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History of ancient France

Celts.

In the second millennium BC. the territory of modern Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary and Southern Germany was inhabited by tribes Celts. They settled in various directions and reached the territory of present-day France. Has begun Celtic period in French history. Celtic invasions, which lasted for centuries, intensified with the beginning of the Iron Age (in the 10th-9th centuries BC) and reached their greatest intensity in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. The Celtic tribes were called by different names. They never created a single strong state. One of the Celtic tribes - parisia- settled on the banks of the Seine. They hid from their enemies on the island, which is now called Ile de la Cité. It was the Celtic Parisians who were the first inhabitants of the future Paris; the name of the city came from the name of this tribe. A tour to Paris will allow you to see this island and its attractions. Read more about the Celts...

Gaul.

Around the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Roman conquests began in the extreme southeast. In seven years (125-118 BC), the Romans conquered the entire Mediterranean coast of France and formed one of their many provinces here. The period of Roman rule in the history of France began. The Romans called the Celts Gauls, and the conquered province - the Narbonne province. The Gauls simply called this territory the Province, which is where the designation of southeastern France that has survived to this day came from - Provence. The remaining territory of what is now France, free from the Romans, was then called Gaul. The proconsul of the conquered part was then Julius Caesar. He launched a vigorous campaign to conquer all of Gaul, and not only military. Caesar took advantage of differences in various Celtic tribes, managed to win over part of the population to his side, and in the end all of Gaul - up to the shores of the ocean and the Pyrenees - came under the rule of Rome. This is the second one Roman conquest (58-51 BC) marked the beginning of the five hundred year reign of Rome in Gaul, and all these five centuries were filled with the intense struggle of the Gauls against Rome. The Romans chose the settlement of the Celtic tribe of Parisians on the Isle of Cité as the capital of the conquered territory. A palace was built on the island for the Roman governor. The Romans called their capital Lutetia parisii. Several centuries passed, and the name Paris was firmly attached to the settlement. Almost nothing has survived in Paris from the times of Roman rule. Fragments of buildings erected by the Romans were included in subsequent developments. You can visit the Ile de la Cité during your holiday in Paris.

The Romans built several important roads in Gaul, cutting through the entire country right up to the shores of the English Channel. Paved with stone and sometimes reaching a width of 13 meters, they allowed Roman legionaries to travel 30-40 km. per day, and couriers have to travel 75 km per day. These roads formed the backbone of the French road network for almost a thousand years.

As a result of the Roman conquest in Gaul, the Celtic languages ​​were replaced by Latin. This was also facilitated by the fact that Latin, unlike Celtic, had its own written language.

Historians have different assessments of the role of the Roman conquest in the history of France. Some consider it completely harmful. Others believe that the Roman conquest was the only way to overcome the impasse in which Celtic society had reached.

The power of the Roman governors in Gaul formally remained until the last quarter of the 5th century, however, the Roman Empire, weakened from within, was unable to withstand the onslaught of barbarians advancing on its borders from all sides. Gaul found itself at the mercy of Germanic tribes that poured in from Central and Eastern Europe.

Franks

Already in the middle of the 3rd century. A Frankish tribal union is formed on the northeastern borders of Gaul. Word " franc" means brave, courageous. At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century, the Franks raided northeastern Gaul, and settled there as allies of Rome.

Beginning in 407, the Franks, taking advantage of the weakening of the Empire, moved westward, settling on free lands, without conflicting with the local Gallo-Roman population.

By 450, the Franks split into two large groups: the Ripuarian Franks and the Salic (Maritime) Franks. They create numerous kingdoms, rarely united in alliances. In 457, the kingdom of Tournai appeared, whose king, after the death of his father, was Clovis from the dynasty Merovingian.

Merovingian Dynasty (481-751)

Clovis (481-511)

At his accession to the throne in 482, the Western Roman Empire had already ceased to exist. The last Roman possession in Gaul was Soissons. In 486 Clovis takes over this region. He was then a pagan, but Saint Remy, Archbishop of Reims, sends him a message of congratulations. Clovis also tries not to quarrel with the Christian Church; he even wanted to return to the church a beautiful cup, which was among the spoils during the conquest of Soissons. The other warriors did not like this, since it violated the usual order of dividing the spoils. One of these warriors cut the bowl with a sword. In subsequent years, Clovis actively conquered more and more lands; Understanding the effectiveness of the union with the church, he accepts Christianity. His baptism was solemnly celebrated in Reims on Christmas Eve 498.

By 511, Hdodvig was already the head of a kingdom stretching from the Rhine Valley to the Pyrenees. He settles in Paris, which he makes "the residence of the king." In Paris, Clovis lives in a palace built for the Roman governor. So it’s not for nothing that the Ile de la Cité, a visit to which includes any tour to Paris, is called the cradle of Paris.

Clovis dies in the same year 511 in the Church of the Holy Apostles, which he built on the burial site of St. Genevieve, leaving the kingdom to her four sons.

Merovingian kings - successors of Clovis

Throughout the 6th century, the Franks, led by the Merovingians, continued their conquests, and the kingdom grew significantly stronger. It becomes the main power of Western and Central Europe, but after the death of Clovis, long-term civil strife began.

The last Merovingian kings received the nickname "lazy". Biologically degenerate child kings, without power and without wealth, are forced to vegetate in their miserable domains, looking for a means of subsistence.

The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric III. He was replaced on the throne by the first monarch from another dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin by nickname Short.

Carolingian Dynasty (751-987)

Carolingians became the second dynasty in French history.

Pepin the Short ruled France between 751-768. The name of the dynasty itself came from Pepin's son, Charles, known by the nickname "The Great".

Charlemagne (768-814)

Thanks to numerous campaigns of conquest he expanded the borders of his kingdom so much that almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe.

Charlemagne subjugated the Lombards, Saxons and Bavarians and advanced the eastern border deep into German lands. There he created a line of border districts to protect against Avars and Slavs. Along the Pyrenees, he organized the so-called Spanish March - a border strip that held back the onslaught of Muslims.

Charlemagne managed to establish effective government by appointing officials in each duchy or county

Numerous decrees (capitularies) of Charlemagne have been preserved, affecting every aspect of government - from church organization to the structure of royal estates. Continuously traveling around the country, he established direct control even over remote provinces.

IN 800 Charlemagne was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

In Paris, on the Ile de la Cité, there is a monument to Charlemagne. While on holiday in Paris, you can approach this monument, located next to the Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris, and remember the deeds of this great man.

Under other Carolingian kings

His eldest son became his heir, Louis I "The Pious".

From that time on, the tradition according to which the kingdom was divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and only the eldest son succeeded the father.

Charlemagne's grandchildren began a war of succession that greatly weakened the empire and ultimately led to its collapse.

The last king of this dynasty was Louis V. After his death in 987 year, the nobility elects a new king - Hugo nicknamed " Capet".

Capetian Dynasty (987-1328)

This nickname gave the name to the new dynasty Capetian- the third dynasty in the history of France.

By this time, France was already severely fragmented. The first kings of the Capetian dynasty inherited a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris. The king was not the master even of his own domains. The castles of rebellious feudal lords rose on its lands.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united with each other. Under power English kings most of what was then France was located.

Under the Capetians, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. It was the time of the Crusades. The First Crusade began in 1095.

The “gathering” of France began Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), which acquired Vermandois, part of Artois, Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne. He was the last king of France to be crowned during the lifetime of the current king, his father. In an effort to avoid difficulties in the transfer of power and opposition from the all-powerful barons, the aging King Louis VII the Young decided to crown his son in Reims, which happened on November 1, 1179. Philip Augustus ascended the throne at the age of 15; it was then that he declared that he wished that by the end of his reign the kingdom would be as powerful as it had been during the time of Charlemagne. The energetic and gifted ruler largely achieved this goal.

He did a lot to strengthen and improve the cities of France, often investing his own money in this. He built defensive towers and paved the streets with cobblestones. Under this king, construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued, a visit to which often involves a vacation in Paris. Philip II Augustus contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting famous professors with awards and benefits. Under him, the construction of the Louvre began, which everyone who buys a tour to Paris now tries to get to. The population of Paris during his reign increased from 25,000 to 50,000 people, turning the French capital into one of the most populous cities in Europe.

The policy of annexing more and more new territories was continued by the grandson of Philip II, Louis IX Saint (1226-1270). He forced the counts of Toulouse to recognize the authority of the king of France over themselves and cede to him a significant part of their possessions. Under Philip III, the rest of these territories were annexed to the royal lands. About Saint Louis...

About the appearance of this amazing king and man...

After the death of Philip IV the Fair, France was ruled by his sons. In 1328, his last son, Charles IV, died. There are no more direct heirs, except for the grandson of Philip IV the Fair - King of England Edward III. But who would want to see an Englishman as their ruler? Therefore, they chose one of the relatives of the Capetian dynasty, Philip of Valois, to the French throne. This king marked the beginning of the reign of the fourth dynasty in the history of France - Valois dynasty.

Valois Dynasty (1328-1589)

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

Edward III decided to take the French crown by force. Thus began the Hundred Years' War. During this war, France suffered defeat after defeat. In the Battle of Poitiers, the entire flower of French chivalry was killed, and King John the Good was captured. It was a real tragedy for France. The army is defeated, the king is captured. Funds for creation new army there wasn’t, but we still need to ransom the king from captivity. The entire burden of the situation was shifted onto the shoulders of the people, who responded with uprisings. Uprising in Paris, followed by Jacquerie, an uprising of peasants whom the knights contemptuously called " Jacques the simpletons"were depressed. The situation was getting worse and there was a threat of losing the independence of France. The entire people of France rose to defend the independence of their country. A guerrilla war began, the British became very uncomfortable in the occupied territories. The British decided to improve matters by seizing new territories of France. So, it was planned to take Orleans, which was a first-class fortress. With the capture of Orleans, the road to the south of France opened. In 1428 the city was besieged by English troops. At this time, a young peasant woman appeared to Charles VII, whom the people already called the Virgin, sent by God to save unfortunate France. It was Joan of Arc, and she managed to convince the king to give her an army. The army, led by Joan of Arc, liberated Orleans and the fortresses on the Loire and Champagne. In 1430, Joan of Arc was captured and died at the stake a year later. But the French army continued to win. Under pressure from the French, the British were forced to leave Normandy, Bordeaux, and Paris. Only Calais remained in their hands, which France returned in 1558. In 1453 the war ended. It took 116 years to end England's claims to the French throne and lands.

Louis XI (1461-1483)

In 1461 after death Charles VII, his son became king of France Louis XI. This king despised knightly ideals. A cautious and cunning diplomat, he began the fight against the feudal lords. The feudal opposition was led by the brother of Louis XI, Charles the Bold. The war has begun. Through cunning and violence, Louis XI strengthened himself in the south of France. In 1477, the corpse of Charles the Bold, naked and eaten by wolves, was found in the icy mud of a pond.

Louis XI rejoiced. The widow of Charles the Bold asked for patronage. Taking advantage of this, Louis occupied Burgundy, Artois, and Franche-Comté. A few years later, Provence and Maine were annexed. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered. The king patronized cities, opened markets, and built roads. He encouraged trade and industry, under him science and art flourished, medicine developed, and postal service was revived.

Charles VIII (1483-1498)

Under Charles VIII, the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased; the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles VIII, who after his death married Louis XII (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany.

Huguenot Wars

Under the last representatives of the Valois dynasty, religious wars began again in the history of France. The North and South of the country fought for about thirty years. The French South, which remembered the heresy of the Albigenses and for a long time developed independently, was the center of opposition to royal power. Many Southerners became Calvinists. In France, Calvinists were called Huguenots. The North and the royal house remained Catholic.

IN last years board Henry II of Valois (1547-1559) Royal taxes increased sharply. Under Henry's son Francis II, protests began for a reduction in taxes, led by the Huguenots. At the same time, the struggle for power between two side branches of the Capetian dynasty intensified - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbons(Huguenots). After the unexpected death of Francis under the king's young brother Charles IX, actual power was in the hands of their mother - Catherine de' Medici. Under her, open clashes began between Catholics and Protestants. Over a thirty-year period, ten wars occurred.

The most terrible episode of the Huguenot wars was St. Bartholomew's Night. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24), the massacre of unsuspecting Huguenots who came to the wedding of Henry of Bourbon with the king's sister Margaret began. The massacre continued for three days. It is believed that at least 30 thousand people died.

Bourbon Dynasty (1589-1792, 1814-1848)

Both the last king of the Valois dynasty, Henry III, and Henry of Guise fell victims of the Huguenot wars. Henry of Bourbon remained, who also laid claim to the throne. To become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this, in 1589, the gates of Paris opened before him. France was now ruled by kings from the Bourbon dynasty. According to legend, Henry IV said, entering the gates of the capital: “ Paris is worth a mass" The Bourbons became the fifth dynasty in French history. In 1598, under Henry IV, it was adopted Edict of Nantes- law on religious tolerance.

This king realized that it was impossible to build a strong French state relying only on the nobility. He supports major officials and merchants, encourages in every possible way the development of large-scale production and trade, and establishes French colonies in overseas lands. The first of the Bourbons found a new, solid basis for royal power - the interests of the nation.

On May 14, 1610, Henry IV was assassinated by a religious fanatic, the Jesuit monk François Ravaillac.

History of France XVII century.

To the new king Louis XIII was only nine years old, power was in the hands of his mother Marie de Medici and her favorite Concino Concini. During the seven years of their reign, this couple managed to destroy everything that Henry IV had created with such difficulty.

Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu

But the young monarch Louis XIII was burdened by Concini’s impudence and his mother’s lust for power. On his orders, Concini was killed. At the same time, the reign of Marie de Medici ended. She was expelled from Paris and joined the king's opponents who raised uprisings in the provinces. In the end, Marie de' Medici seeks the right to return to Paris. The Bishop of Luzon, who has done so much for her, comes with her - yes, that same famous Cardinal Richelieu. In Paris, Cardinal Richelieu managed to prove to Louis XIII his indispensability and in 1624 he headed the new government. For 18 years, Cardinal Richelieu held power at court. Being extremely unpopular among almost all classes of France, he did a lot for the good of the country. The cardinal carried out a number of reforms designed to strengthen royal power. First it was necessary to establish peace in the long-suffering country. A strict course was taken to curb the rebellious aristocrats. The cardinal was not afraid to shed the blood of the rebels, regardless of their high position. The execution of the Duke of Montmorency, one of the country's leading figures, caused the aristocracy to shudder in horror.

Richelieu then pacified the resistance of the Huguenots, capturing their main fortress La Rochelle. Freedom of religion was preserved in the country, but the Huguenots lost their privileges. No religious persecution followed. For Richelieu, the interests of the state were above all. He said: “Both Huguenots and Catholics were equally French in my eyes.” The religious wars that tore the country apart for more than 70 years ended.

Richelieu did a lot to raise the prestige of France in Europe. He managed to prevent Spain's intention to crush all of Europe.

Cardinal Richelieu can rightfully be called one of the founding fathers of the French nation and the creators of modern Europe.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Louis XIII died, leaving the French crown to his son Louis XIV, who was then less than 5 years old. The country was ruled by his mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin. Until the death of the cardinal, Louis XIV showed no interest in governing the state. But then he seemed to be reborn, plunging headlong into state affairs. Under him, veneration of royal power took on a semi-religious character: (“The State is me”). Under Louis XIV, absolutism in France reached its apogee. Any reference to the law or right was considered criminal. Wars and the maintenance of a large army, retinue, and palaces brought most of the country's population to extreme poverty.

Being an ardent Catholic, Louis XIV revoked the famous Edict of Nat, as a result of which tens of thousands of Huguenots left their homeland.

The residence of the French kings was now in Versailles. A grandiose palace and park ensemble was created here. The Grand Trianon, the main palace, was decorated with unbridled luxury. Louis sought to ensure that the entire flower of the French nation revolved in Versailles. The entertainment in Versailles did not stop. Many European monarchs envied the life of the Versailles court and imitated Louis even in his weaknesses.

History of France 18th century

Louis XV (1715-1774)

In 1715-1774. occupied the French throne Louis XV. He was little concerned about the situation in the country. Fed up with amusements, the king devoted his time to hunting and favorites who interfered in politics. The famous Madame de Pompadour was especially active. Huge expenses on the sophisticated luxury of the courtyard intensified the financial crisis of the state. And yet, the reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor.

Louis XV paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis.

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

In 1774, the twenty-year-old grandson of Louis XV ascended the throne. Louis XVI. The new king was not distinguished by his grandfather’s vices, but had neither strength of character nor political talents. State Affairs he preferred hunting and his hobby of plumbing.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. But virtually all segments of the population were dissatisfied with the existing order of things. The reason for the revolution was the shortage state budget. The royal treasury has not made ends meet for a long time.

Great French Revolution (1789-1799)

To improve the situation, Louis XVI had to convene Estates General, which have not been convened since 1614. On May 5, 1789 they opened. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

The first stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789.

On July 9, the National Assembly, consisting of all three classes, proclaimed itself Constituent. The drafting of a constitution began. Louis XVI considered this as an attempt on power and began to gather troops.

A striking episode of this stage in French history was the storming of the Bastille. Bastille Day July 14, 1789 years since then is national holiday France.

Absolutism was overthrown, and the emigration of the nobility began. Real political power was in the hands of the Constituent Assembly, which consisted mainly of representatives of the third estate.

The Constituent Assembly adopts 2 important bills:

• personal dependence of peasants and, accordingly, conscription was abolished.
• "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." The people became the source of power, the supremacy of law, the rights to freedom of conscience, press, speech, life, etc. were proclaimed.

Second stage of the revolution: October 5-6, 1789 - August 10, 1792 (before the fall of the monarchy).

This was the peaceful constitutional stage of the revolution. A law on the procedure for the redemption of feudal dues was adopted, tax reform was carried out, titles of nobility and privileges of the clergy were abolished. Civil marriage was introduced, and Catholics and Protestants had equal rights.

In September 1791 it was adopted first Constitution. France was proclaimed constitutional monarchy. The executive branch is the king, who retains many rights, and the legislative branch is unicameral Legislative Assembly. 60% of the male population over 25 years old had the right to vote. A new administrative division into 83 departments was introduced.

On April 20, 1792, the king and the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. This war was destined to drag on (with the involvement of most European powers) and claim millions of lives. In the spring of 1792, a few days after the start of the war, a young sapper captain Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, in a fit of inspiration, wrote the text of the famous “La Marseillaise” overnight, which later became the French national anthem.

The reason for a new political crisis was unsuccessful attempt flight of Louis XVI in July 1792. After this, the influence of Republicans in the country increased. The king nevertheless approved the Constitution and announced elections to the Legislative Assembly.

Despite the elections political situation the country has not improved. On August 10, 1792, the uprising began. The Insurrectionary Commune of Paris arose and took power into its own hands. The rebels took possession of the royal palace. On August 11, the monarchy was virtually abolished in France.

The third stage of the revolution: August 11, 1792 - May 1793.

The Commune replaces the word "lord" with "citizen". All men over 21 years of age who are not in service and do not live in one place have the right to vote. less than a year. The Commune of Paris is a body of the Parisian city government.

French troops won their first victory at the Battle of Valmy. On the same day, a new revolutionary meeting, the Convention, met in Paris. On September 21, a Republic was proclaimed in France.

First Republic (1792-1804)

In the spring, France's military fortunes changed again, as England, the Netherlands and Spain joined her opponents. In this new crisis, the Jacobins, led by Robespierre and Danton, seized power. They established the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of Public Safety and with their help proclaimed the beginning revolutionary terror, whose first act was the conviction and execution of 31 Girondins.

Period 1793-1794 called the era of terror. In October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. The guillotine was used more and more frequently in France. This is an execution weapon invented by the revolution. The doctor suggested the guillotine Guillotin, who believed that a heavy knife, falling from a height, decapitates completely painlessly.

Military failures during this period were supplemented by the threat of inflation.

Most French people greeted the Jacobin dictatorship with hostility. In a number major cities Already in the early autumn of 1793, uprisings broke out against the government in the country.

In the midst of the crisis, a new faith emerged - the religion of Reason, the cult of the Supreme Being, complemented by ceremonies of public works, a new calendar and Puritan morality. The prophet of the “new faith” was Robespierre. As a result of the conspiracy, he was removed from power on July 27, 1794 and executed the next day. On this day, an entire era ended.

The fourth stage of the revolution: July 28, 1794 - November 9, 1799.

Free trade was restored.

They adopted the Constitution of the third year of the republic in 1795, which almost repeated the constitution of 1791. Legislative power was given Council 500 And Council of Elders, and the executive - Directories of 5 people.

Although the Directory itself became a byword for inefficiency and corruption, it ruled France for four years and fought two great wars. These are Bonaparte's campaign in Italy, which ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Campoformia in 1797, and the campaign directed against the Second Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and Naples).

Constant political crises ended with a coup on November 9, 1799. The directory ceased to exist. 3 consuls received executive power, and this was the beginning dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

History of France XIX century.

Consulate (1799-1804)

Consuls- or, more precisely, Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his tools - acted decisively. All power was in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte as Minister of the Interior, and Fouché as Minister of Police.

Later, Napoleon passed a decree through the Senate on the lifetime of his powers (1802), and then proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (1804).

First Empire (1804-1814)

The period of Napoleon's reign was a period of wars, at first extremely happy for France, although with some unfavorable episodes (the Battle of Trafalgar); France extended its power and influence to almost all of Europe. Beginning with failures in Spain and continuing with the war with Russia in 1812, fortune changed the empire.

After the Allied armies entered Paris on March 31, 1814, the Senate appointed by Napoleon on April 3, 1814 proclaimed his dethronement.

Napoleon remained the national hero of France. In 1840 his ashes were buried in Les Invalides in Paris.

Restoration (1814-1830)

On April 6, 1814, the Senate proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy Bourbons. Was returned to the throne Louis XVIII. Thousands of emigrant nobles who returned with the Bourbons demanded reprisals against political figures from the times of the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, and the restoration of their feudal rights and privileges. But it was no longer possible to completely return to the old way. Louis XVIII tried in his domestic policy to reach a compromise between the interests of the big bourgeoisie and the landowning nobles.

In 1824, after the death of Louis XVIII, he assumed the throne under the name Charles X his brother, Count d'Artois. He was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to pursue an openly pro-noble policy and thereby completely upset the balance that had developed in the first years of the Restoration. In 1830, Charles X decided to coup d'etat. He signed ordinances (decrees) that practically canceled all the achievements of the revolution and led to the restoration of the absolutist system in the country. Under these conditions, the big bourgeoisie had to decide to fight.

July bourgeois revolution of 1830

On July 25, the ordinances were published in newspapers. Paris responded to them with an uprising. On July 29, the royal Tuileries Palace was taken in battle. The only way for Charles X to retain power was to recognize the constitution and swear allegiance to it; but he chose to abdicate and demanded the abdication of his eldest son, the Duke of Angoulême, who for 20 minutes was technically king Louis XIX. Charles X fled to England. The big bourgeoisie, which formed the Provisional Government, did not want and feared a republic. A representative of the Orleans dynasty, traditionally close to bourgeois circles, was invited to the throne. August 7, 1830 Louis Philippe of Olean was declared king of France.

The long-standing struggle for political dominance between the nobility and the big bourgeoisie was decided in favor of the latter. It was no coincidence that the new king Louis Philippe, the largest forest owner and financier, was called the “bourgeois king.”

July Monarchy (1830-1848)

The adopted new constitution " Charter 1830“proclaimed that the king rules the country not by divine right, but at the invitation of the French people; henceforth he could not repeal or suspend laws. He lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch.

The July Monarchy in France was also called " kingdom of bankers" This period in the history of France was marked by the heyday of the stock exchange and stock speculation, the growth of banking capital, which did not seek to finance national production. The dominance of the financial aristocracy hampered the industrial-capitalist development of the country.

This led to the creation of a revolutionary situation, which was resolved by the revolution of 1848.

Revolution of 1848, Second Republic (1848-1852)

In February 1848 year, all of Paris was covered with barricades.

On February 24, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebel people, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned. A Provisional Government was formed, which proclaimed France a republic. On April 23, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which opened on May 4. And on November 4, 1848, the constitution of the Second Republic was adopted. Legislature in the hands of a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elected for 3 years. Executive power is in the hands of the president, who is elected by popular vote for a 4-year term. On December 10, presidential elections were held. The nephew of Napoleon I will win - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.

Second Empire (1852-1870)

On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon carried out a coup d'etat. A Bonapartist dictatorship was established in France. A year after the usurpation of power, on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III. All democratic institutions were destroyed, freedom of speech, press, and assembly were eliminated.

The problems raised by the development of the country at the time of the revolution of 1848 were not resolved. But the policy of the new government was different. It was a policy of maneuvering between different social groups and classes. The policies of Napoleon III contributed to the enrichment of the entire bourgeoisie as a whole.

The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty by victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states successfully took place. A powerful state grew up on the eastern borders of France - the North German Union, which openly sought to capture the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. From the very first days of the war, Prussia's overwhelming superiority was revealed. The Prussians had an almost double numerical superiority. The Prussians immediately managed to cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazaine, was thrown back to the fortress of Metz and besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, under the pressure of a large Prussian army, retreated to Sedan, not far from the Belgian border, where the battle that decided the outcome of the war took place on September 2, 1870. Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French fell in the battle of Sedan. McMahon's 80,000-strong army and Napoleon III himself were captured. Prussia celebrated victory.

The Sedan disaster was the final blow to the empire of Nepoleon III, which was already on the brink of destruction. The second empire collapsed like a house of cards.

Revolution of September 4, 1870

The news of the defeat at Sedan and the capture of the emperor sparked an uprising in Paris. Thousands of people gathered in the square near the Paris City Hall. France was proclaimed a republic. The Prussians moved to Paris, which was hastily preparing for a siege. Leon Gambetta took off hot-air balloon from the besieged city and within a month organized a new army, which was called the Loire. The Loire army began to operate successfully. A patriotic upsurge gripped the entire French people. A powerful partisan movement. Under these conditions, on January 28, 1871, the government of General Trochu signed an armistice with the Prussians on the terms of the surrender of Paris, although the military and material resources of France still allowed the fight to continue. Elections were held to the National Assembly, which at the first meeting refused to recognize France as a republic. Thiers was elected head of the new government. On February 28, a preliminary peace was signed, according to which Alsace and Lorraine were torn away from France; in a short time, the country must pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs. German troops were given the right to occupy Paris.

Paris Commune

The government's actions provoked an armed uprising on March 18, 1874 in Paris, which no one thought about and which no one prepared. The government left the capitals. Elections took place in Paris Paris Commune- this is traditionally the name of the city government body of the French capital. The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms for which more than one generation of French democrats had fought. The scale of the Commune's plans, sometimes utopian, far exceeded the modest capabilities of the Parisian reformers. In their implementation they have not advanced beyond the first modest steps. The main concern of the Commune was war. At the beginning of April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed groups of the Commune were called, and the troops of the former government, which settled in Versailles. The opponents seemed to be trying to outdo each other in cruelty and outrages. The streets of Paris were filled with blood. The unprecedented vandalism shown by the Communards during street battles is also unjustifiable. They deliberately set fire to a number of buildings in the center of Paris, including the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and the Thiers house. Countless cultural and artistic values. The Versailles people did not lag behind the Communards in cruelty.

The “Bloody Week” of May 21-28, 1871 not only ended the short history of the Paris Commune, but also summed it up. The stubbornness of politicians who did not want to compromise and self-importance cost France too dearly people's leaders who believed in their historical mission.

After the defeat of the Paris Commune, the question of defining the political system of France was not resolved for a long time. It was only in 1875 that the National Assembly, by a majority of one vote, adopted an addition to the basic law recognizing France as a republic.

Third Republic (1870-1940)

From 1873 to 1879 The President of France was a monarchist McMahon. In 1875, the constitution of the Third Republic was adopted. The very first parliamentary elections held on the basis new constitution, brought victory to the Republicans. In 1879, McMahon was forced to resign. The new president was elected Jules Grevy.

In the 1870s, life in France was determined by the consequences of its recent defeat in the war, including the payment of huge indemnities.

The corruption reigning in France increasingly undermined the authority of the government. Outrage reached its peak when it became known that the son-in-law of President Jules Grévy was trading in the highest state award - the Order of the Legion of Honor. In 1887, Grevy was forced to resign. Became president Sadi Carnot. His grandfather was one of the major figures in the 18th century revolution, and therefore many believed that Carnot could strengthen the republic. He remained as president until 1894.

General Boulanger. Boulangism

In the turbulent situation of the 80s of the 19th century, he launched his activities General Boulanger, who served as Minister of War. He managed to secure his popularity among both republicans and monarchists. Boulanger became the idol of many French people. Many hoped that Boulanger would raise France's prestige on the world stage and bring economic prosperity within the country. Boulanger began to call for a revision of the constitution and a coup d'etat. At the same time, he became increasingly closer to the monarchists. Having launched an attack on the parliamentary republic, Boulanger stood as a candidate in several electoral districts and won everywhere. In January 1887, he won a victory in Paris itself - the Boulangist movement reached its greatest rise. They expected him to carry out a coup d'etat, but he did not dare to do so. A rumor about Boulanger's possible arrest by the authorities forced him to flee France. Soon he shot himself. The Boulangist movement collapsed, which was facilitated by the industrial boom that began in 1889, which somewhat weakened the dissatisfaction of the French with the policies of the moderate Republicans in power.

Panama scam

In the 1980s, France was rocked by a scandal related to Panamanian scam. In the early 80s. at the suggestion of the French engineer who built the Suez Canal Ferdinand Lesseps A society was created to dig the Panama Canal. The company placed shares among a large number of French people. However, construction of the canal was delayed, and in 1888 the company declared bankruptcy. Numerous shareholders lost their modest savings. Then it turned out that only half of the funds raised were spent on the construction of the canal. And the rest were wasted by the company's leaders or were bribed. Parliamentary permission to issue shares was obtained as a result of bribery in a number of politicians France. 150 members of parliament received bribes. The editors of a number of newspapers were bribed. France was simply stunned.

It was assumed that this story would seriously weaken the Republican regime, but in the elections of 1893 the Republicans again received a majority of votes.

Dreyfus affair

Last thing decade XIX century in the history of France was overshadowed by a court case on false charges of espionage of an officer Alfred Dreyfus.

During the investigation, facts of information leakage to the German military attaché and the involvement of a number of General Staff officers in the crime were revealed. Alfred Dreyfus was tried, found guilty and sentenced to life in prison. Later, doubts arose about the fairness of the verdict, and a campaign began for its review. The conviction of a French army captain became a political issue. They started talking about her in the government and the Chamber of Deputies. It was on everyone's lips. The country was divided into two camps: the Dreyfusards - supporters of the acquittal of Dreyfus - and the anti-Dreyfusards - supporters of his condemnation. The smell of civil war was in the air.

In 1899, an attempt was made to re-examine the Dreyfus Affair. But many influential circles could not allow Dreyfus to be declared innocent, and the military court did not dare to contradict them. Dreyfus was again found guilty.

The newly elected French President intervened Emil Lub e, who pardoned Dreyfus under the pretext poor health. He was completely rehabilitated only in 1906. Alfred Dreyfus died in 1935.

France at the beginning of the 20th century

Combe's radical government launched an attack on the Catholic Church. In 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Rouvier passed a law on the separation of church and state.

In 1904, the Anglo-French alliance was created. In 1907, an agreement was concluded with Russia. This is how it arose Entente (Concord)- a coalition of Great Britain, France and Russia. In 1913 he was elected President of France Raymond Poincaré. Preparations for war have become main task new president.

France in World War I

The First World War began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On August 3, Germany declared war on France. Invading France German troops began a march on Paris, trying to cover the left flank of the French army. But here they met stubborn resistance from the French. Bloody battles ensued on the banks of the Marne River. Six Anglo-French armies and five German armies, totaling about 2 million soldiers, took part in these battles. Losses in the battles on the Marne for a short period from September 3 to 10 were colossal - both sides lost about 600 thousand people killed and wounded. German troops were forced to retreat to the Ain River and switch to trench warfare, burying themselves in trenches on fronts from Switzerland to the English Channel. The positional battles that lasted throughout 1915 only prolonged the war. February 21, 1916 German command The attack on Verdun began. In the event of a breakthrough at Verdun, Germany would have a direct route to Paris. The fighting at Verdun lasted almost 10 months, until December 18, but significant results not allowed. The Verdun operation turned into a “meat grinder”; both sides suffered colossal losses. In total, about a million people died in the battles of Verdun.

On July 1, 1916, the Entente launched an offensive on the Somme River. The Somme battles intensified every day. In September, British tanks appeared on the battlefield. They brought local success to the Anglo-French troops. But still technically imperfect and used in small numbers, they could not provide a general breakthrough of the front. By the end of September 1916, the Somme fighting began to subside. In the battles on the Somme, both sides lost over 1 million 300 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners.

On April 16, 1917, Entente troops launched an offensive on the Western Front along the line Arras - Noyon - Soissons - Reims. This offensive, ineptly organized by the commander-in-chief of the French army, General Nivelle, turned into a senseless bloodbath. During these battles, almost all 132 British tanks participating in the battle were shot down or destroyed. On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente. From that time on, American soldiers, military equipment and ammunition began to flow to the Western Front in a continuous stream.

In 1918, after the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty Eastern front was liquidated. In the spring of 1918, Germany threw all its forces into the Western Front. The Germans advanced relatively far towards Paris. The capital of France was only 70 km from the front and was fired upon by German long-range guns. At the cost of huge losses, the Allies managed to hold back the advance of the Germans, who again penetrated the Marne region, where they were in September 1914. But the German army did not have enough for more - resources ran out. The Entente troops had a numerical superiority and a huge logistics superiority, united under the overall command of the French Marshal Foch and from the end of July 1918 went on the offensive along the entire front. The Germans suffered huge losses and were thrown back across the Marne River. Germany's defeat became obvious.

On November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed at Retonde station in the Forest of Compiègne, ending the First World War. The territory of France was cleared of invaders.

Interwar period (1918–1939)

The country was led Raymond Poincaré and Aristide Briand. High military expenses were covered by France through loans, which inevitably led to inflation. Raymond Poincaré sought to keep the franc at least 1/10 of its pre-war value. It was necessary to cover the costs of restoring the destroyed areas and pay interest on loans to Great Britain and the United States. In solving this problem, Poincaré relied on German reparations, however, the Germans did not want to fulfill their obligations. Poincaré sent troops into the Ruhr region in 1922. The Germans resisted and capitulated only after emergency measures were introduced. British and American experts suggested Dawes plan to finance reparation payments, mainly through American loans to Germany.

In the first half of the 1920s, Poincaré enjoyed the support of parliament. But in the next elections in 1924, the coalition of radical socialists and socialists (alliance of the left) was able to win a majority of seats. The new chamber rejected Poincaré's line, along with his firm monetary policy in France, and, in order to improve relations with Germany, brought to power first Edouard Herriot and then Aristide Briand. Briand's plans to ensure peace in Europe led to the conclusion of an immunity guarantee pact with Germany state borders in the Rhine region and on maintaining the demilitarization of the Rhineland, which was reflected in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.

From the mid-1920s until 1932, Briand led French foreign policy. He made constant attempts to improve relations with Germany, confident that France would never be able to confront Germany on its own without the support of its former allies or the League of Nations.

In the early 1930s, France was gripped by a deep economic crisis.

The Popular Front won the elections of 1936. Socialist leader Leon Bloom formed a new government.

Hitler's rise to power initially did not cause much concern to the French. But his call for rearmament in 1935 and the seizure of the Rhineland in 1936 posed a direct military threat. The French attitude towards foreign policy has changed.

Both morally and militarily, France was completely unprepared to repel German attack in May 1940. Within six fateful weeks, the Netherlands, Belgium and France were defeated. The defeat of France was so sudden and complete that it defied any rational explanation.

France in World War II

At the same time, the French general Charles de Gaulle spoke on the radio from London and called on all French people to unite to fight the invaders. In France, the National Assembly in the resort town of Vichy transferred power to Marshal Philippe Pétain. The Vichy government maintained control over 2/5 of the country's territory (central and southern regions), while German troops occupied the entire north and Atlantic coast. The Vichy government lasted until the invasion of North Africa by Anglo-American troops in November 1942. After this, the Germans completely occupied France.

The Germans pursued a brutal policy in the occupied territory of France. Resistance movement significantly intensified after the Germans began to export the French to forced labor in Germany. The resistance contributed to the liberation of France, although Allied fighting played a major role.

After liberation from the Nazis, the restoration of the country began, under the leadership of General de Gaulle and the leaders of the Resistance.

Fourth Republic (1946-1958).

In 1946, the Constituent Assembly adopted a draft of a new constitution that eliminated a number of shortcomings of the Third Republic. General de Gaulle spoke out for the establishment of an authoritarian presidential regime. But a compromise constitution was adopted, according to which a weak president and a deliberative upper house were supplemented by an influential National Assembly, which exercised control over the activities of the government. The similarities between the Fourth and Third Republics were obvious.

In the mid-1950s, unrest began in Algeria, a colony of France, and a war of independence broke out. The French government was unable to suppress it, which caused an explosion of discontent among the French. The violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, and the metropolis was under the threat of civil war or a military coup. The Fourth Republic, torn apart by contradictions, transferred emergency powers on June 2, 1958 Charles de Gaulle- the only person who could save France.

Fifth Republic (since 1958).

De Gaulle headed the government and was given emergency powers. He intended to change the constitution, and put forward to the National Assembly the principles on which, in his opinion, the new constitution should be based. A referendum in September 1958 approved the draft constitution. This constitution significantly expanded the powers of the president and, accordingly, limited the power of parliament. In December 1958, de Gaulle was elected President of the Republic for a seven-year term.

Algeria gained independence. De Gaulle is pursuing a course for French independence in matters of European and world politics. This contributed to increasing the country's authority in the international arena. France withdrew French troops from NATO and demanded the withdrawal of NATO headquarters from France. On April 28, 1969, de Gaulle resigned after his proposals for constitutional reform were rejected.

In the presidential elections held in June 1969, he won

Gaullist candidate Georges Pompidou.

Having become president, Pompidou maintained de Gaulle's independent foreign policy, but did not always follow the principles of his predecessor's domestic policy. In August 1969, he devalued the franc (which de Gaulle had once resisted) and thereby reduced the purchasing power of the population. Galloping inflation has led to increased political positions left.

In April 1974, Georges Pompidou died suddenly. The Minister of Finance became the winner in the presidential elections Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, candidate of the conservative Independent Republican Party.

Giscard d'Estaing carried out several reforms, including lowering the voting requirement to 18 years of age and liberalizing laws on education, divorce and abortion.

Giscard d'Estaing tried to stimulate economic growth by reducing the role of the state. Price controls on many goods were eliminated, and the number of government employees was reduced.

In May 1981 he became president Francois Mitterrand. He was the first socialist president of the Fifth Republic. In June, early parliamentary elections were held, in which the Socialist Party won the majority of seats. The new government had its own reform program. It included the nationalization of several large banks and corporations, the abolition of prefectures in order to develop local government, and the abolition of the death penalty.

The Socialists raised the minimum wage, extended workers' paid leave from four weeks to five, and increased welfare spending. These measures contributed to the economic recovery despite the global recession in 1981–1982.

In the parliamentary elections of 1986, right-wing forces won. New Prime Minister, Gaullist leader Jacques Chirac, put up for sale the most profitable of the recently nationalized industrial companies and banks.

Mitterrand pursued a reserved policy towards the right-wing government, avoiding open confrontation. This position increased François Mitterrand's rating as a politician. In May 1988 he was re-elected to the presidency. In the parliamentary elections in June 1988, the Socialists won the majority of seats.

In 1995, the President of France became Jacques Chirac.

The resumption of nuclear testing in the South Pacific, undertaken on the initiative of Chirac, caused a sharp protest from the world community. For France to join the EU, demands were put forward to limit pensions and social benefits. However, the government's proposals caused mass strikes and demonstrations. As a result, these proposals remained unimplemented.

Anticipating the need to further introduce unpopular measures, Chirac called early parliamentary elections for May-June 1997 in the hope of retaining his majority in parliament for another five years. However, his coalition was defeated.

This defeat and subsequent failures in municipal and regional elections led to a crisis on the right.

France at the turn of the century. Modern times.

The Jospin government, which came to power in 1997, relied on a broad coalition of left-wing parties - socialists, communists, radical socialists, greens and the Citizens' Movement. The immigration law was heatedly discussed in France and was adopted in December 1997. Until April 1998, parliament approved new rules for the entry and stay of foreigners in the country: they lifted a number of restrictions in this area, but maintained the practice of expelling illegal immigrants.

In the area of ​​civil liberties, measures were taken to ensure legal equality for non-marital and homosexual couples, although the proposals met with fierce resistance from conservative circles, including a 100,000-strong protest in Paris in February 1999. In October 1999, the National Assembly approved the Civil Solidarity Pact, which provided for couples of any gender have equal rights with families in the field of taxation, inheritance, social, pension and health insurance.

In May 2000, the National Assembly adopted a law on equal rights for women in politics. He obliged political parties nominate an equal number of candidates – men and women; Among the 6 candidates occupying the top places on the lists, 3 had to be women. In June of the same year, parliament voted to reduce the term of office of the French president from 7 to 5 years.

The French government actively advocated deepening European integration, but this line was far from unanimously accepted in French society.

During the 2002 presidential elections, Jacques Chirac won a landslide victory (82.2% of the vote) and was re-elected to the presidency.

The foreign policy of France at the beginning of the 21st century has generally not changed. The emphasis continued to be on protecting French interests in those areas of the planet where the country enjoyed traditional influence, especially in Africa and the Middle East.

In 2007 he was elected president Nicolas Sarkozy.

The founder of France is considered to be King Clovis, who ruled it since 481. He belonged to the Merovingian dynasty, named after the mythical king Merovian, who, according to legend, was the grandson of Clovis. King Clovis went down in history as a wise ruler and a brave warrior, as well as the first ruler of France to convert to Christianity. He accepted the Christian faith in 496 in Reims, and since then all French monarchs have been crowned in this city. He and his wife Clotilde were devotees of Saint Genevieve, patroness of Paris. It was in his honor that seventeen rulers of France were named after Louis (Louis).

After Clovis's death, his country was divided up by his four sons, but they and their descendants were incapable rulers, and the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away. Because they spent all their time in the palace, tired of entertainment, they were nicknamed lazy kings. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric III. He was succeeded on the throne by the first monarch of the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin, nicknamed the Short, given to him because of his short stature, to put it mildly. Dumas wrote a short story of the same name about him (Le chronique du roi Pepin).

Pepin the Short (714-748) ruled France between the years 751-768. He was a majordom - one of the king's advisers since 741, and, like other majordoms, had enormous power at court. Pepin proved himself to be a skilled warrior and an intelligent, talented politician. He strongly supported the Catholic Church, and in the end received the full support of the Pope, who, under pain of excommunication, forbade the election of a king from any other clan.



The name of the dynasty itself came from Pepin's son, Charles (Charles), known by the nickname "The Great". Dumas also wrote a short story about him called “Charlemagne” (Les Hommes de fer Charlemagne). Thanks to numerous campaigns of conquest, he greatly expanded the borders of his kingdom, which included almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned with the imperial crown in Rome by Pope Leo III. His eldest son, Louis I, nicknamed "The Pious", became his heir. Thus, the tradition according to which the kingdom is divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and from now on only the eldest son succeeded his father.

A war of succession broke out between the grandchildren of Charlemagne; this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its collapse. The last king of this dynasty was Louis V. After his death in 987, a new king was elected by the nobility - Hugh, nicknamed "Capet", and this nickname gave the name to the entire Capetian dynasty.

After the death of Louis V, Abbot Hugh became king, nicknamed "Capet" due to the fact that he wore the robe of a secular priest, which was called a "capa". Under the Capetians, feudal relations began to take shape in France - the feudal lords, or lords, pledged to protect their vassals, and the vassals swore allegiance to the feudal lords and sponsored their idle lifestyle.

Under the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. The First Crusade began in 1095. The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe headed to Jerusalem to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims after ordinary townspeople were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099 at three o'clock in the afternoon.

Until 1328, France was ruled by the direct heirs of Hugh Capet, after which the last monarch who was a direct descendant of King Hugh, Charles (Charles) IV, nicknamed “The Handsome,” was succeeded by Philip VI, who belonged to the Valois branch, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty would rule France until 1589, when Henry (Henri) IV of the Capetian dynasty of the Bourbon branch ascended the throne. The Capetian dynasty ended its rule of France forever in 1848, when the last monarch of the Orléans branch of the Bourbons, King Louis Philippe, nicknamed Louis Philippois, was expelled.

In the three decades between the death of Louis XI (1483) and the accession to the throne of Francis I (1515), France left the Middle Ages. It was the 13-year-old prince, who ascended the throne in 1483 under the name Charles VIII, who was destined to initiate the changes that changed the face of the French monarchy under Francis I. From his father Louis XI, the most hated of the rulers of France, Charles inherited the country, in which was restored to order, and the royal treasury was significantly replenished. The reign of Charles VIII was marked by two important events. By marrying Duchess Anne of Brittany, he incorporated the previously independent province of Brittany into France. In addition, he led a triumphal campaign in Italy and reached Naples, declaring it his possession.



Charles died in 1498, leaving the throne to the Duke of Orleans. Having ascended the throne under the name of Louis XII (1498–1515), the new king gained fame thanks to two acts. Firstly, he also led the French nobles on an Italian campaign, this time laying claim to Milan and Naples. Secondly, it was Louis who introduced the royal loan, which played such a fatal role 300 years later. The introduction of the Royal Loan allowed the monarchy to withdraw money without resorting to excessive taxation or recourse to the Estates General. Since the cities became the largest source of taxes, of which Paris was undoubtedly the largest and richest, this new banking system proved to be a profitable source of royal revenue.

Louis' heir was his lively cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angoulême. He inherited a rich and peaceful country, as well as a new banking system that could provide large sums of money that seemed inexhaustible. Nothing could have been better suited to the passions and abilities of Francis I.

Francis I (1515–1547) was the embodiment of the new spirit of the Renaissance. His reign began with a lightning invasion of Northern Italy. His second trip to Italy, undertaken ten years later, ended unsuccessfully. Nevertheless, Francis remained one of the main political figures in Europe for more than a quarter of a century. His biggest rivals were King Henry VIII of England and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

During these years, Italian humanism had a transformative influence on French art, architecture, literature, science, social mores, and even Christian doctrine. Influence new culture could be seen in the appearance of royal castles, especially in the Loire Valley. Now these were not so much fortresses as palaces. With the advent of printing, incentives appeared for the development of the French literary language.

Henry II, who succeeded his father on the throne in 1547, must have seemed a strange anachronism in Renaissance France. His life ended unexpectedly: in 1559, while fighting at a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell, pierced by a spear. Having undertaken several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry II recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, previously belonging to the Holy Roman Empire. Henry's wife was Catherine de' Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the king's untimely death, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, officially ruled. The first of these, the sickly Francis II, was under the influence of the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were uncles of Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom Francis II was engaged as a child. A year after ascending the throne, Francis died, and the throne was taken by his ten-year-old brother Charles IX, who was entirely under the influence of his mother.

While Catherine succeeded in guiding the child king, the power of the French monarchy suddenly began to falter. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis I and intensified under Charles, ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely throughout France. Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often rich and influential.

The decline in the king's authority and the disruption of public order were only a partial consequence of the religious schism. Deprived of the opportunity to wage wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to disobey the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. With the ensuing unrest, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Guise family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were moderate Catholics, like Montmorency, and Huguenots, like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, open confrontation between the parties began, interspersed with periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.

During formal training third agreement, which included the marriage of the king's sister Margaret with Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots, Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night of August 23-24, 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his associates were killed. Charles IX died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry III. Henry of Navarre had the greatest chances for the throne, however, being the leader of the Huguenots, he did not suit the majority of the country's population. Catholic leaders formed a “league” against him, intending to place their leader Henry of Guise on the throne. Unable to withstand the confrontation, Henry III treacherously killed both Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. Even in those troubled times, this act caused general indignation. Henry III quickly moved to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, where he was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.

Left out of work at the end of the wars abroad in 1559 and seeing the helplessness of the sons of Francis I, the nobles became emotional about religious strife. Catherine de Medici opposed general anarchy, at times supporting different sides, but more often trying to restore the authority of royal power through negotiations and religious neutrality. However, all her attempts were unsuccessful. When she died in 1589 (her third son died the same year), the country was on the brink of destruction.

Although Henry of Navarre now had military superiority and received the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The end of the religious wars was completed by the Edict of Nantes in 1598. Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority entitled to the right to labor and self-defense in some areas and cities.

During the reign of Henry IV and his famous minister, Duke Sully, order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country was plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by some madman while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland. Although his death kept the country from prematurely becoming involved in the Thirty Years' War, it threw France back into a state of near regency anarchy, as the young Louis XIII was only nine years old. The central political figure at this time was his mother Queen Marie de' Medici, who then enlisted the support of the Bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became the king's mentor and representative and effectively ruled France until the end of his life in 1642 .



Richelieu's reputation as one of France's greatest statesmen rests on his consistent, far-sighted and skillful foreign policy and his ruthless suppression of unruly nobles. Richelieu took from the Huguenots their fortresses, such as La Rochelle, which withstood a siege for 14 months. He was also a patron of the arts and sciences and founded the French Academy.

Richelieu managed to force respect for royal authority through the services of royal agents, or intendants, but he was nevertheless able to significantly undermine the independence of the nobles. And yet, even after his death in 1642, the succession of the king, who died a year later, passed surprisingly calmly, although the heir to the throne, Louis XIV, was then only five years old. Queen Mother Anne of Austria assumed guardianship duties. Richelieu's protege, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin, was an active pursuer of the king's policy until his death in 1661. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenees (1659) peace treaties, but was unable to do anything more significant for France than preserving the monarchy , especially during the uprisings of the nobility known as the Fronde (1648–1653). The primary goal of the nobles during the Fronde was to extract benefits from the royal treasury, and not to overthrow the monarchy.

After the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV, who had reached the age of 23 by that time, took direct control over state affairs into his own hands. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by outstanding personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665–1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666–1691), Sebastien de Vauban, Minister of Defense Fortifications, and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.

When Colbert managed to raise enough funds, Louis formed a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to Vauban, had the best fortresses. With the help of this army, led by Turenne, Condé and other capable commanders, Louis pursued his strategic line during four wars.

At the end of his life, Louis was accused of being “too fond of war.” His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat.

Decrepit in 1715 old king died. The heir to the French throne was a child, the five-year-old great-grandson of Louis XV, and during this period the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans. The most notorious scandal of the Regency era was the failure of John Law's Mississippi Project (1720), an unprecedented speculative scam supported by the Regent in an attempt to fill the treasury.

The reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism lost its effectiveness as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army nurtured by Louvois and Vauban became demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointment to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis XV paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis, which gave rise to the French Revolution in 1789. The country freed itself from all feudal remnants, but by the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon seized power in the state.

Since 1804, France became an empire, it strengthened the bourgeois system and achieved the highest greatness in the history of France. The Patriotic War of the Russian people of 1812 predetermined the collapse Napoleonic Empire and returned the country to a secondary position in world politics. A series of bourgeois revolutions (1830, 1848) contributed to the revival of the empire in 1852. France once again turned out to be a world leader, and only the strengthening of Germany once again relegated this state to a secondary role. In 1870, a bourgeois-democratic form of government was established in the country. The desire to resurrect lost greatness drew France into the First World War against Germany. Success in it helped strengthen the country's authority and was further consolidated during the victory over Nazi Germany.




Today, this amazing country is rightfully considered one of the most advanced and respected on the planet.

The history of France was in the center of world attention during August 1997, when Princess Diana's life tragically ended when she crashed in a car in Paris. And in July 1998, the French football team won world victory in the match with the Brazilian national team (3:0).

In October 2001, Concorde flights were resumed, having been temporarily grounded since July 2000 following a major crash in which 113 people were killed.

In early 2003, France re-entered the world stage, this time insisting on vetoing any UN Security Council decision on war with Iraq. The US government took this rather coolly and to this day relations between France and the US remain tense.

Page 2 of 4

Franks

Already in the middle of the 3rd century. A Frankish tribal union is formed on the northeastern borders of Gaul. Word " franc" means brave, courageous. At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century, the Franks raided northeastern Gaul, and settled there as allies of Rome.

Beginning in 407, the Franks, taking advantage of the weakening of the Empire, moved westward, settling on free lands, without conflicting with the local Gallo-Roman population.

By 450, the Franks split into two large groups: the Ripuarian Franks and the Salic (Maritime) Franks. They create numerous kingdoms, rarely united in alliances. In 457, the kingdom of Tournai appeared, whose king, after the death of his father, was Clovis from the dynasty Merovingian.

Merovingian Dynasty (481-751)

Clovis (481-511)

At his accession to the throne in 482, the Western Roman Empire had already ceased to exist. The last Roman possession in Gaul was Soissons. In 486 Clovis takes over this region. He was then a pagan, but Saint Remy, Archbishop of Reims, sends him a message of congratulations. Clovis also tries not to quarrel with the Christian Church; he even wanted to return to the church a beautiful cup, which was among the spoils during the conquest of Soissons. The other warriors did not like this, since it violated the usual order of dividing the spoils. One of these warriors cut the bowl with a sword. In subsequent years, Clovis actively conquered more and more lands; Understanding the effectiveness of the union with the church, he accepts Christianity. His baptism was solemnly celebrated in Reims on Christmas Eve 498.

By 511, Hdodvig was already the head of a kingdom stretching from the Rhine Valley to the Pyrenees. He settles in Paris, which he makes "the residence of the king." In Paris, Clovis lives in a palace built for the Roman governor. So it’s not for nothing that the Ile de la Cité, a visit to which includes any tour to Paris, is called the cradle of Paris.

Clovis dies in the same year 511 in the Church of the Holy Apostles, which he built on the burial site of St. Genevieve, leaving the kingdom to her four sons.

Merovingian kings - successors of Clovis

Throughout the 6th century, the Franks, led by the Merovingians, continued their conquests, and the kingdom grew significantly stronger. It becomes the main power of Western and Central Europe, but after the death of Clovis, long-term civil strife began.

The last Merovingian kings received the nickname "lazy". Biologically degenerate child kings, without power and without wealth, are forced to vegetate in their miserable domains, looking for a means of subsistence.

The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric III. He was replaced on the throne by the first monarch from another dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin by nickname Short.

Carolingian Dynasty (751-987)

Carolingians became the second dynasty in French history.

Pepin the Short ruled France between 751-768. The name of the dynasty itself came from Pepin's son, Charles, known by the nickname "The Great".

Charlemagne (768-814)

Thanks to numerous campaigns of conquest, he expanded the borders of his kingdom so much that almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe came under his rule.

Charlemagne subjugated the Lombards, Saxons and Bavarians and advanced the eastern border deep into German lands. There he created a line of border districts to protect against Avars and Slavs. Along the Pyrenees, he organized the so-called Spanish March - a border strip that held back the onslaught of Muslims.

Charlemagne managed to establish effective government by appointing officials in each duchy or county

Numerous decrees (capitularies) of Charlemagne have been preserved, affecting every aspect of government - from church organization to the structure of royal estates. Continuously traveling around the country, he established direct control even over remote provinces.

IN 800 Charlemagne was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

In Paris, on the Ile de la Cité, there is a monument to Charlemagne. While on vacation in Paris, you can go up to this monument, located next to Notre Dame Cathedral, and remember the deeds of this great man.

Under other Carolingian kings

His eldest son became his heir, Louis I "The Pious".

From that time on, the tradition according to which the kingdom was divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and only the eldest son succeeded the father.

Charlemagne's grandchildren began a war of succession that greatly weakened the empire and ultimately led to its collapse.

The last king of this dynasty was Louis V. After his death in 987 year, the nobility elects a new king - Hugo nicknamed " Capet".

Capetian Dynasty (987-1328)

This nickname gave the name to the new dynasty Capetian- the third dynasty in the history of France.

By this time, France was already severely fragmented. The first kings of the Capetian dynasty inherited a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris. The king was not the master even of his own domains. The castles of rebellious feudal lords rose on its lands.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united with each other. Most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

Under the Capetians, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. It was the time of the Crusades. The First Crusade began in 1095.

The “gathering” of France began Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), which acquired Vermandois, part of Artois, Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne. He was the last king of France to be crowned during the lifetime of the current king, his father. In an effort to avoid difficulties in the transfer of power and opposition from the all-powerful barons, the aging King Louis VII the Young decided to crown his son in Reims, which happened on November 1, 1179. Philip Augustus ascended the throne at the age of 15; it was then that he declared that he wished that by the end of his reign the kingdom would be as powerful as it had been during the time of Charlemagne. The energetic and gifted ruler largely achieved this goal.

He did a lot to strengthen and improve the cities of France, often investing his own money in this. He built defensive towers and paved the streets with cobblestones. Under this king, construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued, a visit to which often involves a vacation in Paris. Philip II Augustus contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting famous professors with awards and benefits. Under him, the construction of the Louvre began, which everyone who buys a tour to Paris now tries to get to. The population of Paris during his reign increased from 25,000 to 50,000 people, turning the French capital into one of the most populous cities in Europe.

The policy of annexing more and more new territories was continued by the grandson of Philip II, Louis IX Saint (1226-1270). He forced the counts of Toulouse to recognize the authority of the king of France over themselves and cede to him a significant part of their possessions. Under Philip III, the rest of these territories were annexed to the royal lands. About Saint Louis...

About the appearance of this amazing king and man...

After the death of Philip IV the Fair, France was ruled by his sons. In 1328, his last son, Charles IV, died. There are no more direct heirs, except for the grandson of Philip IV the Fair - King of England Edward III. But who would want to see an Englishman as their ruler? Therefore, they chose one of the relatives of the Capetian dynasty, Philip of Valois, to the French throne. This king marked the beginning of the reign of the fourth dynasty in the history of France - the Valois dynasty.

Valois Dynasty (1328-1589)

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

Edward III decided to take the French crown by force. Thus began the Hundred Years' War. During this war, France suffered defeat after defeat. In the Battle of Poitiers, the entire flower of French chivalry was killed, and King John the Good was captured. It was a real tragedy for France. The army is defeated, the king is captured. There were no funds to create a new army, and the king still needed to be ransomed from captivity. The entire burden of the situation was shifted onto the shoulders of the people, who responded with uprisings. Uprising in Paris, followed by Jacquerie, an uprising of peasants whom the knights contemptuously called " Jacques the simpletons"were depressed. The situation was getting worse and there was a threat of losing the independence of France. The entire people of France rose to defend the independence of their country. A guerrilla war began, the British became very uncomfortable in the occupied territories. The British decided to improve matters by seizing new territories of France. So, it was planned to take Orleans, which was a first-class fortress. With the capture of Orleans, the road to the south of France opened. In 1428 the city was besieged by English troops. At this time, a young peasant woman appeared to Charles VII, whom the people already called the Virgin, sent by God to save unfortunate France. It was Joan of Arc, and she managed to convince the king to give her an army. The army, led by Joan of Arc, liberated Orleans and the fortresses on the Loire and Champagne. In 1430, Joan of Arc was captured and died at the stake a year later. But the French army continued to win. Under pressure from the French, the British were forced to leave Normandy, Bordeaux, and Paris. Only Calais remained in their hands, which France returned in 1558. In 1453 the war ended. It took 116 years to end England's claims to the French throne and lands.

Louis XI (1461-1483)

In 1461 after death Charles VII, his son became king of France Louis XI. This king despised knightly ideals. A cautious and cunning diplomat, he began the fight against the feudal lords. The feudal opposition was led by the brother of Louis XI, Charles the Bold. The war has begun. Through cunning and violence, Louis XI strengthened himself in the south of France. In 1477, the corpse of Charles the Bold, naked and eaten by wolves, was found in the icy mud of a pond.

Louis XI rejoiced. The widow of Charles the Bold asked for patronage. Taking advantage of this, Louis occupied Burgundy, Artois, and Franche-Comté. A few years later, Provence and Maine were annexed. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered. The king patronized cities, opened markets, and built roads. He encouraged trade and industry, under him science and art flourished, medicine developed, and postal service was revived.

Charles VIII (1483-1498)

Under Charles VIII, the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased; the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles VIII, who after his death married Louis XII (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany.

Huguenot Wars

Under the last representatives of the Valois dynasty, religious wars began again in the history of France. The North and South of the country fought for about thirty years. The French South, which remembered the Albigensian heresy and developed independently for a long time, was the center of opposition to royal power. Many Southerners became Calvinists. In France, Calvinists were called Huguenots. The North and the royal house remained Catholic.

In the last years of his reign Henry II of Valois (1547-1559) Royal taxes increased sharply. Under Henry's son Francis II, protests began for a reduction in taxes, led by the Huguenots. At the same time, the struggle for power between two side branches of the Capetian dynasty intensified - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbons(Huguenots). After the unexpected death of Francis under the king's young brother Charles IX, actual power was in the hands of their mother - Catherine de' Medici. Under her, open clashes began between Catholics and Protestants. Over a thirty-year period, ten wars occurred.

The most terrible episode of the Huguenot wars was St. Bartholomew's Night. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24), the massacre of unsuspecting Huguenots who came to the wedding of Henry of Bourbon with the king's sister Margaret began. The massacre continued for three days. It is believed that at least 30 thousand people died.

Bourbon Dynasty (1589-1792, 1814-1848)

Both the last king of the Valois dynasty, Henry III, and Henry of Guise fell victims of the Huguenot wars. Henry of Bourbon remained, who also laid claim to the throne. To become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this, in 1589, the gates of Paris opened before him. France was now ruled by kings from the Bourbon dynasty. According to legend, Henry IV said, entering the gates of the capital: “ Paris is worth a mass" The Bourbons became the fifth dynasty in French history. In 1598, under Henry IV, it was adopted Edict of Nantes- law on religious tolerance.

This king realized that it was impossible to build a strong French state relying only on the nobility. He supports major officials and merchants, encourages in every possible way the development of large-scale production and trade, and establishes French colonies in overseas lands. The first of the Bourbons found a new, solid basis for royal power - the interests of the nation.

On May 14, 1610, Henry IV was assassinated by a religious fanatic, the Jesuit monk François Ravaillac.

History of France XVII century.

To the new king Louis XIII was only nine years old, power was in the hands of his mother Marie de Medici and her favorite Concino Concini. During the seven years of their reign, this couple managed to destroy everything that Henry IV had created with such difficulty.

Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu

But the young monarch Louis XIII was burdened by Concini’s impudence and his mother’s lust for power. On his orders, Concini was killed. At the same time, the reign of Marie de Medici ended. She was expelled from Paris and joined the king's opponents who raised uprisings in the provinces. In the end, Marie de' Medici seeks the right to return to Paris. The Bishop of Luzon, who has done so much for her, comes with her - yes, that same famous Cardinal Richelieu. In Paris, Cardinal Richelieu managed to prove to Louis XIII his indispensability and in 1624 he headed the new government. For 18 years, Cardinal Richelieu held power at court. Being extremely unpopular among almost all classes of France, he did a lot for the good of the country. The cardinal carried out a number of reforms designed to strengthen royal power. First it was necessary to establish peace in the long-suffering country. A strict course was taken to curb the rebellious aristocrats. The cardinal was not afraid to shed the blood of the rebels, regardless of their high position. The execution of the Duke of Montmorency, one of the country's leading figures, caused the aristocracy to shudder in horror.

Richelieu then pacified the resistance of the Huguenots, capturing their main fortress La Rochelle. Freedom of religion was preserved in the country, but the Huguenots lost their privileges. No religious persecution followed. For Richelieu, the interests of the state were above all. He said: “Both Huguenots and Catholics were equally French in my eyes.” The religious wars that tore the country apart for more than 70 years ended.

Richelieu did a lot to raise the prestige of France in Europe. He managed to prevent Spain's intention to crush all of Europe.

Cardinal Richelieu can rightfully be called one of the founding fathers of the French nation and the creators of modern Europe.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Louis XIII died, leaving the French crown to his son Louis XIV, who was then less than 5 years old. The country was ruled by his mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin. Until the death of the cardinal, Louis XIV showed no interest in governing the state. But then he seemed to be reborn, plunging headlong into state affairs. Under him, veneration of royal power took on a semi-religious character: (“The State is me”). Under Louis XIV, absolutism in France reached its apogee. Any reference to the law or right was considered criminal. Wars and the maintenance of a large army, retinue, and palaces brought most of the country's population to extreme poverty.

Being an ardent Catholic, Louis XIV revoked the famous Edict of Nat, as a result of which tens of thousands of Huguenots left their homeland.

The residence of the French kings was now in Versailles. A grandiose palace and park ensemble was created here. The Grand Trianon, the main palace, was decorated with unbridled luxury. Louis sought to ensure that the entire flower of the French nation revolved in Versailles. The entertainment in Versailles did not stop. Many European monarchs envied the life of the Versailles court and imitated Louis even in his weaknesses.

History of France 18th century

Louis XV (1715-1774)

In 1715-1774. occupied the French throne Louis XV. He was little concerned about the situation in the country. Fed up with amusements, the king devoted his time to hunting and favorites who interfered in politics. The famous Madame de Pompadour was especially active. Huge expenses on the sophisticated luxury of the courtyard intensified the financial crisis of the state. And yet, the reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor.

Louis XV paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis.

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

In 1774, the twenty-year-old grandson of Louis XV ascended the throne. Louis XVI. The new king was not distinguished by his grandfather’s vices, but had neither strength of character nor political talents. He preferred hunting and his hobby of plumbing to government affairs.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. But virtually all segments of the population were dissatisfied with the existing order of things. The reason for the revolution was the state budget deficit. The royal treasury has not made ends meet for a long time.

Sealine - tours to France

History of France (key dates)

1st century BC – III century AD
Active Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman buildings still remain.

IV century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its high school(study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)

5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the German tribes of the Suevi, Burgundians and Franks, Roman troops retreated from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.

Around 450
Under the pressure of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.

451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated Attila's Huns in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.

5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousin and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.

482
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the Frankish tribal union. The Frankish ruler Holdwig founded the Frankish Merovingian state. The Franks retained Roman cities and government systems.

496
The Franks adopted Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.

6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a set of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law were preserved.

511
Holdwig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritance of his sons.

6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians emerged. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.

6th century, end – 7th century, beginning
During the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the north-west, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the south-west) and Austrasia (north-eastern part of Gaul, inhabited by the eastern Franks later became part of Germany).

687
Mayor Pepin II (the manager of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated real power in the Frankish state in his hands.

732
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish majordomo Charles Martell (nickname means “hammer”) defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.

737
Charles Martel seized power in the Frankish state.

751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded a new dynasty Carolingian.

768-789
Charlemagne (742-814) became King of France. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. An active foreign policy was pursued (the creation of border stamps, for example, Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flourishing of culture under him was called the Carolingian Renaissance. Schools were opened at all monasteries of the Frankish state.

800
The Frankish state turned into a huge “Holy Roman Empire”, covering the western part of Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, led by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Roman culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, adopted Gallo-Roman speech and enriched it with Germanic words. The official language of the Frankish state is Romance.

842
Exchange of "Vows" (the first document on French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

843
Treaty of Verdun – partition Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.

9th century, mid
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the Duchy of Normandy (911).

10th century
France was divided into counties and duchies.

X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.

910
Cluny Abbey founded.

987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count of Paris Hugo Capet is elected king of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.

1060-1108
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of communes with the lords became a means of strengthening Royal power. As they were annexed to the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.

1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to “release the Holy Sepulchre”

1096-1099
I Crusade. Consisted of two parts - the campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (the Hermit) along the route of pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first Jewish pogroms in the history of medieval Europe took place. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, the south of France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the state of Jerusalem and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the principality of Antioch.

Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek “pure”) spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, subordination to the state, and demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.

1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which became the reason for the Second Crusade led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Aleanor of Aquiet, and Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, married her.

1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou came under his rule and cut off access to the sea for the royal domain. An instant conflict arose between England and France.

1209-1228
Kings and knights Northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathari and Waldensian) heresy in the south, subjected southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living, faced a terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.

Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.

1226-1270
Louis IX Saint.

1248-1254 years
Louis IX the Saint led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.

1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but when he reached Tunisia, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.

1285 – 1314
Philip IV the Handsome.

1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was slaughtered, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Fair led his knights to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, took off their golden spurs (the distinction of knighthood and hung them in the church. The Estates General was convened - an estate assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, tax-paying class).

1306
Philip IV the Fair confiscated the property of the Jews (mostly moneylenders) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).

1307
The Order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the Pope dissolved the order.

1328-1350
Philip VI begins the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).

1337-1453
Hundred Years' War with England.

1380-1422
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of madness.

1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Uprisings in Paris, convening of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.

1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.

1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.

1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when she succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place of coronation of French kings.

1430
In the battle with the British at Compiegne, Jeanne and her detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges against Jeanne were dropped, and she became national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.

1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.

1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions except the city of Calais.

1461-1483
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: “He who does not know how to pretend does not know how to govern.” Crafts and trade revived. Embryos appeared economic policy mercantilism, which is based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly eclipsed those in Geneva).

1477
The annexation of Burgundy to the royal domain after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.

1483-1498
Reign of Charles VIII.

1515-1547
Reign of Francis I

1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.

1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de' Medici became regent under the infant Francis II, then under Charles IX.

1562-1592
Religious wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the erasure of regional differences.

1589
A Dominican friar killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.

1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (before 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting “all lands where French is spoken.”

1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Freedom of Protestant worship was established. Catholics and Protestants have equal rights.

1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under whom religious peace was established and the state of finances and governance of the country improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the murder of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Anchor and Marshal of France.

1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Concini was killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luynes appropriated their enormous fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie de Medici.

1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped German Protestants in the fight against the Habsburgs.

1624-1642
Richelieu's reign under Louis XIII. Richelieu helped strengthen absolute monarchy and actually created a centralized state of France.

1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" was founded.

1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.

1648
According to the results Thirty Years' War France took a dominant position in central Europe.

1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.

1664
Colbert founded the West India and New East India campaigns.

1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert has been appointed Comptroller General of Finance of France. By pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized financial system and ensured economic growth.

1669
Construction of the Palace of Versailles has begun.

1685
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes on freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.

1701-1714
War for spanish inheritance: Austria, Holland, Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson Louis XIV) became king of Spain. France lost part of its American possessions.

18th Century of Enlightenment

1715
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is severely ruined: “1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms.”

1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.

1774-1793
Reign of Louis XVI.

1781
Report from the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.

1788
The Treasury declared bankruptcy.

1789-1794
The French Revolution.

1789
After a 175-year interval, the Estates General was convened. A month and a half later, the Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue to the Great French Revolution. The bourgeoisie demanded equality before the law and the abolition of tax privileges.

1789
Summer. Peasant uprisings, abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights was adopted.

1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.

1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and a republic proclaimed.

1791, end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.

1792, August 10
Storming of the royal Tuileries Palace, overthrow of the monarchy (the king and his family are imprisoned).

1793, April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins led by Danton.

1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: Dantonists (Danton) and Héberists (Héber).

1794, Mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).

1794, April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.

1794, July 26
Thermidorian coup. The Jacobin club was closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just were arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.

1794, October
Ecole Normale was established, an educational institution for teacher training.

1795
The Institute of France, the highest science Center countries.

1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian Troops.

1798
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the capture of Malta, Admiral Nelson's victory at Abicourt. Napoleon returned to France.

1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. According to the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.

1802
Napoleon was appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms began.

1804
Napoleon proclaimed emperor, restored nobility, intensified government, put into effect Civil Code(Napoleonic Code).

1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.

1807
The Tilsit Peace – Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. Napoleon's first meeting with Alexander I.

1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, the capture of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.

1813
French troops are expelled from Spain. The anti-French coalition strengthened. The Battle of Leipzig - “Battle of the Nations”, the defeat of Napoleon.

1814, April
Allied forces (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was given the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. After Napoleon's abdication, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) gained power. The country maintained civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code. Treaty of Paris- relatively mild conditions for France, which lost the war.

1815
“One Hundred Days of Napoleon”: Napoleon’s landing on the southern coast of France, the march on Paris. Louis XVIII fled. The empire has been restored. The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, exile to St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).

1821
Death of Napoleon.

1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.

1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected the Duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, as king. The French flag became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but it affected Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.

1840
Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris.

1848, February
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace was captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne. A republic is proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.

1848
Republican victory in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.

1848, February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) became the President of France.

1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. Victory of the monarchists over the republicans.

1850
Law on the transfer of public education to the clergy.

1851
The National Assembly was dissolved. Louis-Napoloen was endowed with dictatorial powers, and a censorship was introduced.

1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).

1870
France declared war on Prussia. The Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered and abdicated the throne. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.

1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.

1871, March 18-May 16
Paris Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The cabinet and army fled to Versailles.

1871
The commune was crushed by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.

1871, August
The National Assembly elected Thiers President of the French Republic.

1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.

1894
The president was assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.

1895
The Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph

200,000 - 35,000 years ago, all of present-day France was inhabited by Neanderthals who had the skills of stone processing using the “Levallois technique”. At sites dating back to this period of history, found near the French cities of Les Eyzies (fr. Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil ) and Moustier (fr. Moustier ), in the Dordogne department numerous stone tools were found: side scrapers, handaxes, hammers, chisels. From the drawings left on the walls of the caves, it can be concluded that people of that time hunted bison, bison, wolves, horses and deer. The oldest French burials were also discovered here: the dead were buried in pits measuring 1.4 x 1 x 0.3 meters along with offerings in the form of stone tools, food, etc.

Celtic period

The increasing density of settlement of the territory and the inevitable contacts of nomadic tribes with their neighbors led to the mixing and mutual enrichment of their cultures. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, in the center of Europe (see map), a stable community of tribes of Indo-European origin, similar in language and material culture and currently called “Celts”, had formed. It is believed that the spread of Celtic tribes in Europe occurred in two major stages. In the first stage, which took place from 1500 to 700. BC e., the advance of the Celts to the eastern part of modern France was predominantly peaceful. Initially nomadic with their herds of domestic animals, in 1200-900 BC. e. The Celts began to settle on the occupied land and began to cultivate it. It was at this time that the Celts had their first permanent settlements, fortified from attacks by hostile tribes.

At the end of the 8th century BC. e. the Celts mastered iron processing techniques (see article Iron Age). With the advent of iron swords and war horses, a layer of military aristocracy arose among the Celts, which led to colossal changes in the social structure of tribes that had previously only been engaged in cultivating the land and were built on the principles general equality. In the graves of noble warriors, such as in the village of Vix (Fr. Vix ) in the Côte d'Or department (fr. Cote-d'Or) in the French region of Burgundy (fr. Bourgogne)), archaeologists found luxurious carts. In these same burials, scientists have discovered luxury items made in different parts of the Mediterranean (in particular, from Egypt), which gives an idea of ​​the scale of the wealth of the Celtic aristocracy and the level of development of trade of that era.

The further development of trade led to the creation of Greek sailors of their “representative offices” along the entire Mediterranean coast. So, around 600 BC. e. Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (lat. Massilia, Greek Μασσαλία ), in our time - Marseille (fr. Marseille). The rapid growth of this settlement was ensured by the massive migration of Greeks from Phocis during its siege by the Persians around 550 BC. e. Massalia became one of the centers of trade and widespread Greek influence on the European part of the continent.

The second stage of the spread of the Celts to the western part of Europe began with the period of the La Tène culture in the 6th century BC. e. This time is characterized by significant changes in the way of life of the Celtic tribes. The divided military nobility gives way to soldiers recruited from ordinary peasants and under the leadership of a tribal leader, and the wooden plow is replaced by the plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of the central and northern part of modern France. These changes made it possible to conquer and develop new lands, which, in turn, led to an increase in population and the need for new conquests. Celts' military activity a whole century interrupted trade ties, the focus of which was Marseille, but by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the city regained its former influence in the trade sphere, as evidenced by ancient Greek pottery and coins discovered by archaeologists throughout the Rhine Valley, in the Alps and even Lorraine.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. the Celtic lands were invaded by Belgian tribes who came from the south and west of modern Germany, and by 250 BC. e. captured the Massif Central and Languedoc. Despite the territorial losses, the Celtic civilization was experiencing rapid development at this time and was approaching the highest point of its prosperity: fortified cities (oppidum - lat. oppidum, plural oppida), which in their power and size cannot be compared with previous structures, and money is actively circulated within the state.

For the 2nd century BC. e. characterized by the dominance in Europe of the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, distinguished by their military power and the wealth of their leaders, as well as the deep penetration, initially only economic, of the Romans into southern part Gaul: according to the results of archaeological excavations, it can be seen that during the 2nd century BC. e. Greek amphorae are almost going out of use, giving way to Italian ones, and the inhabitants themselves Greek colony Marseilles increasingly turned to Rome for protection from Celto-Ligurian raids and Arverni oppression. However, the Romans did not limit themselves trade relations with the Gauls and organized military expansion into their lands.

Roman Gaul

Historical maps of France. Table I. I. Gaul under Yu. Caesar. II. Gaul under Augustus. III. Gaul in 476 IV. Frankish kingdom. V. Formation of the monarchy of Charlemagne.

The territory of present-day France in ancient times was part of Transalpine Gaul, as the Romans called the country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans established themselves first in the southern, coastal strip of this vast territory, to unite Italy with Spain, and gave the conquered area the name Narbonese Gaul (about 120 BC). From here in 58-50. BC e. Julius Caesar conquered the other three parts, which were called Aquitaine (according to the Garonne), Celtic Gaul (according to the Loire and Seine) and Belgian (from the Seine to the Rhine; see Table I, Map I).

Medieval France

The Merovingians (late 5th century - 751) are considered the first royal dynasty in the Frankish state. The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. Most famous representative- Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks). The last is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Their capital from 561 was Metz. Since 751 Frankish state ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen. The Frankish Empire split into three parts in 843.

Historical maps of France. Table II. VI. France in 987 VII. France in 1180 VIII. France in 1328 IX. France in the 14th and 15th centuries.

France also had a region outside Gaul - south of the Pyrenees (Spanish Mark of Charlemagne). During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne (in 987; see Table II, Map VI) there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) County of Flanders, 2) Duchy of Normandy, 3 ) Duchy of France, 4) Duchy of Burgundy, 5) Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.

The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-1180) it only doubled (cf. Table II, maps VI and VII). At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

The era of the estate monarchy

The era of absolute monarchy

France in 1789-1914

Main article: History of France (1789-1914)

The French Revolution ( -)

Since the last third of the 18th century, Europe entered a period of revolutions (Belgium, the Netherlands). Previously, the revolution in France was considered bourgeois, but in the 60-70s. XX century began to believe that different segments of the population participated in it. Capitalism began to develop earlier. Many seigneurial farms have already switched to the capitalist mode. The industrial bourgeoisie itself was economically weak. It is sometimes said that this was a movement for civil liberty against the tyranny of the Bourbons.

The monarchy tried to adapt to the emerging conditions, but this caused discontent among the nobility. Louis XVI carried out reforms for freedom of capitalist relations. For example, in the mid-80s he adopted tax reforms that included the elimination of tax benefits for the nobility and clergy. In 1787, a meeting of the Notables was convened, at which the Comptroller General of Finance (the head of the executive branch) proposed the introduction of a single land tax. The notables demanded his resignation. Necker was appointed, who suggested that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614, to support the reforms. They opened on May 5, 1789. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

First stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789

Second Empire (1852-1870)

After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him (September Revolution), and the Second Empire ceased to exist.

Third Republic (1870-1914)

An attempt to resist German troops advancing on the French capital led to the establishment of the Paris Commune between March 18 and May 28, 1871, which was defeated after 72 days of existence.

At the end of the 19th century. France made major colonial conquests, taking part in the "Race for Africa", and became the owner of the world's second largest colonial empire. The Fashoda crisis in 1898 brought France to the brink of war with Great Britain, but war was avoided. French Indochina was created. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, in 1893 over Laos, and in 1912 over most of Morocco.

In 1891, an agreement was signed to create a Franco-Russian union. In 1904, an agreement on the alliance between France and Great Britain was signed. This is how the Entente came to be.

World War I

Interwar period

In 1924, a new coalition government of socialists and radicals, chaired by Edouard Herriot, came to power in France. The country began an economic recovery.

On May 13, 1958, there was a military mutiny in Algeria led by General Jacques Massu, who demanded the transfer of power to de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, de Gaulle formed a new government. That same year, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted in a referendum, expanding the rights of the executive branch. De Gaulle was elected president.

see also

• France in 2000 (Future World cards)
• History of France (1789-1914)

Notes

1. Catalog of the main human sites in the Stone Age
2. Here is the most widely used translation of the city name. In some cases, the city name is translated Shiyak(see article Communes of the Charente department). In relation to the name of the ancient site, the term is used Shiyak(see article Europe in the Stone Age and the work of V. S. Titov)
3. Some scientists question the man-made nature of the objects found there.
4. This name is given by TSB. According to some sources the correct name is Gyuntskoe
5. MEMO - History resource (French)
6. "Knowledge is power". 1978 No. 3
7. See also Combarel's article
8. See also the article Mousterian culture
9. Bernard Vandermeersh, "Cro-Magnon (homme de)" in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, ed. André Leroi-Gourhan, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, (French)
10. For example, in the French city of Carnac (fr. Carnac ) 2,935 menhirs stretched over 4 kilometers.
11. Jan Philip. Celtic civilization and its heritage
12. Here is the most widely used translation of the village name. In some cases, the city name is translated In and(see article Communes of the Côte d'Or department)
13. One of the most important political forces of that time were the Romans, from whose written heritage modern scientists draw the most accurate information about the culture and life of Europe. In Roman sources, the Celts are called Gauls, and the lands, according to the Romans, occupied by these tribes are called Gaul. And despite the fact that Gaul, whose borders are described by the Romans, is much more extensive than the Celtic possessions, in modern literature (especially popular science) these concepts are accepted as identical.
14. French court recognizes French participation in the Holocaust

Literature

The most complete bibliography on the history of pre-revolutionary France was published in 1888 by G. Monod (see), under the title “Bibliographie de l’histoire de France” (cf. Historiography in France). Wed. also M. Petrov, “National historiography in France, Germany and England” (1861).

General essays. Simonde de Sismondi, "Histoire des Français" (1821-44); Monteil, "Histoire des Français des divers états"; Michelet, "Histoire de France" (1845-67); H. Martin, “Histoire de France” (1856 sq.); Guizot, “Histoire de France, racontée à mes petits enfants” (1870-75); Rambaud, "Hist. de la civilization française" and "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine" (1888); E. Lavisse (in collaboration with a number of scientists), “Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu"à la révolution” (1901 et seq.; this work has just begun to appear).

Atlas: Lognon, “Atlas historique de la France” (1888); general historical atlases by Droysen, Schrader and others. In German literature - E. A. Schmidt, “Geschichte von Frankreich” (1839-49), with continuation by Wachsmuth.

Earliest period - see Gaul and Gauls. Frankish period - see Frankish Kingdom, Merovingians and Carolingians. Feudalism - see the article about it for historiography and bibliographical information. The era of growth of royal power - see Capetians, Communes, Third Estate, Parliaments, Government officials, Hundred Years' War. The era of reformation of the Catholic religion and the wars of religion - see Huguenots and Reformation. Age of royal absolutism - see Richelieu, Louis XIII, XIV, XV and XVI.

History of France in the 19th century: Gregoire, “History of France in the 19th century.” (1893 et ​​seq.); Rochau, “History of France from the overthrow of Napoleon I to the restoration of the empire” (1865); N. Kareev, " Political history F. in the 19th century." (1901; this work contains a detailed bibliography of all books and articles in Russian).

The era of consulate and empire - see Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon as commander. Restoration - see