Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902–1977) worked for several years with a certain Sh., who had a phenomenal memory. In his work “A Little Book about a Big Memory,” he described this unique case in detail. During conversations with him, Luria established that Sh. had exceptional severity of synesthesia. This person perceived all voices as colored, the sounds evoked visual sensations in Sh. of various shades (from bright yellow to violet), while colors, on the contrary, were felt by him as “ringing” or “dull.”

“What a yellow and crumbly voice you have,” he once said to L.S., who was talking to him. Vygotsky. “But there are people who speak in a multivocal manner, who give off a whole composition, a bouquet,” he said later, “the late S.M. had such a voice.” Eisenstein, as if some kind of flame with veins was approaching me.” “For me, 2, 4, 6, 5 are not just numbers. They have a shape. 1 is a sharp number, regardless of its graphic representation, it is something complete, solid... 5 is complete completeness in the form of a cone, tower, fundamental, 6 is the first behind “5”, whitish. 8 - innocent, bluish-milky, similar to lime.”

Luria studied this unique case for years and came to the conclusion that the significance of these synesthesias for the memorization process was that the synaesthetic components created the background of each memorization, carrying additional “redundant” information and ensuring the accuracy of memorization.

Neuroscientists from the California Institute of Technology recently encountered a curious type of synesthesia. They discovered a new similar connection: people hear a buzzing sound when watching a short screensaver. Neuroscientist Melissa Saenz was giving a tour of her laboratory to a group of undergraduate students. In front of a monitor that was designed specifically to “turn on” a certain center of the visual cortex of the brain, one of the students suddenly asked: “Does anyone hear a strange sound?” The young man heard something similar to a whistle, although the picture was not accompanied by any sound effects. Saenz did not find a single description of this type of synesthesia in the literature, but she was even more surprised when, after interviewing students at the institute by email, she discovered three more of the same students.

The Swiss musician intrigued neuropsychologists at the University of Zurich with her unique abilities: when she hears music, she feels different tastes. And what's interesting is that she perceives different tastes depending on the intervals between notes. Consonance can be bittersweet, salty, sour or creamy for her. "She doesn't imagine these tastes, but actually experiences them," says study co-author Michaela Esslen. The girl also has a more common form of synesthesia - she sees colors when she hears notes. For example, the note "F" makes her see purple, and "C" makes her see red. Scientists believe that extraordinary synesthesia may have contributed to the girl's musical career. Brain short circuit

Synesthesia was first described by Francis Galton (1822–1911) back in the 19th century, but it was not given much attention in neurology and psychology, and for a long time it remained just a curiosity. In order to prove that this is indeed a sensory phenomenon, and not at all a figment of the imagination of a person who wants to attract attention, Ramachandran and his colleagues developed a test. Black twos and randomly placed fives appeared on the computer screen. It is very difficult for a non-synesthete to isolate the outlines that form twos. A synesthete can easily see that the numbers form a triangle, because he sees these numbers in color. Using similar tests, Ramachandran and his colleagues found that synesthesia is much more common than previously thought, affecting about one in two hundred people.

Ramachandran and his student Edward Hubbard studied a structure in the temporal lobe called the fusiformis (BNA). This gyrus contains the color area V4 (Visual area V4), which processes color information. Encephalographic studies have shown that the digit area in the brain that represents visual numbers lies directly behind it, almost touching the color area. Let us remember that the most common type of synesthesia is “color numbers”. The number and color areas are in close proximity to each other, in the same brain structure. Scientists have suggested that in synesthetes there are intersections of areas, “cross-activation” associated with some kind of genetic changes in the brain. That genes are involved is evidenced by the fact that synesthesia is inherited.

The most common type of synesthesia is “color numbers”. A synesthete and a non-synesthete see the same picture differently. Illustration: Edward Hubbard et al.

Further research proved that there are also synesthetes who see days of the week or months in color. Monday may seem red to them, December may seem yellow. Apparently, in such people there is also an intersection of brain regions, but only in other parts of the brain.

Interestingly, synesthesia is much more common among creative people - artists, writers, poets. All of them are united by the ability to think metaphorically, the ability to see connections between dissimilar things. Ramachandran hypothesizes that in people prone to metaphorical thinking, the gene that causes “cross-activation” is more widespread and is not localized in just two areas of the brain, but creates “hyperconnectedness.”

Phantom limbs and synesthesia are just two examples of sensory phenomena whose study has allowed scientists to advance their understanding of how the human brain is structured and functions. But there are a lot of similar neurological syndromes - this includes “blindsight,” when a person who is blind as a result of brain damage distinguishes between objects that he does not see, and Cotard’s syndrome, in which some patients feel dead due to the fact that the emotional centers are disconnected from all sensations, and the “ignoring” syndrome, and various types of dysesthesia, and many others. The study of such deviations helps to penetrate the mysteries of the human brain and understand the mysteries of our consciousness.

And the person’s emotions? It is this issue that we decided to devote today’s article. After all, without these components we would not be people, but machines that do not live, but simply exist.

What are the sense organs?

As you know, a person learns all the information about the world around him through his own. These include the following:

• eyes;
• language;
• leather.

Thanks to these organs, people feel and see the objects around them, as well as hear sounds and taste. It should be noted that this is not a complete list. Although it is usually called the main one. So what are the feelings and sensations of a person who has functioning not only of the above organs, but also of other organs? Let's consider the answer to the question posed in more detail.

Eyes

The sensations of vision, or rather color and light, are the most numerous and diverse. Thanks to the presented body, people receive about 70% of information about the environment. Scientists have found that the number of visual sensations (of various qualities) of an adult, on average, reaches 35 thousand. It should also be noted that vision plays a significant role in the perception of space. As for the sensation of color, it completely depends on the length of the light wave that irritates the retina, and the intensity depends on its amplitude or so-called scope.

Ears

Hearing (tones and noises) gives a person about 20 thousand different states of consciousness. This sensation is caused by air waves that come from the sounding body. Its quality depends entirely on the magnitude of the wave, its strength on its amplitude, and its timbre (or sound coloring) on ​​its shape.

Nose

The sensations of smell are quite varied and very difficult to classify. They occur when the upper part of the nasal cavity, as well as the mucous membrane of the palate, is irritated. This effect occurs due to the dissolution of the smallest odorous substances.

Language

Thanks to this organ, a person can distinguish different tastes, namely sweet, salty, sour and bitter.

Leather

Tactile sensations are divided into feelings of pressure, pain, temperature, etc. They occur during irritation of nerve endings located in tissues, which have a special structure.

What feelings does a person have? In addition to all of the above, people also have feelings such as:

• Static (body position in space and a sense of its balance). This feeling occurs during irritation of the nerve endings that are located in the semicircular canals of the ear.
• Muscular, joint and tendon. They are very difficult to observe, but they are of the nature of internal pressure, tension and even slip.
• Organic or somatic. Such feelings include hunger, nausea, sensations of breathing, etc.

What are the feelings and emotions?

A person’s emotions and inner feelings reflect his attitude towards any event or situation in life. Moreover, the two named states are quite different from each other. So, emotions are a direct reaction to something. This happens at the animal level. As for feelings, this is a product of thinking, accumulated experience, experiences, etc.

What feelings does a person have? It is quite difficult to answer the question posed unambiguously. After all, people have a lot of feelings and emotions. They give a person information about needs, as well as feedback on what is happening. Thanks to this, people can understand what they are doing right and what they are doing wrong. After realizing the feelings that have arisen, a person gives himself the right to any emotion, and thereby he begins to understand what is happening in reality.

List of basic emotions and feelings

What are the feelings and emotions of a person? It is simply impossible to list them all. In this regard, we decided to name only a few. Moreover, they are all divided into three different groups.

Positive:

• pleasure;
• jubilation;
• joy;
• pride;
• delight;
• confidence;
• confidence;
• Delight;
• sympathy;
• love (or affection);
• love (sexual attraction to a partner);
• respect;
• gratitude (or appreciation);
• tenderness;
• complacency;
• tenderness;
• gloat;
• bliss;
• feeling of satisfied revenge;
• feeling of self-satisfaction;
• feeling of relief;
• anticipation;
• feeling of security.

Negative:

Neutral:

• astonishment;
• curiosity;
• amazement;
• calm and contemplative mood;
• indifference.

Now you know what feelings a person has. Some to a greater extent, some to a lesser extent, but each of us has experienced them at least once in our lives. Negative emotions that are ignored and not recognized by us do not just disappear. After all, the body and soul are one, and if the latter suffers for a long time, then the body takes on some part of its heavy burden. And it’s not for nothing that they say that all diseases are caused by nerves. The influence of negative emotions on human well-being and health has long been a scientific fact. As for positive feelings, the benefits of them are clear to everyone. After all, experiencing joy, happiness and other emotions, a person literally consolidates in his memory the desired types of behavior (feelings of success, well-being, trust in the world, people around him, etc.).

Neutral feelings also help people express their attitude towards what they see, hear, etc. By the way, such emotions can act as a kind of springboard to further positive or negative manifestations.

Thus, by analyzing his behavior and attitude to current events, a person can become better, worse, or remain the same. It is these properties that distinguish people from animals.

Why is a person able to subtly feel other people and their feelings? Find out what empathy is and how to protect yourself from other people's emotions!

What allows a person to subtly feel other people?How empathy works

Empathy¹ is a person’s ability to feel other people, other people’s emotions, desires and feelings. It refers to extrasensory perception: developed hypersensitivity allows you to perceive the emotions of other people.

In fact, most people have the ability to empathize, it’s just expressed to varying degrees. This is a deeply personal feeling that is not customary to talk about.

You need to be able to manage your hypersensitivity, use it at will and “turn it off” when it is not needed.

Some people intuitively know how to do this. Others don't know how to do this. In this case, empathy will bring suffering to its bearer: some people cannot even distinguish between their own emotions and those of others: for them everything is felt as their own feeling!

In a normal state, when a person does not have developed empathy, or when the ability is consciously turned off, it looks like this:

When he begins to empathize with someone, the aura becomes “porous”:

Figuratively speaking, when an empath is centered in himself, he is like a bowl, and when he begins to actively empathize, he becomes like a colander.

Openings in the energy body, “pores,” allow psychic energy to pass through to the person, a connection is built, and the empath begins to subtly feel his experiences.

The opposite also happens: when the energy of attention transfers into you from the world around you: from other people, places and events.

If empathy is controlled, it becomes a powerful ability because it allows you to anticipate things and events that happen to other people.

Before action there is a decision-making process. Empaths are able to subtly sense other people, what a person intends to do before the actual action!

Empathy allows you to experience the unity of being, feel like another person, and understand the actions of other people.

If an empath does not know how to “turn off” this ability, then this greatly affects his life and health, gradually destroying him.

How does uncontrolled empathy manifest itself in life?

This spectrum is large, it always leads to a loss of internal energy² through constant waste of emotions. This can be physically exhausting—essentially, an empath takes on other people's physical and emotional pain.

1. Overactive empathy in relationships

A person has a strong desire to help another when he sees that he has problems.

This leads to the fact that he begins to “adopt” problems and forgets about himself. As a result, the empath internally ceases to understand where he and his life are, and where the experiences of the other are.

2. Hyperactive empathy in a social environment

Empaths cannot stay in society for long because they lose themselves in the ocean of sensations from the many people around them. They become so focused on the perception of emotions floating in the “air” and plunge into their world that they lose themselves, their integrity.

3. Hyperactive emotional empathy

An empath is deeply affected by others' emotional pain. If someone has suffered a great loss, such as someone dying, an empath may support that person by feeling their emotions for them, but then begin to feel bad and sense someone else's grief.

4. Overactive empathy in certain places

If an empath enters a building that is filled with the emotions of many people, he begins to subtly feel the entire emotional background of this place. This manifests itself in hospitals, schools, etc.

5. Physical empathy

Some empaths can even sense other people's physical pain! First, this manifests itself in the fact that they perceive the pain itself in a specific place, and then severe headaches can occur from physical empathy.

These are the most common types of empathy, although there are many more types of empathy, such as intellectual empathy, empathy with animals and plants, and others.

In order to learn to use the benefits of a superpower, you need to control your empathy.

Notes and feature articles for deeper understanding of the material

¹ Empathy is conscious empathy for the current emotional state of another person without losing the sense of the external origin of this experience (