The difference between theoretical and practical thinking

The difference between theoretical and practical thinking is that they are related to practice in different ways: not that one of them has a connection with practice and the other does not, but that the nature of this connection is different.

The work of practical thinking is mainly aimed at resolving private specific tasks: organize the work of a given plant, develop and implement a battle plan, etc., while the work theoretical thinking is mainly aimed at finding general patterns: principles of production organization, tactical and strategic patterns.

The work of the theoretical mind is focused primarily on the first part of the holistic path of cognition: on the transition from living contemplation to abstract thinking, on the (temporary!) withdrawal - retreat from practice. The work of the practical mind is concentrated mainly on the second part of this path of knowledge: on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, on that very “sure hit”, the leap to practice, for which the theoretical withdrawal is made.

Both theoretical and practical thinking are connected with practice, but in the second case this connection is more direct. The work of the practical mind is directly woven into practical activity and is continually tested by practice, while the work of the theoretical mind is usually tested by practice only in its final results. Hence the peculiar “responsibility” that is inherent in practical thinking. The theoretical mind is responsible to practice only for final result of his work, while the practical mind is responsible in the process itself mental activity. A theoretical scientist can put forward various kinds working hypotheses, testing them sometimes over a very long period of time, discarding those that do not justify themselves, replacing them with others, etc. A practitioner's ability to use hypotheses is incomparably more limited, since these hypotheses must be tested not in special experiments, but in life itself, and - what is especially important - a practical worker does not always have time for this kind of testing. Harsh time conditions are one of the most characteristic features the work of the practical mind.

(From the work of Teplov B.M. “The Mind of a Commander”)

Highlight intuitive and analytical thinking. The difference between them comes down to the following. Analytical thinking unfolded in time, has clearly defined stages, is largely represented in the consciousness of the thinking man. Intuitive– characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious. Signs of intuitive thinking are also the absence of detailed logical reasoning, self-evidence for the subject, and his confidence in the correctness of the decision. Along with logical, analytical knowledge of reality, the role of intuition, heuristic principle, and the unconscious is great. Many great discoveries have been made intuitively. I.P. Pavlov explained the intuitive process by the action of “traces” from past impressions. Currently, some factors for the development of intuition have been identified. They are the development of observation, memory, emotional sensitivity, expansion of knowledge and life experience, as well as the improvement and development of the senses (an artist’s vision, a musician’s hearing, etc.)

Depending on the standard-non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures vary algorithmic, discursive, heuristic And creative thinking: algorithmic thinking focused on pre-established rules, a generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical tasks; discursive(from lat. discourse- reasoning) thinking based on a system of interrelated inferences; heuristic thinking- this is productive thinking, consisting in solving non-standard tasks; creative thinking- thinking that provides a fundamentally new solution to a problem, leading to new ideas, discoveries and solutions.

Creative thinking

Creative thinking is the highest level cognitive activity. It differs in that the thinking subject achieves new results for himself independently, in the process of searching through special procedures that are not characteristic of the activity of reproduction or assimilation ready-made knowledge. Creative thinking provides a fundamentally new solution to a problem, leading to new ideas, discoveries and solutions.

Famous psychologist Luk A.N. (“Psychology of Creativity”. M., 1978) to creative intellectual abilities refers to: vigilance in search of a problem as the ability to see what does not fit into the framework of what has been learned. This is not related to visual acuity, but is a quality of thinking; coagulability mental operations, allowing the mind's eye to capture the whole picture, all the reasoning from the first to the last step; the ability to transfer experience, allowing you to apply the skill acquired in solving one problem to another; integrity of perception - the ability to perceive reality as a whole, without fragmenting it (whole perception is characteristic of people artistic type– actors, artists, musicians, journalists); the ability to bring concepts together, manifested in the ease of association and remoteness of associated concepts; flexibility of thinking; ability to evaluate; the ability to “couple” and “anti-couple” (combine and link new information with existing baggage); ease of generating ideas; speech fluency, etc.

The creative thinking of a journalist reflects the constantly reproducing contradiction between conservative and dynamic principles. One of the essential elements of creative thinking is professional identity, which contains stable ideas about a certain political, professional, social, psychological and moral identity of members of a group (community), about its properties as a whole.

Barriers to Creative Thinking

Conformism- the desire to be like someone else is the main barrier to creative thinking. A person is afraid to speak out unusual ideas for fear of seeming funny or not very smart. A similar feeling can arise in childhood, if the first fantasies, products of children's imagination, do not find understanding among adults, and take hold in adolescence, when young people do not want to be too different from their peers.

Censorship - In particular, internal censorship is the second serious barrier to creativity. The consequences of external censorship of ideas can be quite dramatic, but internal censorship is much stronger than external censorship. People who are afraid of their own ideas tend to react passively to their surroundings and do not try to creatively solve problems that arise. Sometimes unwanted thoughts are suppressed by them to such an extent that they cease to be conscious at all. Superego is what Freud called this internalized censor.

The third barrier to creative thinking is rigidity, often acquired in the process schooling. Typical school methods They help consolidate the knowledge accepted today, but do not allow us to teach how to pose and solve new problems or improve existing solutions.

A fourth obstacle to creativity may be desire to find the answer immediately. Excessively high motivation often contributes to the adoption of ill-conceived, inadequate decisions. People achieve greater success in creative thinking when they are not constrained by everyday worries. Therefore, the value of annual vacations lies not so much in the fact that, having rested, a person will work better, but in the fact that it is during vacation with more likely new ideas arise.

Of course, the effectiveness of the results is free creative imagination and imagination is far from obvious; It may happen that out of a thousand proposed ideas, only one turns out to be applicable in practice. Of course, discovering such an idea without the expense of creating a thousand useless ideas would be a big savings. However, these savings are unlikely, especially since creative thinking often brings pleasure regardless of the use of its results.

All basic theories modern medicine, one way or another, are connected with the philosophy of medicine, which determines the fundamental postulates and positions of general theoretical systems. Thus, modern philosophical research (philosophical anthropology, philosophy of consciousness, social philosophy) underlies the medical theory of adaptive response (the theory of adaptation is a general biological theory of medicine, but medicine deals not only with biological adaptations, but also with social adaptation, i.e. . adaptation of a person to social life), - the theory of determinism (causality and connection of pathological processes occurring in the body), - as well as the theory of normal (optimal) self-regulation and the theory of general pathology.

The so-called “philosophy of healing” becomes the philosophical foundations of clinical medicine, i.e. theory of diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, etc., built in accordance with the understanding of the essence of man as a psycho-bio-social being. As a philosophical basis for preventive medicine, one can consider research in the field of the theory of hygiene as the optimal human condition and environment. The philosophical theory of values ​​forms the philosophical foundation of medical ethics, deontology, and clinical practice.

Modern philosophy acts as a methodological foundation of medical knowledge, which is intended to unite disparate private studies and systematically apply them to the study of a qualitatively unique living system - man. The dialectical method comes to the fore in the work of a modern doctor, since only it provides a comprehensive, systematic approach to the issues of the disease, its treatment, prevention, and the rehabilitation period.

The task of the philosophy of medicine, of course, does not boil down to simply citing certain provisions of dialectics in connection with medical knowledge; its main goal is to teach students and clinicians to apply dialectics to the analysis of specific natural scientific and clinical factors, and then from knowledge to move on to the ability to apply dialectics in practice. A doctor who does not know the dialectical method, no matter how good a specialist he is, will not be able to correctly assess the intersecting and contradictory pathological processes in the body and in best case scenario intuitively will be able to come to the right conclusions - make the correct diagnosis and prescribe treatment.

A systematic approach, characteristic in general for modern science, is especially important in medicine, because she works with an extremely complex living system - a person, whose essence is by no means reduced to simple interaction organs of the human body. In fact, the theory of treatment itself is a specific theory of control of a living system, since treatment is a system of measures aimed at psychosomatic optimization of a person’s condition.

Armed systematic method, a modern doctor has no right to forget that what lies on a clinical bed is not an organism, but a person: a doctor in in this case must take into account not only the state of his soma, but also his mental state, personal and individual characteristics. The same can be said about the problem of making a diagnosis, which includes an analysis of epistemological diagnostic problems, an analysis of the subjective and objective causes of diagnostic errors, and taking into account the socio-cultural “background” of the disease.

Unfortunately, the current state of theoretical medicine (the doctrine of disease, compensatory-adaptive processes, mechanisms for compensating for impaired functions, connections and relationships of parts in the body, etc.) allows us to state the fact that theoretical medicine today is not yet comprehensive knowledge and is not yet is still presented in the form of separate fragments, but not a complete system.

Without constant support on philosophical doctrine - the general methodology of science (research on philosophical anthropology, consciousness, problems of cognitive activity, etc.) it is almost impossible to create a single harmonious system from disparate facts theoretical basis modern medicine. The clinician will be able to act most appropriately and effectively in each specific case only when he relies not only on private knowledge, but also on knowledge of the general laws of the body’s functioning, when he considers a person as a complex bio-social system. The solution to this problem is seen only through the synthesis of philosophical and medical knowledge, based on the interpretation of the factual material of medical science from the perspective and through the prism of philosophical knowledge, which is the prerogative and purpose of the philosophy of medicine.

The ideological foundations of medicine include the entire set of principles, laws and categories that reflect the universal properties and laws of the existence of matter in relation to the object of medicine (laws of dialectics, principles of connection and development, integrity, structure, determinism). The epistemological foundations of medicine include a set of principles of the cognitive activity of a doctor, the laws of development and change of hypotheses and theories in medicine, and a system of scientific methods. knowledge. The sociological foundations of medical science include a system of principles and methods that express the place of this science in general human knowledge, its purpose and purpose in terms of meeting social needs and orientation, the relationship of medical science, morality, art, the driving forces and patterns of development of scientific theory as social phenomenon. The sociology of medicine deals with these issues. Methodological problems of medicine arise both due to the internal logic of the development of medicine and at the intersection of philosophical theory and medical (natural) sciences; in both cases they act as a special form of unification of knowledge - methodological integration of scientific knowledge. Methodological integration is a new scientific direction of the 20th century, born at the level of the universal properties of the object under study using the principles of materialist dialectics. The methodology of the theory of medicine reveals the role of philosophy as the methodological basis of the theory of medicine, the relationship between general biological and philosophical foundations in the theory of medicine.

Philosophy of medicine, its subject, goals, objectives and main problems.

The philosophy of medicine is the self-awareness of the medical community. It expresses what modern doctors, pharmacists, nurses and many other categories of healthcare workers are constantly forced to comprehend. The philosophy of medicine, as it were, demonstrates its metaphysical creativity (Latin creation - creation, formation) and innovativeness (French innovation - innovation, renewal), which are manifested in a certain expansion of reflection on new phenomena in the expansion of interdisciplinary nodes in medical science and practice. She strives to understand and appreciate medical knowledge about human health and ways to free him from disease. The philosophy of medicine deals with universal knowledge, that is, the “second reality” created by the scientific and practical activities of physicians. The main sections in it are: ontology of medicine as a science and practice, epistemology of medical sciences, methodology of scientific and medical comprehension of human disease - etiology, issues of bioethical regulation of modern research activities. The philosophy of medicine has long been presented as metaphysics - a doctrine that considers the most general knowledge.

Problems of the philosophy of medicine occupy a central position in Russian philosophical science today. special place. The process of changing paradigms in the medical field has not yet been completed. For medicine, the finest hour has not yet come when it is recognized as some kind of complete, integral science (along with physics, chemistry, biology, etc.). A change in the scientific paradigm is usually preceded by a period when such scientific results, which cannot be fit into the existing belief system. In this case, scientists turn to philosophy “for help.” Yes, universal scientific recognition that elementary particles participate in all types of interactions, prompted medical scientists to focus their attention on genes and molecules, since many diagnostic and treatment problems can only be solved at the molecular level, V clinics equipped with the latest technology. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Russian Academy of Medical Sciences A. N. Paltsev believes that without molecular medicine in the 21st century there can be no effective healing. And this requires a close union of medicine with fundamental sciences and philosophy. The philosophy of medicine, as a particularly specific form of understanding healing, contributes to the creation and enrichment of a truly priceless treasury of universally significant ideas. It is called upon to perform the most important social and intellectual functions in practical healthcare, such as ideological, methodological, axiological and many others. The philosophy of medicine is directly related to absolutely all spheres of knowledge of the human phenomenon (his body, soul, will, conscience, etc.). As for theoretical medical knowledge, the role of philosophy here is extremely important, first of all, in the sphere of in-depth understanding of the holistic perception by physicians of the scientific picture of the world and man. Philosophy has always been organically linked to theoretical medicine through two key functions.

The first function is methodological. Philosophy seems to offer medicine a universal method of scientific and theoretical comprehension of life. The second function is axiological. It is associated with the internal ethical-semantic and social-moral attitude given to the physician as the guardian of health.

Object and subject of medicine. The specificity of medicine as a science based on natural science and social and humanitarian knowledge.

The first ideas about medicine were formed through the historical practical use of achievements of fundamental and applied sciences in the treatment of people. But modern ideas about medicine are also characterized by reliance (in addition to natural science) on leading social and humanitarian disciplines. The word “medicine” itself, which is based on the Latin “medicina” and the word “medicare”, which is close to it, has two meanings - to treat and poison, and the word “medicamen” - medicine and poison. Such opposing meanings of Latin words indicate the extent of professional awareness of the complexity of medicine. In addition, the word “medicine” also has the Indo-European root “med” - middle. Medicine is on the border between the natural and social sciences.

Viewing medicine only as a field that deals with disease is narrow and one-sided. A similar opinion can be attributed to certain sections of medicine. In general, it is not only the science of the sick, but also the science of the healthy person. It pursues the goal of preventing diseases, promoting health, and extending a person’s active, creative longevity.

Medicine as a science is a kind of integral unity of cognitive, therapeutic and value forms. It accumulates knowledge about human diseases and health, treatment and prevention, normality and pathology, the pathogenic and sanogenic influence of natural and sociocultural conditions and factors on it. Modern medical science is undergoing a process of profound scientific, technical and technological transformations. Medical science is a complex of medical-biological, clinical and social-hygienic disciplines. It develops at the intersection of natural sciences, social sciences and humanities. The task is to systematize all the discoveries made in the bosom of science and related directly to human nature. Modern medicine, based on human biology and physiology, understands and explains the structure and functions of all organs of the unique human body.

Differentiation and integration of medical knowledge. Medicine as science and art, theory and practice.

In the context of the ongoing differentiation of medicine, integration processes inevitably occur. Philosophy is a methodological integration that ensures the integrity and effectiveness of the process of scientific knowledge in medicine. The union of philosophy and medical sciences is one of the most important methodological forms of integration scientific knowledge throughout the entire system of medical theoretical and practical activities. Philosophy at all historical stages of the development of medicine played the role of science, contributing to the creation of a holistic and adequate scientific picture human life, carrying out the synthesis of knowledge in medicine. The object of knowledge in all modern science (including scientific philosophy) is the same - this is the objective world (nature, society, man). The general and the specific in the object of cognition itself are interconnected. Consequently, the sciences that study this universal (philosophy) and the specific (medicine) must be interconnected. The object of knowledge, common to all medical science, in turn, is also divided in the process of differentiation of medical science into separate parts, sides, relationships and aspects, which are the objects of special medical sciences. But in order to create a single holistic scientific picture of the world in medicine, to reconstruct an object in knowledge, it is necessary to connect and combine those theoretical fragments of scientific knowledge that are given by these sciences. To the greatest extent The principles, laws and categories of philosophy have generality (and universality). In the modern hierarchy of sciences, the methods and principles of each of the more general sciences They also operate within less general sciences that have a similar subject area of ​​research. For example, the methods and principles of biology also apply in medicine. The principles, laws and categories of dialectics are manifested in metatheories, fundamental and applied sciences. The methods of each fundamental science are refracted and act in specific methods of applied sciences, which are closed on a given fundamental science, which ensures a certain integration of the knowledge contained in them. In this regard, each theoretical construct is more general plan performs a methodological function in relation to special theories. That is why we consider the theories of medicine under consideration as elements of its methodology. In medical science, several types of theoretical foundations can be distinguished: historical basis - the history of the development of theoretical principles, formulation of problems, analysis of discussions in medicine; empirical basis - totality scientific facts, on which medical science relies and its theories are built; theoretical basis - generalization of scientific facts, their synthesis around a certain integrative idea in medicine; formallogical basis - formallogical principles and laws of thinking in theoretical and clinical medicine; philosophical foundations - ideological, methodological and sociological foundations of medical theory [Petlenko V.P., 1968].

Medicine: theory and practice

Medicine is a field of scientific and practical activity in the study of normal and pathological processes in the human body, various diseases and pathological conditions, to preserve and strengthen people's health.

In medicine, theoretical medicine or biomedicine is distinguished - a field of science that studies the human body, its normal and pathological structure and functioning, diseases, pathological conditions, methods of their diagnosis, correction and treatment from a theoretical point of view.

Theoretical medicine explores the theoretical foundations of treatment and suggests ways to develop practical medicine. Theoretical medicine is based on logical medical thinking supported by scientific theoretical knowledge. Generalization of various approaches gives theoretical medicine the opportunity to create medical hypotheses that will be an integral part of practical thinking. Theoretical medicine is the first step of practice.

Practical medicine

In medicine there is also practical, or clinical, medicine (medical practice) - practical use accumulated medical science knowledge for the treatment of diseases and pathological conditions of the human body.

In modern scientific medicine, the criteria of evidence-based medicine are increasingly being used, which requires strict evidence of the effectiveness of certain methods of treatment, prevention or diagnosis through methodologically correct clinical trials. Any other treatment methods that have not been proven effective are simply rejected as ineffective, regardless of their apparent effectiveness.

Specifics of knowledge in medicine, features of the subject, means, methods and goals.

Modern medical knowledge develops, like any scientific research, within a certain philosophical-categorical system with the active use of one or another set scientific concepts, as well as ordinary language terms. For the development of a new modern conceptual model of cognition in the medical sciences, it is necessary to constantly improve one’s own categorical-conceptual apparatus. General theoretical and applied knowledge in modern medicine productive to the extent that the analysis of the problems that arise before them is connected with the achievement of fundamental sciences, as well as the skillful use of philosophical and methodological principles. And such an approach is possible only through a critical philosophical rethinking of a wide range of problems raised by the very course of scientific knowledge. It is generally accepted that any scientific knowledge of the world, including medical knowledge, in each specific historical era is carried out in accordance with a certain system of philosophical categories and scientific concepts.

Social concepts of society and their influence on solving public health problems, health care organization, prevention and clinical activities.

Healthcare, medical science and industry of the 21st century. provide practicing doctors with fundamentally new medical technologies, medicines, medical devices, instruments and devices, which, it would seem, should significantly affect the final indicators of public health: mortality, morbidity, disability. Many countries are increasing spending on health care year after year, but there is no adequate return on these investments. Practice shows that an increase in the amount of funding allocated to healthcare helps improve the quality and accessibility of medical care, however, the amount of funds allocated to healthcare does not always correlate with the final indicator of healthcare efficiency - the level of health of the population.

As part of the demographic transition to a modern method of population reproduction, pathology is being restructured: resource-intensive nosological forms are increasing (primarily chronic diseases), the proportion of pathologies is decreasing, the treatment and prevention of which require much lower costs. These and other reasons (inflation, the introduction of new, more expensive technologies and medicines) determine the increase in healthcare costs, which is expressed in its increase by 1% of GDP every decade. So, if in the 20s of the XX century. While the civilized world spent 0.7-1.2% of GDP on healthcare needs, currently in European countries these costs have already amounted to 7-9%, and in the USA - about 15%

Social conditions are directly determined by the socio-economic structure of society; they are a derivative of the mode of social production and production relations. For a specific person or group of people, social conditions manifest themselves in the form of their working and living conditions - living conditions, i.e. social factors. Therefore, health and illness are categories that are the result of the influence of social conditions and factors.

The overall state of health depends on various factors:

biological, psychological (heredity, constitution, type of nervous

systems) properties of the body; socio-economic, political factors;

natural (climate, landscape, weather conditions) factors; environmental factors (water and air pollution, environmental conditions); efficiency of the health care system, etc. First ranking place in terms of influence not only on the overall morbidity, but on the morbidity of individual diseases takes into account lifestyle (smoking, drinking alcohol, drugs, unbalanced diet, stress, harmful working conditions, physical inactivity - low physical activity, drug abuse, tense family and work relationships, low cultural and educational level), its share in terms of impact on health 50-55%.

Share of factors external environment(pollution of the environment (air and water) with carcinogenic and other harmful substances, average annual temperature, level solar radiation), occupying the second ranking place, 20-25%. Next are socio-biological - genetic factors (heredity, parental age, gender, course of the antenatal period) - 15-20%. and organizational or medical (level and organization medical care, state of the healthcare system, iatrogenics) – 10-15%.

Influence scientific and technological progress for the development of medical knowledge and healthcare.

Formation and development of effective medical quality assurance systems

care (CM) remains one of the most pressing problems of modern domestic and foreign healthcare.

On different stages development of health care, the problems of ILC were the most important, since they had a decisive influence on organizational, economic and

legal mechanisms of the medical care system.

The issues of providing ILC received the greatest development in the twentieth century. Since the late 50's

years, attention to the ILC becomes universal and begins to have an international character. National and international organizations are being created, and WHO publishes a number of policy documents and reports related to the provision of ILC. The World Health Organization, in its Health for All report, has set the goal that, by the year 2000, all Member States will have appropriate structures and mechanisms to ensure continuous improvement in the quality of health care and the appropriate development and use of health technology.

By the 70s, most developed countries of the world had adopted concepts and programs for quality improvement, and developed ILC criteria.

In the late 80s - early 90s, during the latest health care reforms in Europe Special attention was paid to programs to increase the IMP and introduce effective

forms of health care, which required restructuring hospital operations and increasing the capacity of the primary health care sector. A “health care performance movement” has emerged based on the understanding that there are significant gaps in knowledge about the effectiveness of treatments, as well as a lack of information about evidence-based data and their application in the diagnostic and treatment process. Having assessed the impact of progress in the field of medical technology, doctors increasingly began to come to the conclusion that modern technologies are not always effective. A contradiction has arisen between technological progress and medical effectiveness.

In practice, there has been an ambiguous understanding of the terms “product quality” and,

respectively, “quality of medical care”.

From a philosophical point of view, quality is a category that expresses

its essential certainty inseparable from the existence of an object, thanks to which it

is precisely this and not another object. Quality reflects the stable relationship between the constituent elements of an object, the presence of essential features, properties, and features that determine its specificity and make it possible to distinguish one object from others. At the same time, quality also expresses something common that characterizes the entire class of homogeneous objects.

Quantity, quality and measure as categories of the philosophy of medicine. Measure and norm in medicine.

Medicine, like any other branch of human creative activity, is based on a certain set of philosophical categories and concepts, as well as fundamental scientific ideas about nature, society and, of course, man. All of them together form a certain picture of the world (worldview), characteristic of representatives of medicine. Concepts (general idea) and categories (Greek kategoria - judgment) are the result of awareness of the formation and development of the subject of scientific research. The word “category” was introduced by Aristotle to designate fundamental concepts that reflect the universal properties and qualities of being, as well as the process of its cognition. Philosophical categories and concepts in science and medicine are certain steps or key points of knowledge of the world, society and man. Philosophical categories were formed at a certain stage of the intellectual development of mankind. Their formation testifies to a revolutionary leap in the development of abstract thinking. For medical science, many paired philosophical categories are important, reflecting relationships, relationships in nature, society and human activity, such as: “quantity-quality”, “measure and norm” and many others. All of them, among other things, also have great philosophical and methodological significance in the philosophy of medicine, because they reflect the universal laws of knowledge of the objective world. This is recognition of their presence of the most common connections and relationships in the real world, characteristic of all phenomena of the material world, life in general, the life of society and social communities, as well as the spiritual life of people. The widely used dialectical formula “transition from quantity to quality” must be understood as the transition from one quality to another based on quantitative measurements. Quality is a relatively stable and relatively significant certainty of phenomena and processes that distinguishes them from each other. The problem of quantity and quality is inextricably linked with the philosophical category of “measure”. It, in fact, serves as the interval of quantitative changes in which this quality is preserved. A measure is a line of demarcation separating one quality from another. This category is of great philosophical and methodological importance for the analysis and understanding of the role and significance of such an important medical and biological concept as “norm”. Norma (from Latin norma – requirement, rule, sample) is an established benchmark or standard for assessing existing and creating new objects. Norms exist only where there are universal human needs and corresponding goals and means of life. In nature, which is not included in human life, there are no norms as such. Each norm is formulated on the basis of certain laws and includes four main elements. The first is content as an action, which is the object of regulation (cognition, practice). The second is character, that is, what this rule allows (prescribes). The third is the conditions of application or the circumstances in which the action must or must not be performed. The fourth is a subject in the form of a group of persons to whom the norm is addressed. The types of norms are diverse: rules, regulations, medical norms; private and general; cognitive and technical; methodological and logical, etc. The norm is special case measure - the interval in which an object, changing quantitatively, retains its quality. Sometimes the boundaries of the norm and the boundaries of the measure coincide. Therefore, the norm is certain demarcation boundaries (upper and lower), within which various quantitative shifts can occur.

We talk about theory and practice when we consider a person’s relationship with the world in which he exists. The two concepts are interdependent, but in their meaning they are often opposed.

Definition

Theory– knowledge that describes the laws operating in any area of ​​life. A theory arises from a hypothesis. However, such a transformation occurs only after the put forward guess has passed through an experiment, the result of which proves the truth of the hypothesis.

Practice– conscious activity, which is a transformation of reality in order to extract a certain benefit and gain experience. Practice can be carried out in the material sphere (related, for example, to the production of some objects) and spiritual (related, say, to pedagogy or social relationships).

Comparison

The two categories under consideration are in unity with each other. The difference between theory and practice is as follows. Practice necessarily represents action. The theory is not such in its essence. It appears as a result of mental activity, but exists in its own abstract form. A theory consists of concepts, provisions, and conclusions.

Definition

It can be noted that practice determines the emergence of theory, and vice versa. Thus, reliable knowledge is formed solely on the basis of experience. In other words, the truth of a thought is proven in practice, and this becomes the basis for the development of a theory. Based on the latter, taking into account the identified patterns, people have the opportunity to create something that did not exist before. This is how important inventions and discoveries appear.

It should be emphasized that the theory does not simply generalize the experience of practical activity and transfer it to other situations, but rather develops. It becomes the basis for the birth of new hypothetical assumptions, which are then again tested through action. Thus, theory acts as a powerful tool for solving fundamental problems of mastering reality.

What is the difference between theory and practice? The fact is that theory is, in a certain sense, a plan. It plays a programming role and allows you to predict the future. However, theory is only useful if it has significant practical consequences.

Theoretical and practical medicine

In medicine they distinguish theoretical medicine, or medical science, or medical theory, is a field of science that studies the human body, its normal and pathological structure and functioning, diseases, pathological conditions, methods of their diagnosis, correction and treatment from a theoretical perspective.

There is also practical, or clinical, medicine, or medical practice - the practical application of knowledge accumulated by medical science for the treatment of diseases and pathological conditions of the human body.

Conventional and alternative medicine

Traditional medicine- a system of extensive medical knowledge, skills and abilities transmitted to writing and have been used for several thousand years to the present day in solving issues of prevention, diagnosis, treatment and medical rehabilitation. Traditional medicine is divided into Chinese medicine, Indian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Greek and Arabic medicine. ethnoscience- a system of near-medical knowledge, discovered empirically, transmitted within one dynasty, often orally.

Conventional medicine- not synonymous with scientific medicine in modern sense words. Thus, in official, conventional medicine in many countries of the world, including Russia, treatment methods based on outdated or outdated theories and ideas that do not correspond to modern criteria evidence-based medicine. One example of this approach is the use of drugs such as diabazole or papaverine for arterial hypertension, the effectiveness of which has not been confirmed by randomized controlled trials, instead of drugs with high level evidence of effect (ACE inhibitors, diuretics, etc.), or unreasonably widespread use of physiotherapy, whose evidence base is also weak and does not meet modern strict criteria.

Evidence-based medicine

In modern scientific medicine, the criteria of evidence-based medicine are increasingly being used, which requires strict evidence of the effectiveness of certain treatment or diagnostic methods through methodologically correctly performed RCTs (randomized controlled trials) - double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials. Any other treatment that has not been demonstrated to be effective in an RCT is simply rejected as irrelevant and ineffective, regardless of its apparent effectiveness in a non-blind trial (ie, for the patient or for the practitioner). Since the likelihood of underlying diseases increases with age, greater popularity in Lately The development of sections of gerontology related to slowing down aging, the development of anti-aging medicine, as well as attempts to transition the paradigm of treating emerging diseases to their prevention (preventive medicine) are being developed.

see also

• VA VistA - free medical information system
• Medical standards: SNOMED, ​​HL7

Links

• Sergey Petrovich Kapitsa & Boris Grigorievich Yudin. Medicine of the XXI century: ethical problems // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 3. - P. 75-79.
• M.S. Kiseleva. Healing in Moscow and Kiev (based on texts of the 17th century) // Traditional and non-traditional in Russian culture. - M.: Nauka, 2008, p. 50-60

Codes in knowledge classification systems

• State rubricator of scientific and technical information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 76 MEDICINE AND HEALTHCARE

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