What does the word metaphor mean in literature? See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries

(Greek, “movement”, “rotation”). The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole-exaggeration, from synecdoche-allegory, and from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has given rise to many genres. Indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression, using comparison.
A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in figuratively based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance; it expresses analogue relationships: X relates to Y, as A relates to B. In order to understand the meaning of the metaphor, a person must activate his right hemisphere, which means that the unconscious will catch the desired meaning.

3. In lexicology - semantic connection between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarities (structural, external, functional).

Metaphor in art often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word. In Shakespeare, for example, what is often important is not the original everyday meaning of a statement, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning - new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, who was brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, the Nose of Major Kovalev in a general's uniform in Gogol is not only personification, hyperbole or comparison, but also a new meaning that did not exist before. Futurists did not strive for the verisimilitude of the metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning. For example, “a cloud in my pants.” During the years of the dictatorship of socialist realism, metaphor was actually expelled from literature as a device that led away from reality. In the 70s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner “Metaphor in a square” or metametaphor (term by Konstantin Kedrov).

In 1984, following the poems, this term also broke into print, and to this day causes fierce controversy. Metametaphor is directly related to the geometry of Riemann and Lobachevsky and to the cosmology and physics of the 20th century, which itself is completely metametaphorical [Source].

Metametaphor is the reverse perspective in a word. For example: “I was sitting on a mountain, drawn where the mountain is” (A. Eremenko). Or: “The bee flew inside itself” (I. Zhdanov). These images, which arose in the mid-70s, marked the beginning new literature And new poetry.
Types of metaphor
Since antiquity, there have been descriptions of some traditional types of metaphor: a sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are widely separated from each other. Model: saying filling.
erased metaphor there is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative character of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
metaphor-formula is close to an erased metaphor, but differs from it by even greater stereotyping and sometimes the impossibility of transformation into a non-figurative construction. Model: Worm of Doubt.
extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger does not go away: products with book market More and more often they turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying them.
realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had direct meaning. The result of the implementation of a metaphor is often comic. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

Theories

Among other tropes, metaphor ranks central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most various signs objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N.D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

nominative, consisting of replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
cognitive metaphors that arise as a result of a shift in the compatibility of predicate words (transfer of meaning) and create polysemy;
generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing lexical meaning words are boundaries between logical orders and stimulate the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that help create images, or figurative ones.

IN in a broad sense the term “image” means a reflection in the consciousness of the external world. IN work of art images are the embodiment of the author’s thinking, his unique vision and a vivid image of the picture of the world. Creating a bright image is based on the use of similarities between two objects that are distant from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. For a comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be quite different from each other, and sometimes the similarity can be quite insignificant, unnoticeable, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

The boundaries and structure of the image can be almost anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, phrase, sentence, super-phrase unity, can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson identify two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a certain substance ( the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing ), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other ( happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down ).

George Lakoff in his work “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” talks about the ways of creating metaphor and the composition of this tool artistic expression. A metaphor, according to Lakoff, is a prose or poetic expression where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to the given one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech metaphor lies outside of language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work “The Conduit Metaphor”, in which Reddy notes that metaphor lies in language itself, in everyday speech, and not just in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that “the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the listener, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words.” This idea is also reflected in the study by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson “Metaphors We Live By.” Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to just the sphere of language, that is, the sphere of words: the processes of human thinking themselves are largely metaphorical. Metaphors like linguistic expressions become possible precisely because metaphors exist in the human conceptual system.”

Metaphor is often seen as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistically. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is the metaphor, which creates a concrete image of an abstract concept, that makes it possible for different interpretations of real messages.”

As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of others linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual essence: to be a means of language and poetic figure. The first who contrasted poetic metaphor with linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language.

Notes

Literature

Ankersmit F.R. History and tropology: the rise and fall of metaphor. / lane from English M. Kukartseva, E. Kolomoets, V. Kashaev - M.: Progress-Tradition, 2003. - 496 p.
Black M. Metaphor.
Gusev S. S. Science and metaphor. - L.: Leningrad State University, 1984.
Klyuev E. V. Rhetoric (Invention. Disposition. Elocution): Textbook for universities. - M.: PRIOR, 2001.
Kedrov K. A. Metametaphor. - M., 1999.
Lakoff D., Johnson M. Metaphors by which we live. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004.
Moskvin V. P. Russian metaphor: Essay on semiotic theory. - 3rd ed. - M., 2007.
Tikhomirova E.A. Metaphor in political discourse: Methodology for research of political discourse. Issue 1. - Minsk, 1998.
Haverkamp A. Metapher. Die Ästhetik in der Rhetorik. - Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2007.

Links

Nikonenko S. V. Analytical interpretation of metaphor (2003)

Rhetorical figures
Figures speeches
Trails

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Synonyms:

25 February
Daniil Alexandrovich

See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries:

Metaphor- type of trope (see), use of the word in a figurative meaning; phrase that characterizes this phenomenon by transferring to it the characteristics inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the related phenomena) to the swarm. arr. his… … Literary encyclopedia

METAPHOR- (transfer, Greek) the most extensive form of trope, rhetoric. a figure representing the likening of one concept or representation to another, transfer to it significant signs or the characteristics of the latter, its use in... ... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies

METAPHOR- (Greek metaphora transfer, meta, and phero I carry). Allegorical expression; trope, which consists in the fact that the name of one concept is transferred to another based on the similarity between them. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language.... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

METAPHOR- (from the Greek metaphora - transfer, image) replacement of an ordinary expression with a figurative one (for example, ship of the desert); metaphorically - in a figurative sense, figuratively. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010. METAPHOR… Philosophical Encyclopedia

Metaphor- METAPHOR (Greek Μεταφορα transference) is a type of trope based on association by similarity or analogy. Thus, old age can be called the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated by their common feature of approaching... Dictionary of literary terms

METAPHOR- METAPHOR, metaphorical (Greek metaphorá), type of trope, transfer of the properties of one object (phenomenon or aspect of being) to another, according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or contrast. Unlike comparison, where both terms are present... ... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

metaphor- METAPHOR (from the Greek metaphora transfer) is the central trope of language, a complex figurative semantic structure, representing a special way of cognition, carried out through the generation of images arising as a result of interaction... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

Metaphor- Metaphor ♦ Metaphore Stylistic figure. Implicit comparison, the use of one word instead of another based on some analogy or similarity between the things being compared. The number of metaphors is truly endless, but we will only give... ... Philosophical Dictionary Sponville

From simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.
A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:

Category or context
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function,
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

Expanded metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: “The book hunger does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.”
Realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the implementation of a metaphor is often comic. Model: “I lost my temper and got on the bus.”

Theories

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphors can be based on the similarity of a variety of features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N.D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

nominative, consisting of replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
cognitive metaphors that arise as a result of a shift in the compatibility of predicate words (transfer of meaning) and create polysemy;
generalizing metaphors (as the final result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of a word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that help create images, or figurative ones.

In a broad sense, the term “image” means a reflection of the external world in the consciousness. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author’s thinking, his unique vision and a vivid image of the picture of the world. Creating a bright image is based on the use of similarities between two objects that are distant from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. For a comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be quite different from each other, and sometimes the similarity can be quite insignificant, unnoticeable, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

George Lakoff in his work “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” talks about the ways of creating metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression. A metaphor, according to Lakoff, is a prose or poetic expression where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to the given one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, metaphor lies outside of language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work “The Conduit Metaphor”, in which Reddy notes that metaphor lies in language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that “the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the listener, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words.” This idea is also reflected in the study by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson “Metaphors We Live By.” Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to just the sphere of language, that is, the sphere of words: the processes of human thinking themselves are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because metaphors exist in the human conceptual system.”

Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality artistically. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is the metaphor, which creates a concrete image of an abstract concept, that makes it possible for different interpretations of real messages.”

As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual essence: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first who contrasted poetic metaphor with linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language.

Notes

Literature

Ankersmit F.R. History and tropology: the rise and fall of metaphor. / lane from English M. Kukartseva, E. Kolomoets, V. Kashaev - M.: Progress-Tradition, 2003. - 496 p.
Black M. Metaphor.
Gusev S. S. Science and metaphor. - L.: Leningrad State University, 1984.
Klyuev E. V. Rhetoric (Invention. Disposition. Elocution): Textbook for universities. - M.: PRIOR, 2001.
Kedrov K. A. Metametaphor. - M., 1999.
Lakoff D., Johnson M. Metaphors by which we live. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004.
Moskvin V. P. Russian metaphor: Essay on semiotic theory. - 3rd ed. - M., 2007.
Tikhomirova E.A. Metaphor in political discourse: Methodology for research of political discourse. Issue 1. - Minsk, 1998.
Haverkamp A. Metapher. Die Ästhetik in der Rhetorik. - Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2007.

Links

Nikonenko S. V. Analytical interpretation of metaphor (2003)

Rhetorical figures
Figures speeches
Trails

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Synonyms:

25 February
Daniil Alexandrovich

See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries:

Metaphor- type of trope (see), use of the word in a figurative meaning; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it the characteristics inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the related phenomena) to a swarm of so. arr. his… … Literary encyclopedia

METAPHOR- (transfer, Greek) the most extensive form of trope, rhetoric. a figure representing the likening of one concept or representation to another, the transference of significant features or characteristics of the latter to it, its use in... ... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies

METAPHOR- (Greek metaphora transfer, meta, and phero I carry). Allegorical expression; trope, which consists in the fact that the name of one concept is transferred to another based on the similarity between them. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language.... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

METAPHOR- (from the Greek metaphora - transfer, image) replacement of an ordinary expression with a figurative one (for example, ship of the desert); metaphorically - in a figurative sense, figuratively. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. 2010. METAPHOR… Philosophical Encyclopedia

Metaphor- Metaphor ♦ Métaphore Stylistic figure. Implicit comparison, the use of one word instead of another based on some analogy or similarity between the things being compared. The number of metaphors is truly endless, but we will only give... ... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary

METAPHOR(Greek “transfer”), a trope or figure of speech consisting of the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects (objects, persons, phenomena, actions or signs) to denote another, similar to the given, class of objects or individual object; eg: wolf,oak And club,snake,a lion,rag and so on. when applied to humans; spicy,blunt - about the properties of the human mind, etc. In an expanded sense, the term “metaphor” also applies to other types figurative meaning words.

Metaphor is one of the main methods of cognition of objects of reality, their naming, creation artistic images and the generation of new meanings. It performs cognitive, nominative, artistic and meaning-forming functions.

Four components are involved in creating a metaphor: two categories of objects and the properties of each of them. Metaphor selects the attributes of one class of objects and applies them to another class or individual - the actual subject of the metaphor. When a person is called fox, he is credited with the trait of cunning characteristic of this class of animals and the ability to cover his tracks. Thus, the essence of a person is simultaneously cognized, his image is created and a new meaning is generated: the word fox takes on the figurative meaning of “flatterer, cunning and crafty deceiver.” A person endowed with this property may receive a nickname Fox,Fox,Lisa Patrikeevna(popular poet) or last name Lisitsyn. Thus, all the functions of metaphor noted above are realized. The characteristics of the category of objects designated by the metaphor are nationally specific. It may belong to the foundation general ideas about the world of native speakers, mythology or cultural tradition. So, for example, in Russian donkey metaphorically means "(stubborn) fool", and in Spanish the word el burro(lit. “donkey”) is a hardworking person.

The essence of poetic metaphor is often seen in the bringing together of very distant classes of objects; eg: Rus' - a kiss in the cold(V. Khlebnikov); Love is a heady wine;Conscience,clawed beast,heart scraping,conscience,uninvited guest,annoying interlocutor,rude lender,this witch,from which the month fades and the graves are confused and the dead are sent away(Pushkin).

Interaction with two different classes of objects and their properties creates the main feature of metaphor - its duality. IN semantic structure metaphor includes two components - its meaning (a property of the actual subject of the metaphor) and the image of its auxiliary subject. Calling Sobakevich a bear, the name bear are attributed to a class of objects, and some features associated with this class (strength, brute strength, clubfoot, etc.) are assigned to an individual (the actual subject of the metaphor). The image of a class and the set of characteristics characteristic of it provide the key to the essence of the subject of the metaphor. The figurative metaphor fulfills characterizing function and usually occupies the position of a predicate in a sentence. In nominal position, a figurative metaphor is often preceded by demonstrative pronoun, referring to the previous statement: Peter is a real crocodile. This crocodile is ready to swallow everyone. In poetic speech, however, a metaphor can be introduced directly into the nominal position (riddle metaphor): They beat their hooves on the frozen keys(i.e. cobblestones) (Mayakovsky). Nominalization (substantivization) of metaphorical sentences, in which the metaphor passes into a nominal position, gives rise to the so-called genitive metaphor (i.e., a metaphor expressed by a construction with the gender case): Envy is poison ® poison of envy; eg: worm of doubt,stars eyes,wine of love. Genitive metaphor is not used in Russian with a personal subject: * Ivan's donkey,*Sobakevich's bear. This design is common in Romance languages: French set âne de Jean, Spanish el burro de Juan, Italian l"asino di Giovanni letters "This donkey is Ivan."

Both main types of meaningful words—names of objects and designations of features—are capable of metaphorizing meaning. The more descriptive (descriptive) and diffuse the meaning of a word is, the more easily it receives metaphorical meanings.

Metaphor does not go beyond the specific vocabulary when it is resorted to in search of a name for a certain class of realities. Metaphor in this case constitutes a nomination resource. Secondary to metaphor nominative the function serves to form names of classes of objects and names of persons. The semantic process ultimately comes down to replacing one figurative (descriptive) meaning with another; eg crane(bird) and crane(pole for raising water from a well), protein(eggs) and protein(eyes), sleeve(piece of clothing covering the hand) and sleeve(stream separated from the river bed), leg(small foot) and leg(furniture support, stand), etc. To avoid ambiguity, this type of metaphor seeks to enter into a micro-context that clarifies its subject-matter. If a metaphor denotes a part of an object, then it is accompanied by an indication of the whole: glass stem(chair),eye of a needle,backrest,door knob. The nominative metaphor creates nicknames and nicknames for individuals, which can then turn into proper names (for example: Box,Mite,Owl). Having established itself in a nominative function, the metaphor loses its imagery: bottleneck,pansies,marigold,bridge bulls,sheet(paper). The metaphor in this case is technical method extracting a new name from an old lexicon.

The process of metaphorization, which takes place in the sphere of characteristic words, consists in comparing to one class of objects or individual properties and actions characteristic of another class of objects or related to another aspect of this class. So, adjective spicy, characterizing in literally cutting and piercing objects ( sharp knife ,sharp needle), receives metaphorical meaning in combinations such as sharp mind,sharp vision,sharp word, acute conflict ,sharp pain,acute crisis and so on. Verb howl, which literally refers to animals (wolves, dogs), can also characterize the sounds of nature: cf. the wolf howls And wind(storm)howls. In this type of metaphor, a characteristic is indicated, but there is no reference to its carrier - a term of comparison, implied by the direct meaning of the characteristic word. The attribute metaphor is derived from comparative offer: The wind is so noisy,as if an animal howls(wolf) ® The wind howls like a beast® The wind howls. A metaphor of this type serves as a source of word polysemy.

There are a number general patterns metaphorization of the meaning of attribute words: the physical attribute of an object is transferred to a person, facilitating isolation and designation mental properties personalities ( blunt,cutting,soft,solid,hard,deep man); signs and actions of humans and animals are transferred to natural phenomena (the principle of anthropo- and zoomorphism: The storm is crying;The tired sun sadly said goodbye to the sea), an attribute of an object is transformed into an attribute of an abstract concept ( deep/superficial judgment,empty words), signs of nature and natural classes of objects are transferred to humans ( windy weather And flighty man,dark night And bad character). Metaphorization processes can thus proceed V opposite directions: from man to nature and from nature to man, from inanimate to animate and from living to inanimate. Man collects and concentrates around himself the predicates of objects and animals, but he himself willingly shares his predicates with them. In some cases, the transmission is carried out so regularly that the speakers are left with a sense of semantic shift. The situation of regular mutual exchange obsoletes the metaphor.

IN general case indicative metaphor develops from more specific meaning to something more abstract. The most obvious metaphorical potencies have following types predicates: 1) specific adjectives ( light,dark,short,high,hot,cold and so on.); 2) verbs with the meaning of mechanical action ( gnaw,to nag,chop,run,fall and so on.); 3) predicates characterizing narrow circle objects and thereby unambiguously referring to the term of comparison ( ripen,fade,melt,flow,bring the fruits etc.).

By relating sensory perceived signs to abstract and not directly observable objects, metaphor performs an epistemological (cognitive) function. It forms the area of secondary predicates - adjectives and verbs that characterize non-objective entities, the properties of which are distinguished by analogy with perceptible signs physical items and observed phenomena.

Feature metaphor regularly serves the task of creating vocabulary " invisible worlds" - the spiritual principle of man, his inner world, behavior patterns, moral qualities, states of consciousness, emotions, actions. The internal properties of a person can be characterized as follows physical signs, How hot And cold,soft And solid,open And closed,easy And heavy,dark And light,deep And surface,bright And grey and many others. The given attributes refer to various aspects person: bright(light)personality,quiet disposition,deep mind, easy character ,low action etc. Metaphors of this kind usually rely on analogies, forming a kind of “metaphorical fields”. Thus, metaphors of emotions are based on analogies: with a liquid, flowing substance ( passions are running high,rush of feelings,take a sip of grief,drink the cup of suffering,wave of tenderness), with fire ( burn with desire,love fervor,love flame,fire of desire), with the air element ( storm of passions,vortex,squall,impulse of feelings,feelings are overwhelming), with illness, poison ( love fever,get over love,envy poisons the soul), with a living being ( feelings are born,live,They say,die,are awakening) and other metaphors negative emotions are often based on an analogy with everything that causes pain through external, mechanical impact. Negative feelings gnawing,torment,are gnawing,bite,hurt,sharpen,cut to the heart,pierce the heart,prick; eg: Separation will eat them both,Melancholy with bones will devour(B. Pasternak).

These kinds of metaphors are created in a subtle semantic way differentiated language feelings and at the same time show a tendency towards semantic convergence; eg the meaning of “to fall out of love” can be conveyed by the following metaphors: love has gone out,faded away,died,fell silent; To metaphors such as storm (fire,vortex,boiling,intensity)passions. The imagery of the metaphor in this case weakens. This is confirmed by crossing, contamination of images; eg: Wakeful voice never stopped conscience gnaw me(L. Tolstoy), Love, poison our days, Run with a crowd of deceptive dreams(A. Pushkin).

Metaphor, consisting in the transfer of a characteristic from an object to an event, process, situation, fact, thought, idea, theory, concept and others abstract concepts, gives the language logical predicates denoting sequence, causality, purposefulness, deducibility, conditionality, concession, etc.: precede,follow,flow out,bring out,To make a conclusion,conclude,lead to something etc. Conjunctions go back to metaphor Although,despite,What,in view of,contrary to. There are also key metaphors in this area that set analogies between different systems concepts and generating more specific metaphors. Thus, reasoning is usually organized by an analogy with movement along a path, predetermining metaphors of the starting point and ultimate goal movement, as well as stopping, returning and shortening the path. Scientific discourse is characterized by such expressions as starting point (finite)point of reasoning,let's move on to the next point(thesis),let's stop at this point,let's go back to the original hypothesis etc. So, key metaphors apply the image of one fragment of reality to another fragment of it. They provide its conceptualization by analogy with an already established system of concepts. Thus, since the time of Marx, it has become customary to think of society as a certain house (building, structure). This metaphor allows us to highlight the basis (foundation) in society, various structures(infrastructures, superstructures, hierarchical stairs and steps), load-bearing supports, blocks. Society is spoken of in terms construction,erection of the building,destruction, and fundamental changes in society are interpreted as its perestroika.

The association of society with a building, a house, is present not only in sociology, but also in the everyday consciousness of people. In 1937, B. Pasternak told A.S. Efron: “How terrible it is to live your whole life, and suddenly see that there is no roof in your house that would protect you from the evil elements.” Tsvetaeva’s daughter responded to this: “The roof is leaky - that’s true, but isn’t it more important that the foundation of our house is strong and sound.” Thus, key metaphors based on analogy predetermine the style of thinking and expression of thoughts both within the framework of one or another scientific paradigm, and in everyday speech. A change in the scientific paradigm is accompanied by a change in the key metaphor. Thus, the biological concept of language likened it to a living organism, allowing us to talk about alive And dead languages, comparative historical linguistics proposed metaphors linguistic relationship And language families, for structuralists, metaphor became key level structure of language. Connecting with an abstract subject, a metaphor quickly loses its figurative power and acquires a broad, generalizing meaning.

In accordance with the processes described above, the following main types of linguistic metaphor can be distinguished: 1) figurative metaphor, which is a consequence of the transition of an identifying (multi-attribute, descriptive) meaning into a predicate (characterizing) and serves the development of synonymous means of language; 2) nominative metaphor (name transfer), which consists of replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy; 3) cognitive a metaphor that arises as a result of a shift in the combinability of predicate (feature) words (adjectives and verbs) and creates polysemy; 4) generalizing metaphor (as the final result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the meaning of a word and creating predicates of the most general meaning.

In all cases, sooner or later the metaphor disappears: its meaning is aligned according to the laws of standard semantics. The essence of metaphor (its semantic two-dimensionality) does not correspond to the primary communicative purposes the main components of a sentence - its subject and predicate. To indicate the subject of speech, metaphor is too subjective; for a predicate containing the reported information, it is too vague and ambiguous. Associated with this are stylistic restrictions on the use of living metaphors. They are not used in business and legal discourse: laws, regulations, orders, instructions, rules, circulars, obligations, etc., which involve the implementation of instructions and control over it. Metaphor is not used in questions designed to obtain accurate and unambiguous information, and in answers to them. The metaphor is used in those forms practical speech, in which there are expressive-emotional and aesthetic aspects. It is contained in phraseological units, nicknames, catchphrases, sayings, aphorisms; eg: Man is a wolf to man,Someone else's soul - darkness,someone else's conscience is a grave;A heart without secrecy is an empty letter;Your eye is a diamond;The law is the drawbar: wherever you want,that's where you turn back and etc.

Metaphor is common in all genres of speech intended to influence the emotions and imagination of the addressee. Oratory and journalism widely use metaphor. The metaphor is characteristic of polemical, especially political discourse, in which it is based on analogies: with war and struggle ( strike,win the battle,President's team), game ( make a move,win the game,put on the line,bluff,save your trump cards,play a card), sports ( tug of war,get knocked out,throw), hunting ( trap,mislead), mechanism ( levers of power), body ( growing pains,sprouts of democracy), theater ( play the lead role,be a puppet,extra,prompter,come to the forefront) and etc.

Metaphor finds its natural place in poetic (in the broad sense) speech, in which it appeals to the imagination and, through it, to an understanding of life and the essence of things. Metaphor is related to poetic discourse by the following features: actualization of distant and non-obvious connections, inseparability of image and meaning, diffuseness of meaning, assumption different interpretations, elimination of motivations and explanations. The metaphor is based on the principles of the functioning of the poetic word, which compensate for the rejection of motivations by the uniqueness and precision of choice. Metaphor flourishes in the soil of poetry, but it does not constitute its pinnacle. Generated by the imagination, a metaphor is always - directly or indirectly - correlated with the real world. This distinguishes it from a symbol, which often receives transcendental meanings. Metaphor deepens the understanding of sensory perceived reality, but does not lead beyond it.

Hello, dear readers of the blog site. You are reading an article written by a person with with a fiery heart, nerves of steel and with golden hands. It sounds, of course, immodest.

But these high-flown definitions are examples and clear illustrations of the topic of this article. After all, today we'll talk about metaphors.

Metaphor is literary device, which allows you to make the text more vivid and emotional. It consists in the fact that transfers properties of one item or actions on another.

After all, hands cannot be made of gold, a heart cannot burn, and nerves cannot be made of steel. All these definitions are used in a figurative sense, and we understand perfectly what these examples mean:

golden hands - everything they do turns out well, and therefore valuable;
fiery heart - able to love and experience strong emotions;
nerves of steel - calmness and prudence even in extreme conditions.

Definition of the term and examples of metaphors

The first definition of what a metaphor is was given by Aristotle, and this was almost 2.5 thousand years ago.

True, it sounded a little heavy, but the author is a philosopher:

“Metaphor is an unusual name that is transferred from species to genus, or from genus to species, or from species to species, or from genus to genus.”

Yes, it sounds like a tongue twister, and very philosophical. But, in essence, it means what we have already said - this is the transfer of the properties of one object to another, which initially are not very suitable for it.

To make it even clearer, it is better to immediately give examples of metaphors:

The scarlet color of dawn was woven on the lake...(S. Yesenin). It is clear that no color can be “woven”; it is “reflected” here. But you must admit, it sounds more beautiful.
I'm standing on the coast, in the fire of the surf...(K. Balmont). It is clear that fire and water are two opposite elements, but here they are, and it turned out more poetic than instead of “fire” the word “splashes” would have been used.
A windy flail walks through the golden army of the fields...(V. Khlebnikov). There are two metaphors here at once - the wind resembles a flail (a type of knife), apparently just as merciless, and the ears of corn are replaced with the “golden army”, since there are many of them and they all stand next to each other.
And the simplest thing. A Christmas tree was born in the forest, it grew in the forest. Naturally, no Christmas tree can be “born”, because trees grow from seeds.

If you are observant, you will have noticed that the metaphors in these examples are used in different meanings. These can be nouns, adjectives, and even verbs.

Metaphors in literature

Most often, metaphors can be found in poetry. For example, in Yesenin, almost every poem is a whole set of such metaphorical devices.

The fragrant bird cherry, hanging, stands,
And the golden greens burn in the sun.

It is clear that greenery cannot be golden in color, but in this way the poet accurately and vividly conveys the radiance of the sun’s rays on the foliage.

And nearby, near a thawed patch, in the grass, between the roots,
A small silver stream runs and flows.

Again, the water cannot be silver, but we understand that it is very clean, and the murmuring of the stream resembles the chime of silver. And water cannot “run”. The metaphor means that the stream flows very quickly.

Just like the time in this famous painting by Salvador Dali.

To the cinema

Filmmakers love to use big titles to immediately grab the audience's attention. Let's just give these examples:

In advertising

Since metaphors are meant enhance familiar image and make it more memorable, which, naturally, this technique has long been adopted by advertisers. They use it to create short but catchy slogans.

“The Magic of Coffee” (coffee makers “De Longi”);
“Lip color revolution” (Revlon lipstick);
“Wake up the volcano of luck!” (network of slot machines);
“Our blow to prices!” (Eldorado stores);
“On a Wave of Pleasure” (“Coca-Cola”);
“Sink into the Cool” (“Lipton Ice Tea”).

Types of metaphors in examples

All metaphors are usually divided into several types:

Sharp. This is the most common and brightest type. As a rule, these are just two words that are absolutely opposite to each other. For example, “wings of fire”, “moon flower”, “explosion of emotions”.
Erased. This is a metaphor that has already become so firmly established in our vocabulary that we use it without thinking. For example, “forest of hands”, “life like honey”, “golden hands”, which we mentioned at the very beginning of the article.
Metaphor-formula. This is an even simpler kind of worn-out metaphor. These are certain constructions that we can no longer even divide into components and paraphrase. For example, “chair leg”, “shoe toe”, “cup of being”.
Exaggeration. A metaphor with which we intentionally increase the scale of what is happening. For example, “I told you a hundred times already,” “millions of people can’t be wrong,” “the whole class fell laughing.”

All of the above types are simple metaphors. That is, they are small in design and, as a rule, only one word is used in a figurative sense. But there are so-called extended metaphors. These are entire pieces of text. And most often they can be found again in poetry.

Let's turn to the already mentioned Yesenin for help:

The golden grove dissuaded
Birch, cheerful language,
And the cranes, sadly flying,
They don’t regret anyone anymore.
Whom should I feel sorry for? After all, everyone in the world is a wanderer -
He will pass, come in and leave the house again.
The hemp plant dreams of all those who have passed away
With a wide moon over the blue pond.

Metaphors enrich our language. And many people use them in speech without even realizing it. For example, when attributed to people qualities of various animals:

When we say about a person that he is like a “lion,” we mean his courage.
And when we remember the “bear”, then, most likely, we're talking about about the dimensions.
Well, “donkey”, “ram” and even “chicken” very clearly characterize stupidity.

There are a lot of metaphors in familiar ones sayings:

"V still waters there are devils"
"there's a plug in every barrel"
"my house is on the edge"

Even slang often cannot do without metaphors, for example, “give a pumpkin.”

By the way, scientists have long proven that metaphors activate the creative part of the brain. And a person who uses such techniques in his speech is more willing to listen.

So, if you want to be known as the life of the party (another metaphor), feel free to enrich your language.

Good luck to you! See you soon on the pages of the blog site

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What does the word metaphor mean in literature? See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries

Theories

see also

Notes

Literature

Links

See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries:

Theories

see also

Notes

Literature

Links

See what “Metaphor” is in other dictionaries:

Definition of the term and examples of metaphors

Metaphors in literature

To the cinema

In advertising

Types of metaphors in examples