Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.
About the literal and figurative meaning of the word
Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).
But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:
1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);
2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);
3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);
4) rock outcrop (In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).
What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word
Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:
- Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
- Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
- Synecdoche (transferring a general meaning to its part).
The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.
Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.
What is a metaphor
As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).
The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:
- by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city - main area);
- by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
- by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
- on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).
The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.
Metaphorical rethinking is also not uncommon, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.
Metonymy
Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).
The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).
Metonymy is an important way of word formation process
With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:
- the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
- part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
- an important place where something is concentrated.
Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”
Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.
What is synecdoche
Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of pointing to an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.
Here are some of the most common types of this trope.
How and when is synecdoche used?
Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”
Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them a grotesque or humorous coloring.
The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions
Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.
A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.
Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.
How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word
As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”
Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:
- Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
- Human temperament (passionate) nature).
- Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
- Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).
But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from the French language, is already outdated; in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.
How words are used figuratively: examples
Words in a figurative sense are often used as an expressive means of fiction, the media, and also in advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberately colliding different meanings of one word in the subtext is very popular. Thus, advertisements say about mineral water: “A source of vigor.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”
The authors of works of art, to give them brightness and imagery, use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.
There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.
Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning
In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.
It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.
Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”
When polysemous, one of the meanings of a word is direct, and everyone else - portable.
Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the subject (immediately evokes an idea of the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
Toy, -and, and. 1. A thing used for playing. Kids toys.
2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else's will is an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred, transferred also to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects or phenomena simultaneously. Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred,” there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- airplane wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity *, for example: water is boiling- behindthe kettle is boiling; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A type of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche(from the Greek “synekdoche” - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- clever mind etc.
In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning. Over time figurative meanings may become straight.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so it could go both wayssee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the deepest bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.
In the first sentence the word corner used in its literal meaning: “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations “in a blind corner”, “bearish corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in remote areas, bearliving corner - desolate place.
In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning of the word is given first, and figurative values are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The value recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark "peren" For example:
Wood,-oh, -oh. 1. Made from wood, 2. trans. Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. ABOUT Wood oil- cheap grade of olive oil.
The main means of giving a word imagery is the use of it figuratively. The play of direct and figurative meaning gives rise to both aesthetic and expressive effects of a literary text, making this text figurative and expressive.
Based on the nominative (nominal) function of a word and its connection with the subject in the process of cognition of reality, a distinction is made between direct (basic, main, primary, initial) and figurative (derived, secondary, indirect) meanings.
In the derivative meaning, the main, direct meaning and the new, indirect meaning, which appeared as a result of the transfer of the name from one object to another, are combined and coexist. If the word is in direct meaning directly (directly) indicates this or that object, action, property, etc., naming them, then the words in portable meaning, an object is no longer named directly, but through certain comparisons and associations that arise in the minds of native speakers.
AIR– 1) ‘adj. To air (air jet)’;
2) ‘light, weightless ( airy dress)’.
The appearance of figurative meanings in a word makes it possible to save the lexical means of the language without endlessly expanding the vocabulary to denote new phenomena and concepts. If there are some common features between two objects, the name from one, already known, is transferred to another object, newly created, invented or known, which did not have a name before:
DIM– 1) ‘opaque, cloudy ( dim glass)’;
2) ‘matte, not shiny ( dull hairspray, dull hair)’;
3) ‘weak, not bright ( dim light, dull colors)’;
4) ‘lifeless, expressionless ( dull look, dull style)’.
D.N. Shmelev believes that the direct, basic meaning is the one that is not determined by the context (most determined paradigmatically and least syntagmatically):
ROAD– 1) ‘a route of communication, a strip of land intended for movement’;
2) ‘travel, trip’;
3) ‘route’;
4) ‘means of achieving something. goals'.
All secondary, figurative meanings depend on the context, on compatibility with other words: to pack('trip'), direct road to success, road to Moscow.
Historically, the relationship between direct, primary and figurative, secondary meaning may change. Thus, in modern Russian the primary meanings for words have not been preserved consume(‘eat, eat’), dense('dormant'), vale('valley'). Word thirst in our time, it has the main direct meaning of ‘need to drink’ and figurative ‘strong, passionate desire’, but ancient Russian texts indicate the primacy of the second, more abstract meaning, since the adjective is often used next to it water.
Paths for transferring values
The transfer of meaning can be carried out in two main ways: metaphorical and metonymic.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of names based on the similarity of features and concepts (metaphor - unexpressed comparison): pin stars; what comb won't you comb your head?
Signs of metaphorical transfer:
- by color similarity ( gold leaves);
- by similarity of shape ( ring boulevards);
- by similarity of object location ( nose boats, sleeve rivers);
- by similarity of actions ( rain drums, wrinkles plow face);
- by similarity of sensations, emotional associations ( gold character, velvet voice);
- by similarity of functions ( electric candle in the lamp extinguish/ignite light, wipers in car).
This classification is quite arbitrary. The proof is a transfer based on several criteria: leg chair(form, place); ladle excavator(function, form).
There are other classifications. For example, prof. Galina Al-dr. Cherkasova considers metaphorical transfer in connection with the category of animateness/inanimateness:
- the action of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object ( fireplace– ‘room stove’ and ‘electric heating device’; wing– ‘birds’, ‘airplane blade, mill’, ‘side extension’);
- animate - also on an animate object, but of a different group ( bear, snake);
- inanimate - to animate ( she blossomed );
- animate - to inanimate ( guard– ‘guard ship’).
The main trends in metaphorical transfer: figurative meanings appear in words that are socially significant at a given time. During the Great Patriotic War, everyday words were used as metaphors to define military concepts: comb forest, get into boiler . Subsequently, on the contrary, military terms were transferred to other concepts: front work, take on weapons . Sports vocabulary gives many figurative meanings: finish, start, knight's move. With the development of astronautics, metaphors appeared finest hour, escape velocity, dock. Currently, a large number of metaphors are associated with the computer sphere: mouse, archive, maternal pay etc.
There are models of metaphorical transfer in language: certain groups of words form certain metaphors.
- professional characteristics of a person ( artist, craftsman, philosopher, shoemaker, clown, chemist);
- names associated with the disease ( ulcer, plague, cholera, delirium);
- names of natural phenomena when they are transferred to human life ( spring life, hail tears);
- names of household items ( rag, mattress etc.);
- transfer of names of animal actions to humans ( bark, moo).
Metonymy(Greek ‘renaming’) is a transfer of name that is based on the contiguity of the characteristics of two or more concepts: paper– ‘document’.
Types of metonymic transfer:
- transfer along spatial contiguity ( audience- 'People', Class– ‘children’): (a) transfer of the name containing to the content ( all village came out city I was all worried embankment, ate plate, read Pushkin ); (b) the name of the material from which the item is made is transferred to the item ( To go to silks, V gold; V scarlet And gold clad woods; dancing gold );
- transfer by adjacency O th – transferring the name of the action to the result ( dictation, essay, cookies, jam, embroidery);
- synecdoche(a) transferring the name of a part of a whole to a whole ( one hundred goals livestock; behind him eye Yes eye needed; he's seven mouths feeds; he is mine right hand; heart heart gives the news) – often found in proverbs; (b) whole to part ( jasmine– ‘bush’ and ‘flowers’; plum– ‘tree’ and ‘fruit’.
This classification does not cover the entire variety of metonymic transfers that exist in the language.
Sometimes when transferring, the grammatical features of a word are used, for example, plural. number: workers hands, relax on yugas, To go to silks . It is believed that the basis of metonymic transfer is nouns.
In addition to common language figurative values, in the language of fiction there are also figurative use words that are characteristic of the work of a particular writer and are one of the means of artistic representation. For example, from L. Tolstoy: fair And Kind sky("War and Peace"); at A.P. Chekhov: crumbly ("The Last Mohican") cozy lady(“From the Memoirs of an Idealist”), faded aunties("Hopeless"); in the works of K.G. Paustovsky: shy sky(“Mikhailovskaya Grove”), sleepy dawn("Third Date") molten noon("Romantics") sleepy day("Sea Habit") white-blooded bulb(“Book of Wanderings”); from V. Nabokov: cloudy tense day(“Luzhin’s Defense”), etc.
Like metaphor, metonymy can be individually authored - contextual, i.e. conditioned by the contextual use of the word, it does not exist outside of this context: – You’re so stupid, brother! - she said reproachfully handset (E. Meek); Redheads trousers sigh and think(A.P. Chekhov); Short fur coats, sheepskin coats crowded...(M. Sholokhov).
Such figurative meanings, as a rule, are not reflected in dictionary interpretations. Dictionaries reflect only regular, productive, generally accepted hyphens fixed by language practice, which continue to arise, playing a large role in enriching the lexical reserves of the language.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word
Each word has a basic lexical meaning.
For example, desk- this is a school table, green- color of grass or foliage, There is- this means eating.
The meaning of the word is called direct , if the sound of the word accurately indicates an object, action or sign.
Sometimes the sound of one word is transferred to another object, action or sign based on similarity. The word acquires a new lexical meaning, which is called portable .
Let's look at examples of the direct and figurative meaning of words. If a person says a word sea, he and his interlocutors have an image of a large body of water with salty water.
Rice. 1. Black Sea ()
This is the direct meaning of the word sea. And in combinations sea of lights, sea of people, sea of books we see the figurative meaning of the word sea, which denotes a large amount of something or someone.
Rice. 2. City lights ()
Gold coins, earrings, cup- These are objects made of gold.
This is the direct meaning of the word gold. The following phrases have a figurative meaning: goldhair- hair with a brilliant yellow tint, skillful fingers- this is what they say about the ability to do something well, goldenheart- this is what they say about a person who does good.
Word heavy has a direct meaning - to have significant mass. For example, heavy load, box, briefcase.
Rice. 6. Heavy load ()
The following phrases have a figurative meaning: tough task- complex, not easy to solve; hard day- a difficult day that requires effort; hard look- gloomy, stern.
Girl jumping And temperature fluctuates.
In the first case - a direct value, in the second - figurative (rapid temperature change).
boy running- direct meaning. Time is running out- portable.
Frost has frozen the river- figurative meaning - means that the water in the river is frozen.
Rice. 11. River in winter ()
House wall- direct meaning. About heavy rain we can say: wall of rain. This is a figurative meaning.
Read the poem:
What kind of miracle is this?
The sun is shining, the rain is falling,
There's a big beautiful river by the river
The rainbow bridge is rising.
If the sun is shining brightly,
The rain is pouring mischievously,
So this rain, children,
Called mushroom!
Mushroom rain- figurative meaning.
As we already know, words with multiple meanings are polysemous.
The figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only from the context, i.e. in a sentence. For example:
Candles were burning on the table. Direct meaning.
His eyes sparkled with happiness. Figurative meaning.
You can turn to an explanatory dictionary for help. The literal meaning of the word is always given first, and then the figurative meaning.
Let's look at an example.
Cold -
1. having a low temperature. Wash your hands with cold water. A cold wind blew from the north.
2. Transfer. About clothes. Cold coat.
3. Transfer. About color. Cool shades of the picture.
4. Transfer. About emotions. Cold look. Cold meeting.
Consolidating knowledge in practice
Let us determine which of the highlighted words are used in a literal and which in a figurative meaning.
At the table the mother said:
- Enough tongue wagging.
And my son is careful:
- A swing your legs Can?
Rice. 16. Mom and son ()
Let's check: wag your tongue- figurative meaning; swing your legs- direct.
Flocks of birds fly away
Out for the blue sea,
All the trees are shining
In multi-colored attire.
Rice. 17. Birds in autumn ()
Let's check: blue ocean- direct meaning; colorful tree decoration- portable.
The breeze asked as it flew by:
- Why are you rye, golden?
And in response, the spikelets rustle:
- Gold us hands are being raised.
Let's check: golden rye- figurative meaning; golden hands- figurative meaning.
Let's write down the phrases and determine whether they are used in a literal or figurative meaning.
Clean hands, an iron nail, a heavy suitcase, a voracious appetite, a difficult character, Olympian calm, an iron hand, a golden ring, a golden man, a wolf's skin.
Let's check: clean hands- direct, iron nail- direct, heavy bag- direct, voracious appetite- portable, difficult character- portable, Olympian calm- portable, iron hand- portable, Golden ring- direct, Golden man- portable, wolf skin- direct.
Let's make up phrases, write down phrases in a figurative meaning.
Angry (frost, wolf), black (paints, thoughts), runs (athlete, stream), hat (mom’s, snow), tail (fox, train), hit (frost, hammer), drums (rain, musician).
Let's check: angry frost, dark thoughts, a stream running, a cap of snow, the tail of a train, frost has struck, rain is drumming.
In this lesson we learned that words have literal and figurative meanings. The figurative meaning makes our speech figurative and vivid. Therefore, writers and poets love to use figurative meaning in their works.
In the next lesson we will learn which part of the word is called the root, learn how to isolate it in the word, and talk about the meaning and functions of this part of the word.
- Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Education, 2012 (http://www.twirpx.com/file/1153023/)
- Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Balass.
- Ramzaeva T.G. Russian language. 2. - M.: Bustard.
- Openclass.ru ().
- Festival of pedagogical ideas "Open Lesson" ().
- Sch15-apatity.ucoz.ru ().
- Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Education, 2012. Part 2. Do the exercise. 28 P. 21.
- Choose the correct answer to the following questions:
1. Science studies the vocabulary of a language:
A) phonetics
B) syntax
B) lexicology
2. The word is used figuratively in both phrases:
A) heart of stone, build a bridge
B) heat of the sun, stone edition
C) golden words, make plans
3. In which series are the words ambiguous:
A) star, artificial, stone
B) single, blinds, jockey
B) stony, caftan, composer
- * Using the knowledge gained in class, come up with 4-6 sentences with words field And give, where these words are used in direct and figurative meanings.
Content
The word can be found both in a literal and figurative meaning. Such words are called polysemous.
Direct meaning of the word
In order to directly designate an object, its action or the characteristic it possesses, the direct meaning of the word is used. Such lexical units do not raise doubts about the designation and do not change the semantic load or emotional coloring of the text. Examples:
There is a table in the middle of the room with textbooks on it.
A hare gallops along the edge of the forest among trees and bushes.
The sun's rays reflected in the window, creating glare.
Many words are used in speech only in their literal meaning: with yn, apartment, sun, sad, famous.
Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning.
The emergence of a figurative meaning of the word
The main lexical meaning can serve as the basis for the formation of other, secondary meanings. Such values are called figurative meanings and give a completely different meaning. The basis for using a word in a different sense is the similarity of one object to another, their characteristics or actions.
For example, when using the word “ gold" in the phrase " Golden ring", the meaning of the adjective is clear, denoting a precious metal that determines the cost and value of an item.
In another example - "z golden hands", word " gold"acquires a figurative meaning, since it is used in a figurative lexical meaning and means “skillful”, “active”, “irreplaceable”.
The replacement is explained by common features in meaning and external similarity. In this example, we can use the synonym “ precious" This justifies the polysemy. Words that can be used not only in the literal sense are called polysemantic. Examples:
- soft carpet - soft character - soft light;
- iron door - iron will - iron discipline.
Examples of words in a figurative meaning
- the heart muscle is the heart's friend;
- earthworm - bookworm;
- hit with a stick - thunder struck;
- door handle - ballpoint pen;
- red tongue - English;
- an idea was born - a daughter was born;
- wave crest - hair comb;
- artistic brush - hand;
- building column - column of demonstrators;
- the sleeve of clothing is the sleeve of the river.
The figurative meaning allows you to add emotionality and imagery to artistic speech. Thanks to it, tropes are formed - the ambiguous use of words in fiction (litotes, metonymy, comparison, epithet, metaphor).