“Literary language” and “language of fiction” are not identical concepts, but correlative ones.
The language of fiction is a special variety literary language with its own specific patterns in content and form.
The originality and complexity of the language of fiction lies in the fact that, although on the one hand, the concept of “language of fiction” even the concept of “literary language”, but, on the other hand, the language of fiction freely and widely includes various kinds elements of various “non-literary” varieties of language (dialects, jargons, vernacular), and often not only elements, but also these varieties themselves in their greater or lesser completeness (for example, “fashionable dialect” in comedies and satirical magazines of the 2nd half of the 18th century, bureaucratic social and professional jargon in the works of N.V. Gogol). Creating speech portraits For his heroes, who come from a wide variety of social and professional backgrounds, the author takes the material necessary for a realistic narrative from all areas of the national language and slang-dialectal branches from it. The plot of the work, the presence characters, representatives of a particular class, profession, natives of a particular area, the time of the action - all this forces the writer to introduce territorial and social dialectisms, professionalisms, archaic vocabulary and phraseology into the character’s speech. In the language of fiction one can find a large number of extraliterary language material and lexical forms that are in passive stock modern Russian literary language (archaisms), which are not only completely justified, but often necessary components speech tissue of a work of art.
Unlike literary language, the language of fiction is not closed, because it can absorb not only all the styles of a literary language, but also non-literary elements - there is no fact of language that could not be reflected in literature.
The specificity of the language of fiction is determined by its aesthetic function. Literary language primarily performs a communicative function (serves as a means of communication).
From point of view functional use literary language is broader than the language of fiction. It includes scientific, official business, newspaper and journalistic functional styles.
Literary language and the language of fiction are guided by the same norms. But the language of fiction is more free in relation to norms, in work of art possibly an artistically determined violation of the norms of literary language
2 . In appearance speech, and its structure very much depends on the task that the speaker sets for himself, on the purpose of the speech. Indeed, it is one thing to describe something, for example, autumn, a forest, mountains, a river, another thing is to talk about an event, an adventure, and a third thing is to explain and interpret the causes of any phenomena - natural or social. Thus, all the diversity of the content of our statements can ultimately be reduced to three types:
1) the world is static, perceived objectively, simultaneously;
2) the world in dynamics, perceived in motion, in time;
3) peace in cause-and-effect relationships.
In the first case, the statement is realized in the form of a description, in the second - in the form of a narrative, in the third - in the form of a reasoning. Of course, in each of these cases the structure of the language will change significantly. Centuries (if not millennia) of development of language, thinking, speech have developed the most expressive, economical and exact ways, diagrams, word structures for relevant literary tasks. Therefore, such important, essential components of speech as description, narration, and reasoning have long been identified, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of speech, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose of speech and its meaning.
Description- contains characteristics of objects, phenomena by listing the characteristics that define them qualitatively, quantitatively, structurally, functionally, etc. Description as a type of speech is used when it is necessary to describe a phenomenon, situation, portrait, give a characteristic, a complete image of the object.
In the texts of this type a static picture is always presented, consisting of indications of objects (or parts of objects) and their characteristics; the main thing in the name of which proposals are created is an indication of the signs; the words that call them are usually placed at the end of the sentence; the development of thought is achieved due to the fact that each subsequent sentence adds to what is said new signs of the subject as a whole or its parts. When creating descriptive texts, you should adhere to the following structural and compositional parts:
1. Introduction ( general impression);
2) description of details;
3) conclusion (conclusion, assessment).
There are several types of description: description of nature, description of the situation, description of a portrait, description-characteristic. Description used in various fields communication and depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, and the author’s affiliation with a particular literary direction. So, for example, in artistic descriptions specific, emotionally charged, subjectively perceived signs of the most striking aspects of the subject are given. Therefore in fiction, journalism description - essential element speech, allowing you to vividly, vividly, visually, figuratively present an object, person, event, phenomenon. A business (scientific) description includes concepts about the essential features of the described objects or phenomena in their strictly logical sequence; in accordance with the facts, it is usually devoid of emotionality, imagery, and liveliness (it should be noted that in popular science texts there are means of figurativeness, but, Unlike artistic texts, associativity in the presentation of a particular object or phenomenon should be specific and not cause many interpretations).
This difference also determines the uniqueness of linguistic means in descriptions of different styles. In general, texts of descriptive type are characterized by expressing the meaning of the simultaneity of an action and its static nature by the corresponding aspectual forms of predicate verbs. For example, only in the present tense: “It’s winter outside in the city of Odessa. It blows with sharp, fine snow, the snow flies obliquely along the icy, slippery asphalt of an empty seaside boulevard...
The description is also characterized by the use nominative sentences, impersonal offers, homogeneous members sentences with appropriate conjunctions and generalizing words: “Maundy Thursday. Wind, sun, shine. It snowed at night. In the fields towards the horizon, everything is silver.” (And Bunin).
Often used in descriptions elliptical sentences(sentences with a missing predicate that is not restored from the text): “The day was hot, slightly hazy. Everywhere, under the lazy wind, there are the turning wings of mills, farmsteads, houses with steep tiled roofs, with stork nests, rows of low willows along the ditches. In the bluish haze are the outlines of cities, cathedrals, towers.” (A. Tolstoy)
Characteristic feature the structure of a complex syntactic whole descriptive type is parallel communication sentences: “Calm sun northern Syria I was just starting my rounds... The huge blue bowl of the lake was golden under the morning rays. The thick grass on the banks was damp and cool. In the early silence, the voices of birds were heard especially clearly, coming from the dense reed thickets...” (A. Alimzhanov).
As a rule, the presentation of a particular picture in the description is given in a spatial or temporal perspective, for which supporting adverbial words are used: “... Moats and canals surrounded the fortress wall, where the palaces and gardens of the Sultan were located. And inside there were gardens with pools of cool mine water.
To describe a portrait, it is typical to use the compound nominal predicate: “Abai’s face seemed to radiate some kind of soft light. Full and round, it was not touched by a single wrinkle. Abai was in the full bloom of his twenty-nine years.
Narration, along with description, it is one of the types of monologue speech. Narration reveals closely related events, phenomena, and actions. Most often these are actions that objectively happened in the past. Sentences in narrative texts do not describe actions, but narrate about them. Therefore, the main linguistic means that organize the narrative are verb forms, which, closely intertwined, create a species-time pattern of the narrative.
Past tense verbs are most often used in storytelling. perfect form, which express the sequence of action, the replacement of one integral, completed action by another, which is precisely characteristic of narration as opposed to description.
Others worth noting language features narrations:
1) often predicate verbs with the meaning of successive actions refer to the same person, especially in official business texts: born, raised, grew up, studied, entered, graduated, began to work;
2) adverbial words can be used that establish the sequence of actions: then, then, after that, finally, etc.;
3) the action can be detailed, divided into component parts through various dependent words, indicating the time and place of action: last year, in 1987, currently; in Almaty, at the university, at the Faculty of Philology.
Characteristic of the story chain link as a common way of connecting sentences in parts of a text. The main composition of the extended narrative involves three interconnected parts:
1) exposition to the narrative (the beginning of the event);
2) the middle part of the story (its development);
3) conclusion (end of the event).
Narration as a type of monologue speech is used in all functional styles speech: official business, scientific, journalistic, colloquial, artistic speech.
Reasoning- this is a type of speech whose purpose is to clarify a concept, prove or refute a thought. From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of conclusions on any topic, presented in a sequential form.
Reasoning is a series of judgments related to any issue. In this case, the judgments follow one after another in such a way that the second necessarily follows from the first judgment, and as a result we get an answer to the question posed. One of the judgments contains general rule(large parcel), other – special case(smaller package).
Types of reasoning
There are three types of reasoning: reasoning-explanation, reasoning-proof, reasoning-reflection.
Reasoning-proof is built according to the following scheme: exposition (summarizing the question) – question - answer to the question (thesis) - proof of the thesis - conclusions.
The proof of the truth of the thesis becomes the main part of the text-reasoning.
Explanatory reasoning assumes that the main statement of the text is true, so there is no need to prove the truth or falsity of the thesis. the main task of the text is to reveal the content of the thesis.
When building texts-reasonings should be based on following rules:
1. Proof and explanation are built according to the same scheme: exposition - question - answer to the question (thesis) - proof of the thesis - conclusions.
2. After the thesis in the proof, the natural question is why?, after the thesis in the explanation, the question is why? seems artificial and out of place.
3. After the thesis, the explanation usually uses words and expressions like: it turned out..., the thing is..., that..., that's why..., that's..., for example..., this is evidenced by facts such as..., as it turned out...
4. The scheme of reasoning-proof and reasoning-explanation in practice is quite often implemented in an abbreviated form: sometimes the question is omitted, often there are no conclusions, often there is no exposition. In all cases, the omission is explained by the fact that the reasoning is understandable without the missing components of the “ideal” reasoning, since all these missing components are easily conjectured or implied. Thus, mandatory parts reasoning is a thesis and its proof. Exposition, problematic issue, conclusions may either be present in the text or absent.
Despite the increased interest in the provided test category, a number of problems remain unresolved. The very concept of “reasoning” remains vague: it is called a type of speech, text (Zarubina, Nechaeva), a form of communication (Wittmers), communicative unit(Mordvinov), compositional speech form (Brandes, Cheremisina, Vargina, etc.). In addition, reasoning is interpreted as one of the ways of presenting information or a form of implementation of the category of information content (Galperin, Grishina), model speech act(Zinovieva, Pratt), linguistic embodiment of the logical category “inference” (Krivonosov, Nechaeva).
H. Bornheim attempted to formulate a definition of the CRF “reasoning”: “Reasoning (evaluation) is an explanation or interpretation of the actions of characters, a substantiation of a point of view or a belief of a certain kind. Its main function is to define the nature of characters, places, objects and actions within a textual space through the use of abstract terms, ethical and aesthetic concepts, as well as political, social and economic theories. The language of reasoning is characterized by the absence of indications of the place and time of action.”
This definition indicates the most important parameters of reasoning: its functions are explanation, interpretation, definition, support of reasoning, in much to a greater extent than description and narration, but for textual information, the cause-and-effect and goal-oriented nature of the reasoning.
Reasoning is a type of text in which the presence of objects, phenomena, events is not stated, a description of their properties and characteristics is not given, but their study is carried out by revealing internal and external relations between these objects, phenomena, events to argue certain provisions or some generalization in the form of a conclusion.
Reasoning is characterized by special logical relationships between its constituent judgments, which form conclusions or a chain of conclusions on any topic, presented in a logically consistent form. Reasoning fits form abstract thinking, promotes logicalization and argumentation of speech.
From a rhetorical point of view, reasoning is a position - a thought that is justified by a number of arguments. The connection between arguments and position is not always maintained logically. Meaningful relations between parts, the reasoning is nevertheless preserved and is usually expressed using special connective means. Reasoning is based on a judgment or statement.
Reasoning is a compositional speech form " logical thinking when the truth is achieved in a difficult way.” This is how V.F. defined the reasoning. Asmus. It may consist of a whole series of judgments relating to a specific subject or question, coming one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow or follow from previous judgments, and the result is an answer to the question posed. But reasoning is not just a sum of judgments following each other. “Acts of human thinking are much richer than the formulation and justification of judgments, and the functions human intelligence are not limited to knowledge alone.
A person poses questions and makes decisions, formulates goals and proves ways to achieve this goal.”
KRF "reasoning" performs the most important function in a literary text, namely, it contributes to a deeper penetration into the ideological and philosophical essence of the work. The combined generalized theoretical blocks of information presented by the KRF reasoning create a context that allows the reader to follow the logic of the author’s thoughts, making the ideas presented more convincing. Text blocks representing the CRF “reasoning” have the power of influence not only as a means of removing the uncertainty of the modeled picture of the world and revealing conceptual information, but also as a means of shaping the reader’s worldview.
Studies of the structure of reasoning (Mordvinov, Gulieva, Khvedelidze) have shown that it has a number of structural and logical features that make it possible to highlight it in the text. Its obligatory elements are the premise and the argument, and the conclusion is optional. Reasoning is considered by these authors as a multifunctional communicative semantic-structural formation, logically based on inference and consisting of three components connected by a cause-and-effect relationship: 1) a premise-thesis; 2) explanation-argument; 3) generalization-conclusion. The purpose of reasoning, according to these linguists, is a new judgment.
Reasoning as a compositional speech form is characterized by a commentary and argumentative presentation of the content, which is supplemented by elements of description and message. "Discourse" texts can be in the form of dialogue, thought or spoken, where the author poses a question and tries to answer it through his reasoning.
“My child, to recount with what trouble I have brought you up--with what an anxious eye I have appreciated your progress, how late and how often I have sat up at night working for you,--and how many thousand letters I have received from, and written to your various relations and friends, many of whom have been of a querulous and irritable turn,--to dwell on the anxiety and tenderness with which I have (as far as I possessed the power) inspected and chosen your food; rejecting the indigestible and heavy matter which some injudicious but well-meaning old ladies would have had you swallow, and retaining only those light and pleasant articles which I considered calculated to keep you free from all gross humours, and to render you an agreeable child, and one who might be popular with society in general,--to dilate on the steadiness with which I have prevented your annoying any company by talking politics--always assuring you that you would thank me for it yourself some day when you grew older,--to expatiate, in short, upon my own assiduity as a parent, is beside my present purpose, though I cannot but contemplate your fair appearance--your robust health, and unimpeded circulation (which I take to be the great secret of your good looks) without the liveliest satisfaction and delight" - in this excerpt from a story by Charles Dickens the author presents the reader with a message from a parent to a child, he talks about his experiences, about what a parent feels when raising his child.
In Gilbert's story by Keith Chesterton, the chain of conclusions of the author can be traced; he talks about what he wrote, about the very title of his work, Afterword to the Man Who Was Thursday: “I recur here to my personal point about the tendency to miss what the title means; or even what the title says... In a rambling column, whether because it is personal or impersonal, it is permissible to introduce personal trifles about oneself, as well as about other people, so long as it is made sufficiently obvious that they are trifling. And I may remark in this connexion, or disconnexion, that I happen to have a very strong objection to that trick of missing the point of a story, or sometimes even the obvious sense of the very name of a story. I have sometimes had the occasion to murmur meekly that those who endure the heavy labor of reading a book might possibly endure that of reading the title-page of a book. For there are more examples than may be imagined, in which earnest critics might solve many of their problems about what a book is, simply by discovering what it professes to be...”
An example of a text - reasoning can be Research Article, built on the proof of the thesis put forward, as well as journalistic texts, based on the argumentation of the main idea. Integral literary texts - reasonings - are also known. W. Wulf's story “The Mark on the Wall” is an example of such a work; An extended discussion is also, in fact, her novel “To the Lighthouse”.
Consider an excerpt from the story “A Haunted House” by V. Woolf (Virginia Woolf “A Haunted House"): "Whatever hour you woke there was a door shunting. From room to room they went, hand in hand, lifting here, opening there, making sure - a ghostly couple.
“Here we left it,” she said. And he added, “Oh, but here too!” “It"s upstairs,” she murmured.”And in the garden,” he whispered “Quietly,” they said, “or we shall wake them.”
But it wasn’t that you woke us. Oh, no. “They are looking for it; they are drawing the curtain, one might say, and so read on a page or two. “Now they”ve found it, “ one would be certain, stopping the pencil on the margin. And then, tired of reading, one might rise and see for oneself, the house was empty, the doors standing open, only the wood pigeons bubbling with content and the hum of the threshing machine sounding from the farm. “What did I come in here for? What did I want to find?” My hands were empty.” Perhaps it "s upstairs then?" the apples were in the loft. And so down again, the garden still as ever, only the book had slipped into ah grass.
But they found it in the drawing room. Not that one could ever see them. The windowpanes reflected apples, reflected roses; all the leaves were green in the grass. If they moved in the drawing room, the apple only turned its yellow side. Yet, the moment after, if the door was opened, spread about the floor, hung upon the walls, pendant from the ceiling - what? My hands were empty. The shadow of a thrush crossed the carpet, from the deepest wells of silence the wood pigeon drew its bubble of sound. “Safe, safe, safe,” the pulse of the house beat softly. “The treasure buried; the room…” the pulse stopped short. Oh, was that the buried treasure? Linguistic markers of reasoning in this text are the following means: interrogative sentences: “What did I come here for? What did I want to find?”; adverbs related to semantic field“probable, possible”: perhaps, maybe; conditionals: If they moved in the drawing room…; modal verbs: might, would; adversative conjunctions: but, yet; interjection: oh. Data language means formulate the corresponding fragments of the text as CRF “reasoning”, presenting the information they convey either as information of a reasoning, intellectual type, or as information of an emotive type.
Thus, the form of speech specific to characters’ reasoning—inner speech—is a phenomenon that differs from external speech functions, structure, relationships with the transmitting author’s context; For inner speech characters are characterized by a particularly close, organic connection with the author's speech. Reasoning in fiction reflects conceptual information and appears mainly in the form of its emotionally expressive version - free thinking, in which the connection between judgments as a whole can be traced, but is not based on laws formal logic. The main functions of reasoning in a literary text are the functions of creating artistic imagery of the work in general, the image of the hero and the image of the author in particular.
KRF “reasoning” as an element of textual organization is distributed throughout the entire space of the text and is thus found both in the author’s and in character speech. A feature of reasoning in character speech is the complication of the communicative chain - here it has two additional links compared to the author’s speech and is characterized by external or mixed focalization, in contrast to external focalization in the author’s speech.
The compositional speech form exhibits the properties of the main unit of speech-thinking activity, within which the connection between the actual linguistic units- phrases and sentences - and the structure of discourse.
Types of speech- differentiation of speech according to a generalized (typical) meaning into narration, description and reasoning.
Narration describes sequential actions, talks about events in their time sequence.
Narrative texts include such components as the beginning (the beginning of the action), the development of the action, the climax (the most important point in the development of action) and denouement (end of action). At the same time, the sequence of these components may be disrupted in the narrative, which is often presented in works of art (for example, in “A Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov).
“New” in the sentences of a narrative text is a message about successive events.
The narrative can be graphic and informative. In narrative texts they are often used lexical means denoting a temporal sequence of actions (then, then, after some time), verbs are usually used in the past tense.
As an example, here is an excerpt from A. P. Chekhov’s story “Living Goods”:
Having filled his pockets and wallet, Bugrov hid the forms in the table and, after drinking half a carafe of water, jumped out into the street.
At night, at half past eleven, he drove up to the entrance of the Paris Hotel. He noisily entered up the stairs and knocked on the room in which Grokholsky lived. They let him in. Groholsky was packing his things into suitcases. Lisa sat at the table and tried on bracelets. Both of them were frightened when Bugrov entered them.
Description depicts a phenomenon by listing and revealing its characteristics. A text of this kind can describe a person’s appearance, an object, a place, a person’s condition, or environment. In “given” the object or its parts are named, in “new” the characteristics of the object are communicated.
Descriptive text is characterized by the use of adjectives and verbs in the present tense.
Description used in different styles speech, but more often in the scientific and artistic.
IN scientific style The description of the object includes essential features that are called adjectives or verbal nouns, for example: Giraffe (giraffe), a ruminant mammal. Body length is 3-4 meters (1/3 is the neck), height to the crown is 4.5-5.8 m, tail length is about 1 m, weight is 550-750 kg. Lives in the savannas of Africa. Due to hunting (for meat and skins), the number is small. They reproduce well in captivity. They live up to 20-30 years.
In description artistic style the most striking features that create the image are highlighted; they can be conveyed by comparisons, words in figurative meaning, words with evaluative suffixes. As an example, let’s take the beginning of A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Baron”:
The Baron is a small, thin old man of about sixty. His neck gives with his spine obtuse angle, which will soon become direct. He has a large angular head, sour eyes, a bumpy nose and a purple chin.
Reasoning describes the causes of properties and phenomena. It can be evidence, explanation, reflection (the difference is in the degree of categorical judgment). An argument usually contains a thesis (what needs to be proven), arguments and a conclusion. Here are two examples of reasoning used in different styles of speech:
1. On camels, of course, you can travel much further through the desert without stopping than on horses, but we have a short journey ahead, time is precious, and you have no experience with camels, so we’ll take horses from the town.
2. Based on the need to mobilize and deploy human resources, before starting construction engineering structures provision should be made for the construction of a comfortable temporary residential camp, including power supply, communications, water treatment, sewerage, recreational and sports facilities.
Text, especially fiction, often combines different types speech. As an example, let us give an excerpt from the story by K. Paustovsky “ Golden Rose»:
The old steamer left the pier in Voznesenye and went out into Lake Onega.
The white night spread all around. For the first time I saw this night not over the Neva and the palaces of Leningrad, but among wooded spaces and lakes.
A pale moon hung low in the east. She gave no light.
The waves from the steamer silently ran away into the distance, shaking pieces of pine bark. On the shore, it must be somewhere ancient churchyard, the watchman struck the clock on the bell tower - twelve strokes. And although it was far from the shore, this ringing reached us, passed the steamer and went along the water surface into the transparent twilight, where the moon hung.
I don’t know what better way to call the languid light of the white night. Mysterious? Or magical?
These nights always seem to me to be an excessive bounty of nature - there is so much pale air and the ghostly shine of foil and silver in them.
Man cannot come to terms with the inevitable disappearance of this beauty, these enchanted nights. Therefore, it must be that white nights cause a slight sadness with their fragility, like everything beautiful when it is doomed to live short-lived.
In the presented passage, all types of speech successively replace each other - narration, description and reasoning.
Deals with speech and text problems stylistics- a branch of linguistics that studies the use of language in different conditions speech communication.