We talk about theory and practice when we consider a person’s relationship with the world in which he exists. The two concepts are interdependent, but in their meaning they are often opposed.

Definition

Theory– knowledge that describes the laws operating in any area of ​​life. A theory arises from a hypothesis. However, such a transformation occurs only after the put forward guess has passed through an experiment, the result of which proves the truth of the hypothesis.

Practice– conscious activity, which is a transformation of reality in order to extract a certain benefit and gain experience. Practice can be carried out in the material sphere (related, for example, to the production of some objects) and spiritual (related, say, to pedagogy or social relationships).

Comparison

The two categories under consideration are in unity with each other. The difference between theory and practice is as follows. Practice necessarily represents action. The theory is not such in its essence. It appears as a result of mental activity, but exists in its own abstract form. A theory consists of concepts, provisions, and conclusions.

Definition

It can be noted that practice determines the emergence of theory, and vice versa. Thus, reliable knowledge is formed solely on the basis of experience. In other words, the truth of a thought is proven in practice, and this becomes the basis for the development of a theory. Based on the latter, taking into account the identified patterns, people have the opportunity to create something that did not exist before. This is how important inventions and discoveries appear.

It should be emphasized that theory does not simply generalize experience practical activities and transfers it to other situations, namely develops. It becomes the basis for the birth of new hypothetical assumptions, which are then again tested through action. Thus, theory acts as a powerful tool for solving fundamental problems of mastering reality.

What is the difference between theory and practice? The fact is that theory is, in a certain sense, a plan. It plays a programming role and allows you to predict the future. However, theory is only useful if it has significant practical consequences.

The difference between theoretical and practical thinking

The difference between theoretical and practical thinking is that they are related to practice in different ways: not that one of them has a connection with practice and the other does not, but that the nature of this connection is different.

The work of practical thinking is mainly aimed at resolving private specific tasks: organize the work of a given plant, develop and implement a battle plan, etc., while the work of theoretical thinking is aimed mainly at finding general patterns: principles of production organization, tactical and strategic patterns.

The work of the theoretical mind is focused primarily on the first part of the holistic path of cognition: on the transition from living contemplation to abstract thinking, on the (temporary!) withdrawal - retreat from practice. The work of the practical mind is concentrated mainly on the second part of this path of knowledge: on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, on that very “sure hit”, the leap to practice, for which the theoretical withdrawal is made.

Both theoretical and practical thinking are connected with practice, but in the second case this connection is more direct. The work of the practical mind is directly woven into practical activity and is continually tested by practice, while the work of the theoretical mind is usually tested by practice only in its final results. Hence the peculiar “responsibility” that is inherent in practical thinking. The theoretical mind is responsible to practice only for the final result of its work, while the practical mind is responsible in the very process of mental activity. A theoretical scientist can put forward various kinds working hypotheses, testing them sometimes over a very long period of time, discarding those that do not justify themselves, replacing them with others, etc. A practitioner's ability to use hypotheses is incomparably more limited, since these hypotheses must be tested not in special experiments, but in life itself, and - what is especially important - a practical worker does not always have time for this kind of testing. Harsh time conditions are one of the most characteristic features the work of the practical mind.

(From the work of Teplov B.M. “The Mind of a Commander”)

Highlight intuitive and analytical thinking. The difference between them comes down to the following. Analytical thinking unfolded in time, has clearly defined stages, and is largely represented in the consciousness of the thinking person himself. Intuitive– characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious. Signs of intuitive thinking are also the absence of detailed logical reasoning, self-evidence for the subject, and his confidence in the correctness of the decision. Along with logical, analytical knowledge of reality, the role of intuition, heuristic principle, and the unconscious is great. Many great discoveries have been made intuitively. I.P. Pavlov explained the intuitive process by the action of “traces” from past impressions. Currently, some factors for the development of intuition have been identified. They are the development of observation, memory, emotional sensitivity, expanding the stock of knowledge and life experience, as well as the improvement and development of the senses (an artist’s vision, a musician’s hearing, etc.)

Depending on the standard-non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures vary algorithmic, discursive, heuristic And creative thinking: algorithmic thinking focused on pre-established rules, a generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical tasks; discursive(from lat. discourse- reasoning) thinking based on a system of interrelated inferences; heuristic thinking- this is productive thinking, consisting in solving non-standard tasks; creative thinking- thinking that provides a fundamentally new solution to a problem, leading to new ideas, discoveries and solutions.

Creative thinking

Creative thinking is the highest level of cognitive activity. It differs in that the thinking subject achieves new results for himself independently, in the process of searching through special procedures that are not characteristic of the activity of reproduction or assimilation ready-made knowledge. Creative thinking provides a fundamentally new solution to a problem, leading to new ideas, discoveries and solutions.

Famous psychologist Luk A.N. (“Psychology of Creativity”. M., 1978) includes creative intellectual abilities: vigilance in search of a problem as the ability to see what does not fit into the framework of what has been learned. This is not related to visual acuity, but is a quality of thinking; the ability to collapse mental operations, allowing the mind's eye to capture the whole picture as a whole, all reasoning from the first to the last step; the ability to transfer experience, allowing you to apply the skill acquired in solving one problem to another; integrity of perception - the ability to perceive reality as a whole, without fragmenting it (whole perception is characteristic of people artistic type– actors, artists, musicians, journalists); the ability to bring concepts together, manifested in the ease of association and remoteness of associated concepts; flexibility of thinking; ability to evaluate; the ability to “couple” and “anti-couple” (combine and link new information with existing baggage); ease of generating ideas; speech fluency, etc.

The creative thinking of a journalist reflects the constantly reproducing contradiction between conservative and dynamic principles. One of the essential elements of creative thinking is professional identity, which contains stable ideas about a certain political, professional, social, psychological and moral identity of members of a group (community), about its properties as a whole.

Barriers to Creative Thinking

Conformism- the desire to be like someone else is the main barrier to creative thinking. A person is afraid to speak out unusual ideas for fear of seeming funny or not very smart. A similar feeling can arise in childhood, if the first fantasies, products of children's imagination, do not find understanding among adults, and take hold in adolescence, when young people do not want to be too different from their peers.

Censorship - In particular, internal censorship is the second serious barrier to creativity. The consequences of external censorship of ideas can be quite dramatic, but internal censorship is much stronger than external censorship. People who are afraid of their own ideas tend to react passively to their surroundings and do not try to creatively solve problems that arise. Sometimes unwanted thoughts are suppressed by them to such an extent that they cease to be conscious at all. Superego is what Freud called this internalized censor.

The third barrier to creative thinking is rigidity, often acquired in the process schooling. Typical school methods They help consolidate the knowledge accepted today, but do not allow us to teach how to pose and solve new problems or improve existing solutions.

A fourth obstacle to creativity may be desire to find the answer immediately. Excessively high motivation often contributes to the adoption of ill-conceived, inadequate decisions. People achieve greater success in creative thinking when they are not constrained by everyday worries. Therefore, the value of annual vacations lies not so much in the fact that, having rested, a person will work better, but in the fact that it is during the vacation that new ideas are more likely to arise.

Of course, the effectiveness of the results is free creative imagination and imagination is far from obvious; It may happen that out of a thousand proposed ideas, only one turns out to be applicable in practice. Of course, discovering such an idea without the expense of creating a thousand useless ideas would be a big savings. However, these savings are unlikely, especially since creative thinking often brings pleasure regardless of the use of its results.

Medicine is a field of scientific and practical activity that is aimed at studying and treating various kinds pathological conditions of human health (body conditions), identification in various ways and methods of treating and maintaining the normal functioning of the human body.

The word “medicine” itself comes from the Latin medicina - which means healing. Naturally, the need for healing - treatment - has always existed, in fact since the development of mankind, but it is believed that the beginning of modern medicine was laid by the famous ancient Greek physician and researcher Hippocrates, who lived in the 400s BC. on the island of Kos. Then he earned great respect from his contemporaries and subsequent descendants (he was even credited with being related to the god of medicine, Asclepius, who was allegedly considered his father). He left behind a collection of medical treatises - the “Hippocratic Corpus”, which not only states that all diseases occur exclusively from natural causes, and also laid the foundations of scientific medical research and developed the first physician code in history, the main principle of which is the statement - do no harm. At the same time, due to the existence of a ban on opening human body, some assumptions and conclusions were somewhat erroneous.

Medicine symbols

Medicine has its own symbols. The most ancient is the staff of Asclepius, which belonged to the great healer, the Greek god of medicine and is a staff entwined with a snake. The external symbol that appeared at the end of the 20th century is the six-pointed Star of Life. Its six rays symbolize the main tasks that are fundamental to the activities of rescuers in emergency situations: to detect; notify; show a response; help on the spot; help during transportation; transfer to a specialized assistance center. Another popular symbol of medicine is the red cross, which is a symbol international movement(Red Cross Movement).

Disease - disease

Disease is the main subject of medicine, both science and practice. Disease is defined as a condition of the body, expressed in disruption of its normal functioning, life expectancy and ability to maintain normal homeostasis.

Scientists still argue about the essence and causes of diseases. IN ancient Greece believed (Hippocrates) that any disease occurs due to an imbalance of four fluids in the human body: bile, mucus, yellow and black blood. Democritus also believed that this is due to the fact that some atoms acquire irregular shape or incorrectly positioned. In the Middle Ages, it was believed that a painful condition was caused by a condition human soul who fights the disease. Along with these opinions, at all times, scientists also determined the cause of the disease - a violation of the physiological state of the human body with the environment, anatomical state and the effects of pathogenic organisms.

Generally accepted classification diseases and areas of medical practice:
- internal diseases (therapy) - the main method of treatment for which is the use of medications;
- surgical diseases (surgery) - which can only be cured through surgery (surgical intervention);
- malignant diseases (oncology) - they are caused by various types of defects in the body’s cells;
- hereditary (genetic) diseases - they are caused by gene defects;
- gynecology - diseases of organs that are involved in pregnancy and childbirth;
- skin diseases;
- eye diseases (ophthalmology);
- infectious diseases - caused by the influence of various microorganisms on the human body;
- sexually transmitted diseases - transmitted (mainly) sexually;
- mental illness (psychiatry) - expressed in a violation of the ability to objectively perceive reality;
- otolaryngology - diseases of the ear, nose and throat;
- pediatrics - diseases that affect children;
- dietetics - diseases due to poor nutrition;
- intercurrent diseases - or as they are also called in everyday life - complications (for example, dysbiosis due to treatment of influenza with antibiotics).

Types of medicine

There are several types of medicine, depending on the ways of understanding the interaction of processes in the human body and approaches to treating diseases. Thus, a distinction is made between traditional medicine, Western medicine, Eastern medicine, scientific medicine, alternative and traditional medicine. In recent years, the concept of Internet medicine has also emerged.

Traditional medicine is defined as a system (a set of different methods and approaches to treatment) aimed at preserving human health, maintaining it, preventing and treating diseases through correction, restoration of impaired functions using natural means and techniques.

Western medicine. Modern Western medicine views man as a biosocial system. It is believed that the disease first strikes physical body, and subsequently, as the disease progresses, this leads to psychological oppression. Basis western medicine are a set of clinical theories and treatment strategies that involve the use of pills, injections, surgical techniques, radiation, etc.

Eastern medicine- distinguishes four levels in a person: the physical body, the meridional system, emotions and psyche. Eastern doctors believe that disease initially originates in the depths of the mind.

Scientific medicine is integrally connected with scientific experiment. Its main goal is to find new ways to treat diseases.

Alternative medicine- this concept is quite broad and can be interpreted in different ways. Basically, alternative medicine is medicine that goes beyond the generally accepted medical doctrine.

ethnoscience- includes a set of methods and means of folk (non-professional) healing. At the same time, modern medicine developed precisely on the basis of the experience of traditional healers.

Internet medicine (online medicine) - involves diagnosing a disease and obtaining a doctor’s consultation via the Internet, as well as even performing surgical operations remotely. In other words, when the doctor does not have direct contact with the patient.

Medicine today

Modern medicine has divided into several individual directions who provide treatment in their field: ophthalmology (eye diseases); dermatology (skin diseases); gynecology and obstetrics; laryngology and otology (diseases of the ear, nose and throat). The following are successfully developing: desmurgy (rules for applying bandages and treating wounds); operative surgery; mechanurgy (use of surgical instruments); psychiatry; forensic Medicine.

To treat various diseases, it is necessary to study whole line Sci. First of all, you need to be fluent in anatomy, which studies the location of various organs and parts, the structure of tissues (histology), and the development of tissues and the whole body (embryology). Physiology will help to understand the healthy state of the body, while general pathology will help to study disorders. Bacteriology will help to sort out disorders associated with fungi. Pharmacology deals with the composition and effect of drugs. Toxicology will help you resist poisons. Pathological anatomy will be of great benefit, as it will provide the doctor with material to correctly recognize the disease and prescribe treatment.

Modern medicine is divided into three main branches:
- theoretical medicine;
- practical;
- evidence-based medicine.

Theoretical is aimed at studying the human body, its normal condition, pathological structure and functioning. It is aimed at studying diseases, pathological conditions and methods of their diagnosis, correction and treatment. The basis of this is theoretical knowledge. This branch of medicine, based on logic supported by scientific knowledge, offers practical medicine development ways. It summarizes knowledge and creates hypotheses. It is not for nothing that it is considered the first step in practical medicine.

Theoretical medicine

Theoretical medicine makes it possible to develop not only new treatment methods, but also new medicines. She develops a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying disease and healing processes. This creates the basis for diagnosis and treatment.

Practical medicine

Practical medicine applies in practice all the knowledge accumulated by science in the treatment of diseases and pathological conditions.

Modern medicine widely applies the criteria of evidence-based medicine, which is aimed at proving the effectiveness of various treatment methods, preventive or diagnostic measures.

Increase various diseases, which are related to human age, are studied by gerontology and geriatrics. They deal with the problems of slowing down aging, prevention in old age, and therapy.

The real test for a doctor begins at the patient's bedside. Here, in a specific case, you need to apply all your experience and knowledge. In this situation, the doctor is faced with specific person, with its features, with its structure, etc. There are no identical patients, therefore the attitude and medical impact should change from patient to patient. Based on anamnesis (previous illnesses), questions, signs of the disease, his knowledge and experience, the doctor makes a diagnosis, as well as makes a prognosis regarding the treatment and course of the disease and prescribes treatment. Such features distinguish scientific (rational) treatment from empirical treatment, in which medicine is given without the knowledge of the patient.

The importance of medicine has always been very great, and it will never lose its significance. Growing success in natural sciences will contribute to the growth of the importance of medicine.

Paid and free healthcare

Medicine is used by almost all segments of the population, from show business stars to senior officials states.

According to the Romir research holding, 67% of residents Russian cities declare that for Last year used paid medical services. The majority of respondents prefer to pay for medical services at their own expense. The average amount spent by each client on paid healthcare services per year is 8,700 rubles (approximately $300).

The survey involved 1,000 respondents aged 16 to 50 years and older, living in cities with a population of 100 thousand and above, from 8 federal districts. The sample represents an adult urban population Russia.

Clients in the field of paid medical services women (75% versus 60% of men), respondents under the age of 35, as well as Russians with middle and high income levels speak out significantly more often. The younger the respondents, the more popular they are with corporate and personal insurance, and vice versa - the older they are, the more often they choose “cash payment” with a medical institution.

Compared to 2005, Russians began to more actively use the services of private medical institutions, while the role of state clinics and hospitals in the market for paid services remains predominant. In particular, more than 60% of respondents used paid services in district and departmental clinics and hospitals. Private clinics are often chosen by the most active clients of this market - women and respondents under the age of 35.

The popularity rating of types of paid medical services has changed slightly over 7 years. Russians began to use paid dentistry services much more often (increase from 63% to 74%). Cosmetology, which previously occupied 12th place, rose to 5th place in the ranking.

Health care system

The healthcare system is the totality of all organizations, institutions and resources main task which is to improve the health of the population of a certain country. State body The ministry that manages the health care system in almost all countries is the Ministry of Health (MOH) or the Ministry of Health within the government. There is also an international body in this system - the World Health Organization (WHO).

The effectiveness of the functioning of the healthcare system in each state depends on the quality of human resources, the amount of funding, the information and communications system, the availability of equipment and materials, transport support, infrastructure (medical research institutes, hospitals, clinics, sanatoriums, etc.), as well as general management.

Thus, it can be assumed that the best health care system will be in developed countries(Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia , Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA). At the same time, according to WHO, the country with the best healthcare system is Cuba. Also interesting is the example of China, where the salary of a local doctor is to a large extent depends on the number of healthy patients in his area. Health care system in the CIS countries (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan), as well as other countries former socialist camp, is currently not included in the list of the best, primarily due to the fact that they inherited it from the collapsed USSR, and some attempts at reform did not bring the expected result.

Medical institutions

Treatment of patients requires constant monitoring and special care. For this reason, there is a fairly wide network of medical institutions and organizations. Although in some cases, treatment (when the illness is not severe or during the recovery period) can be carried out at home - under the supervision of a family doctor.

The system of medical institutions distinguishes:
- therapeutic - hospitals and clinics;
- surgical and traumatological;
- pediatric;
- preventive - sanatoriums and dispensaries;
- special - examination departments, ambulance stations, medical rescue centers, blood transfusion stations;
- maternity;
- centers of alternative medicine.

Popularity of the search query “medicine” in the Yandex search engine

Specified search query shows a steady increase in popularity during 2011 - 2012. Most of the time of the year, the quantitative indicator of impressions on request is in the range of 500 thousand - 1 million. The peak value was reached at the end of October 2012 and amounted to more than 1.111 million views. The average daily number of views during the first two months of 2013 was 872.5 thousand.

Also, along with the query “medicine”, Yandex users search for:
traditional medicine - 100227 requests in Yandex per month
medicine center - 57727
medicine clinic - 31017
medicine download - 20728
application + in medicine - 20643
family medicine - 20422
medicine treatment - 20139
Chinese medicine - 17585
history of medicine - 15150
forensic medicine - 14172
disaster medicine - 13648
modern medicine - 11344
free medicine - 11178

Theoretical and practical medicine

In medicine, theoretical medicine, or medical science, or medical theory is distinguished - a field of science that studies the human body, its normal and pathological structure and functioning, diseases, pathological conditions, methods of their diagnosis, correction and treatment from a theoretical point of view.

There is also practical, or clinical, medicine, or medical practice - the practical application of accumulated medical science knowledge for the treatment of diseases and pathological conditions of the human body.

Conventional and alternative medicine

Traditional medicine- a system of extensive medical knowledge, skills and abilities, transmitted in written form and used for several thousand years to the present day in solving issues of prevention, diagnosis, treatment and medical rehabilitation. Traditional medicine is divided into Chinese medicine, Indian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Greek and Arabic medicine. Traditional medicine is a system of near-medical knowledge, discovered empirically, transmitted within one dynasty, often orally.

Conventional medicine- is not synonymous with scientific medicine in the modern sense of the word. Thus, in official, conventional medicine in many countries of the world, including Russia, treatment methods based on outdated or outdated theories and ideas that do not correspond to modern criteria evidence-based medicine. One example of this approach is the use of drugs such as diabazole or papaverine for arterial hypertension, the effectiveness of which has not been confirmed by randomized controlled trials, instead of drugs with high level evidence of effect (ACE inhibitors, diuretics, etc.), or unreasonably widespread use of physiotherapy, whose evidence base is also weak and does not meet modern strict criteria.

Evidence-based medicine

In modern scientific medicine, the criteria of evidence-based medicine are increasingly being used, which requires strict evidence of the effectiveness of certain treatment or diagnostic methods through methodologically correctly performed RCTs (randomized controlled trials) - double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials. Any other treatment that has not been demonstrated to be effective in an RCT is simply rejected as irrelevant and ineffective, regardless of its apparent effectiveness in non-blind trials (ie, for the patient or for the practitioner). Since the likelihood of underlying diseases increases with age, greater popularity in Lately The development of sections of gerontology related to slowing down aging, the development of anti-aging medicine, as well as attempts to transition the paradigm of treating emerging diseases to their prevention (preventive medicine) are being developed.

see also

• VA VistA - free medical information system
• Medical standards: SNOMED, ​​HL7

Links

• Sergey Petrovich Kapitsa & Boris Grigorievich Yudin. Medicine of the XXI century: ethical problems // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 3. - P. 75-79.
• M.S. Kiseleva. Healing in Moscow and Kiev (based on texts of the 17th century) // Traditional and non-traditional in Russian culture. - M.: Nauka, 2008, p. 50-60

Codes in knowledge classification systems

• State rubricator of scientific and technical information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 76 MEDICINE AND HEALTHCARE

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what “Scientific medicine” is in other dictionaries:

This term is usually incorrectly used in the sense of being opposed to practical medicine; but the latter in all its manifestations at the patient’s bedside, when solving sanitary or judicial issues, is nothing more than applied... ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

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I Medicine Medicine system scientific knowledge and practical activities, the goals of which are to strengthen and preserve health, prolong the lives of people, prevent and treat human diseases. To accomplish these tasks, M. studies the structure and... ... Medical encyclopedia

medicine (genesis)- How a physician and scientific medicine are born The most ancient medical practice dates back to the priesthood. According to mythology, the first who began to teach people the art of healing was the centaur Chiron. Asclepius, a disciple of Chiron, was the son of God, wore... ... Western philosophy from its origins to the present day

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Publishing house, Moscow. Founded in 1918. Scientific and educational literature on medicine, medical industry, medical journals... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- “MEDICINE”, publishing house, Moscow. Founded in 1918. Scientific and educational literature on medicine, medical industry, medical journals... encyclopedic Dictionary

The concept of “theory” is defined as a system of views on any issue. In contrast to the hypothesis scientific assumption or concepts as a system of views, this or that understanding of a phenomenon/problem, the system of views of a theory has already been confirmed by practice and time-tested, and, importantly, accepted by a certain part or all members scientific community, and, given its vitality and significance, and society in general. Despite such a comprehensive definition, there are usually several theories in the same branch of science. Most of them are subordinate in nature, reflecting certain aspects of the whole. The modern deep division of the whole into parts in any branch of knowledge, with specialization requiring their constant accumulation “horizontally”, at first glance, generally removes the need for an individual member of the scientific and practical (in medicine) community to have the concept of general theoretical knowledge. In fact, all theoretical part medicine presented fundamental knowledge in physiology/pathophysiology, anatomy/ pathological anatomy, chemistry, biology, pharmacology, histology. Representatives of these disciplines, to the extent of interest and more than other practical specialists, have knowledge of other disciplines. The same cannot be said about their practical competence, which they themselves, in general, do not need. The same, with the opposite sign, applies to doctors. Anesthesiologists know the basics of clinical pharmacology and pathophysiology, surgeons know anatomy and pathological anatomy, etc.

It is a well-known fact that students are overloaded with theoretical subjects. medical universities in the first three years of study. Subject-based practical teaching subsequently sharply reduces the quality and quantity of generalizing ideas, exaggerating them to narrowly specific applications. Upon graduation from the university, learning, already independent, has the character of “setting the hand”, adopting stamps practical work. There is no longer any place for questions of medical theory.

By the nature of their activities related to their mentality, representatives of the so-called theoretical medicine. First of all - pathological anatomy and pathophysiology. Thus, the cellular pathology of R. Virchow, which reduced all pathology to the pathology of cells, according to the definition of Yu.P. Lisitsyna was:

Works by C. Bernard, I.M. Sechenova, I.P. Pavlov laid the foundations for the theory of nervism and cortico-visceral pathology, which fully retain their scientific and practical significance to the present day.

Works based on facts became a natural continuation of the two main theoretical platforms molecular biology and medicine, adaptation and trophic processes. Thus, the theory of cell damage by free radicals, natural metabolic processes with the occurrence of atherosclerosis, and carcinogenesis formed the basis of the so-called theory of aging or the theory of “four models of medicine” by V.M. Dilmana. The author identifies ten “normal diseases” (obesity, obese diabetes mellitus, hyperadaptosis, menopause, atherosclerosis, metabolic immunosuppression, autoimmune diseases, hypertension, mental depression and cancer) as a result of the development and interaction of environmental, genetic, ontogenetic (development of the organism) and involutional (accumulation) factors.

A.A. Alekseev formulated the connective tissue theory of biology and medicine. The author calls connective tissue, which makes up 85% of the total mass of the human body, the engine and mechanism for the implementation of evolution in complex living systems, and connective tissue insufficiency is an integrating disease. It is significant that we're talking about about the energy-informational role of connective tissue.

The basis general theory medicine academician A.D. Speransky (“Elements of constructing the theory of medicine”, 1934) formed general patterns adaptation-trophic processes in the nervous system.

The emergence of knowledge about neuroendocrine interactions led to the emergence of G. Selye's teachings on stress and the general adaptation syndrome - one of the most striking phenomena in the theory of medicine, which closely determines its practical application.

The development of our ideas already at the level of mental life activity, where the development of diseases takes into account not only the reactions of the unconscious, but actually mental processes, mental-emotional manifestations, became theories united in the Freudian (psychoanalytic) and psychosomatic directions.

All of the above fundamental medical theories/concepts covered, first of all, internal processes occurring in the body during interaction with external factors.

Even narrower are the directions of neo-hippocratism/biotypology, which, on the one hand, were born as a response to technization and specialization in medicine with the destruction of the holistic perception of a person, and, on the other hand, created and applied in practice the boundaries of the type human personality at any level. It should be said that this approach is not new. In Ayurveda, Tibetan medicine, Hippocrates, I.P. Pavlova, V. Kretschmera, M. Martini, N. Pende, we find a classification approach to determining personality type with therapeutic and preventive conclusions. Going even “deeper,” E. Williams in his work “Biochemical Individuality” (1960), based on the analysis and synthesis of anatomical, biochemical and clinical material, creates another classification that has not received wide recognition.

No less quantitatively theoretical heritage is represented by theories of, so to speak, external mediation of illness, which include the theory of social conditioning of health and sociobiological concepts. Without touching on the mechanisms of disease pathogenesis at all, they explore their undoubted relationship with social factors. The behavioral side, which determines the individual’s lifestyle and is itself part of the lifestyle, forms, along with external environmental factors, from environmental to political, health risk factors, the role of lifestyle and healthy image life.

A number of sociological and biological theories - the theory of ethology (K. Lorenz, N. Tinbergen, N. Frisch), human ecology (R. Park, E. Burgess), sociobiology (E.O. Wilson) - transfer the laws of biological communities to human life and even more mediated in the question of the causes and nature of diseases.

The most general and unifying theory of the origin of diseases is the theory of diseases of civilization and social adaptation. The term “adaptation” as a process of overcoming by the body inadequate conditions that do not correspond to the properties of the organism is no less popular than “stress”. Maladjustment as a result of inadequate adaptation (adaptation with impairment of life functions) is considered as the basis of the disease. The theory of social adaptation from birth was beyond the scope of purely medical ones, and one of the first works on this topic (“Diseases of our society” by E. Guan, A. Dusser) examined a whole range of problems causing biological, natural, social, and psychological disadaptation.

The area of ​​solving the problem lies beyond the boundaries of medicine, falling under the known laws of the development of civilization. Such prominent theorists as R. Dubos and O. Toffler are quite pessimistic in their forecasts regarding trends in the development of maladjustment. Previously, in contrast to them, and to a greater extent justifiably, there were objections from theorists from the countries of the socialist camp, who together built communism without injuries, illnesses, etc. And what can you object: why make money in New York, London or Moscow, exhausting yourself and trying “to be like everyone else” if impoverished Cuba has one of the most developed healthcare systems in the world and one of the highest life expectancies? The question is “hackneyed”, but the “direction of movement” is the same - towards new victories for civilization!

The theory of geographical determinism, convergence of T. Malthus (1798) and subsequently the neo-Malthusians has, perhaps, the most distant relation to medicine itself. The fair postulate about diseases and degeneration of members of society as a direct result of an increase in its numbers above a critical level is fair, but more applicable, for example, to ecology.

Academician Yu.P. Lisitsin and V.P. Petlenko formulated a determinative theory of medicine, which was based on the principles of determination and reflection in a living system. “The main goal of constructing a determination theory,” according to the authors, is to bring all the main modern knowledge accumulated in the field of biomedical research.”

The external diversity of all illuminated concepts with the originality of representations of what is truly new does not in any way imply their existence in the system of views. Theories are inherently assimilative, smoothly flowing into broader ideas as new knowledge is accumulated. The temporal, historical determinism of one of them is replaced by another, the expansion of the conceptual field gives rise to a representation that assimilates and interacts with what is already known.

A paradoxical feature of all fundamental theories of medicine is that, clarifying and linking theoretical issues, they don’t say a word about the treatment itself. The definition of medicine as a system of sciences and practical activities aimed at preserving and strengthening human health, prolonging his life, preventing and treating diseases does not take into account specific gravity sciences about prevention, health and, in fact, treatment. Everyone from housing and communal services and the traffic police to the State Duma is involved in health prevention and health promotion. In fact, hygiene standards, if we take into account lighting, air composition, square meter housing per person are trampled underfoot everywhere. The job of hygienists is in everyone’s hands. The same applies to the issue of lengthening life. Please note that the pathogenesis of diseases is generally private question, for which there was no place in the definition.

What is medicine actually and for the most part? Yes, sanitation issues. Yes, hygiene issues. But, above all, obtaining new data on the structure and function of a living person and developing diagnostic and treatment tools. So, none of the theories from the cellular to the four models of medicine and from nervism to adaptation theories analyze therapeutic approaches.

It would be incorrect not to say that Freudianism with psychoanalysis is a method of both diagnosis and treatment, but a general adaptation syndrome identified approaches to drug therapy that seemed universal to the author. Pharmacotherapy is already considered as an axiomatic basis, and the development of a new drug is a practical implementation theoretical constructions. Why philosophize in any of the surgical specialties? I cut off part of the stomach with an ulcer - the patient recovered! What’s easier if you don’t ask the question, why has it gotten better? Why did you recover? The same with antibiotics or any other medicine/surgery/transplantation - don't ask questions - there will be no problems.

The origins of this approach lie on a different plane. Characteristic of all the theoretical research covered is their one-sided, orthodox orientation. Others, not Western medical systems they simply go unnoticed. Including them in general philosophical reasoning would undoubtedly require both an analysis of other views on pathogenesis and treatment, and a revision of ideas on the main issue - causation in medicine.