Astronomy 11th grade Vorontsov Velyamin. Astronomical observations and telescopes

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.

CONTENT

Preface	3
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind	16
Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)	23
Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation (VI-IX centuries)	28
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries	35
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)	35
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century	49
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century	56
Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)	65
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj	81
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century	97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles	98
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age"	105
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century	121
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)	122
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762	135
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century	148
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century	164
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century	164
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century	191
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries	210
10.1. Economic and social development	211
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	223
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	235
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century	257
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s	263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century	282
Chapter 13. USSR in the second half of the 20s-30s. XX	295
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century	295
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s	314
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941)	325
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)	339
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR	363
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev	380
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s	400
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)	422
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, early XXI century	441
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)	472
20.1. Culture ancient Russian state and eras appanage principalities(IX-XIII centuries)	473
20.2. Development of the culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries)	478
20.3. Cultural evolution Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries)	487
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture	511
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia	534
Rulers	541

PREFACE

Our era is a time of painful reassessment of values ​​and radical experiments, a time of choosing socio-political, economic, moral and ethical guidelines for every family, every person. You and I have had the privilege of living, studying, and working during a period of change of centuries, fundamental changes in the development of society, when the pace of change in the life of states and peoples is rapidly accelerating and new, largely unknown perspectives are opening up in the historical development of Russia and the whole world. The truth is known - parents are not chosen. In infancy and early childhood they are loved because they are parents. Then they are loved for their care, affection and help in all matters. If parents are unkind or cruel, the child is unlikely to respond to them with anything other than coldness. Growing up, a person one day tries to look at his father and mother as if from the outside, through the eyes of a curious observer, to evaluate the merits and demerits of their character in the same way as he evaluates other, non-relative people. Gradually, he determines for himself what his parents are good at and what they are bad at, that is, he begins to treat them consciously, as something explained, something that has become understandable. The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make mistakes, you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it. We have received from past generations a spiritual heritage, which we replenish taking into account own experience. This is knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society (science), emotional perception of the environment (culture), a set of rules of communication (morality), ideals and motives of activity (ideology, religion), methods and forms of transmitting spiritual heritage from generation to generation (education). IN turning points there is a revaluation of the spiritual heritage: a change in scientific paradigms, renewal of cultural and ethnic values, the destruction of old and the formation of new ideals, changes in education. This is a painful, painful, long process. It is associated with destruction

Habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views. How to choose the right path to the future, avoid making a fatal mistake, and distinguish the truth in this motley palette of tempting ideas? History can help with this, which contains not just a fascinating or boring (depending on the literary gift of the chronicler) description of past events, the deeds of historical figures and peoples. Knowledge of history presupposes generalization, comprehension of past experience, every grain of which was paid at a high price. Despite all the apparent uniqueness of the events taking place today, one can always find similarities, and considerable ones, with what peoples who found a way out of similar crises have already experienced in the past. It is necessary to learn the lessons of history, periodically adding to the acquired knowledge based on your own experience. In this sense, each of us is a student of history, diligent or frivolous. History (from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned) is considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of nature and humanity, and, secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society. Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience- the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, in the world historical experience trying to find answers to many questions. Using historical examples, people are brought up to respect eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences. Since antiquity, the science of the past has become an independent field of human knowledge. But the science of history itself developed much later (in Russia - approximately from the beginning of the 18th century). In the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. there was a clarification of the subject of history in connection with a turn to the study of economics, culture and social relations. For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary. History is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

Political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc. , as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures). There are auxiliary historical disciplines that have a relatively narrow subject of study, study it in detail and thus contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole. These include: genealogy (the study of the origins and relationships of individuals and families), heraldry (the study of coats of arms), numismatics (the study of coins and their minting), chronology (the study of chronological systems and calendars), paleography (the study of , studying handwritten monuments and ancient writing), etc. The most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source studies, which studies historical sources, and historiography (the history of historical science), the task of which is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study patterns in the development of historical Sciences. History is a concrete science that requires precise knowledge of the chronology (dates) of facts and events. It is closely related to other sciences, but unlike them, it examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena public life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their relationships and interdependence. At the same time, each of the existing sciences (social, economic, technical) has gone through its own history during the development of human society. And at the present stage, all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created, such as historical geography, historical geology, etc. According to the vastness of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

history of the world as a whole; history of a continent, region (history of Europe, African studies, Balkan studies); people (Chinese studies, Japanese studies); groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, and the formation of the main state and public institutions. Any literate person should know the history of his Fatherland. You can't live on native land and not to know who lived here before us, not to know and not to remember their labors, glory, delusions and mistakes. We received from them not only a material, but also a spiritual inheritance and we take everything for granted. But do we always know how to be grateful to our fathers and grandfathers? Before our eyes, Russia is changing, the old is dying,

New. It cannot always be assessed unambiguously, and it is not always for the benefit of Russia. Understand modern processes, to determine our own view of what is happening around and inside Russia, not to get lost in the diversity of opinions - history will help us with this. Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property. Russia had its own complex, contradictory, heroic and dramatic, original history, unlike other countries. And, despite everything, Russia has made a worthy contribution to world culture and civilization. Studying the history of Russia leads to the conviction that it was all created by the strength of the Russian spiritual character. The outstanding thinker of the 20th century correctly noted. Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin: “From Theodosius of Pechersk to Sergius, Hermogenes and Seraphim of Sarov; from Monomakh to Peter the Great, and to Suvorov, Stolypin and Wrangel; from Lomonosov to Mendeleev - the entire history of Russia is a victory of the Russian spiritual character over difficulties, temptations, dangers and enemies.” Interests modern society, the main directions of development of historical science and the consistent study of history in school and higher education institutions coincide in some principles:

1. respect for all peoples and cultures without exception. It is necessary to recognize the significance of all eras and societies, to strive to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning. At the same time, studying this process, it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, the historical distance. This seems to be the meaning of the civilizational approach;
2. caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society. History is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature can be, and how difficult it is to restore them. This awareness is facilitated by the concept of the price of progress;
3. consideration of a person as part of a social organism, a complex social system. Man must take his place at the center of historical research and historical storytelling. After all, it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and other people’s ideas;
4. the intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought. People demand to be treated with the same respect as civilization. History must be populated by people, living people, concrete, unique individuals. Kings, sages, villains, artists were endowed not only with social, but also with individual psychology; they not only reflected their era, but also influenced reality. They must be recognized as having the right to free will, to the opportunity to significantly change the course of history. Thus, history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities;
5. the principle of proportionality and involvement. This principle is manifested in the study of people's lifestyles. Biographies bring proportionality to history. This form of understanding history has proven its effectiveness. History is best perceived through the prism of participation

STI - as the history of your family, your city, your land, included in the context of a larger history; 6) the principle of unity. History should instill an understanding of the synchronicity of events, an understanding that, for example, Shakespeare was a contemporary of False Dmitry. It is interesting to explore the interaction of history with geographical space, to study the dynamics of interaction between man and environment. The story should be narrative, vivid, specific. As a cumulative science, history must integrate the achievements of predecessors - not only their positive contributions, but also their concepts. We must bear in mind the possibility of existence different approaches and points of view on problems. Many facts, events, phenomena of our history, with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, with the improvement of theoretical knowledge, are assessed differently today than they were several years ago. Modern Russian historical science is going through a special period when new approaches to history are just beginning to be developed. Thus, in modern Russian historiography, traditional system-forming categories are widely used: primitive society, slave system, feudal fragmentation, etc. At the same time, many scientists critically, or even negatively evaluate the concept of “socio-economic formation”, which was fundamental in the past. Complexity historical development humanity, the diversity of worldview positions of scientists led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished: 1) religious (theological, providential): E. N. Trubetskoy - an explanation of the origin of humanity, its development by divine will; V. S. Solovyov - formulation of the problem of the unity of history; N. N. Filoletov - an attempt to comprehend the meaning of history and its purpose from a divine point of view;

1. natural science (naturalistic): a) geographical determinism. C. Montesquieu believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface are decisive factors, which determine the spirit of peoples, forms government system and legislation, the nature of historical development; L.I. Mechnikov attached special importance to the hydrosphere. Associated with it is his division of human history into three periods: river civilizations (civilizations that developed in the basins of great rivers - Egypt, China, India, etc.), maritime (Ancient Greece, etc.), oceanic (with the discovery of America); b) demographic: T. Malthus - population is of decisive importance in history. Population growth is in geometric progression, and the production of means of subsistence is in arithmetic progression. The unbridled proliferation of the people leads to poverty and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions; c) ethnogenetic: L.N. Gumilyov distinguishes between social and ethnic history. The subject of the latter is the ethnic group - a “geographical phenomenon”. The decisive reason for the emergence and development of an ethnos is passionarity;
2. socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period - human society in the process

Its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production and in the characteristics of the socio-political organization of society. The disadvantages of this theory are as follows: firstly, predominant importance is given to the economic factor of development, secondly, the specifics of development are not taken into account (each country must go through all stages of development);

1. cultural-historical (cultural-civilizational): a) G. Vico, I. G. Greder, G. V. F. Hegel - priority development of the spiritual sphere, culture, recognition of the unity of history, its progress, faith in the rational nature of the historical process; b) N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others - the concept of closed (local) civilizations; c) N. A. Berdyaev, K. Jaspers and others - a kind of distrust of rational knowledge, doubts about its ability to solve the problems of history;
2. world - systemic analysis of Immanuel Wallerstein - an attempt to integrate cultural, economic-deterministic, class and statist approaches into a single whole.

To identify an objective picture of the historical process, historical science must rely on a certain methodology, certain general principles, which would make it possible to organize the material accumulated by researchers and create effective explanatory models. Principles of obtaining historical knowledge- these are the main, fundamental provisions of science. They are based on the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is a significant difference between patterns and principles: patterns act objectively, and principles are a logical category; they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people. The principle can be considered as a basic rule that must be followed when studying all phenomena and events in history. Main scientific principles are the following. The principle of historicism is one of the basic principles of the approach to the study of nature and society. All historical facts, phenomena and events are considered in accordance with the specific historical situation, in their interrelation and interdependence. Each historical phenomenon should be studied in development: how it arose, what stages it went through in its development, what it ultimately became. It is impossible to consider an event or person outside of time and circumstances. The principle of objectivity presupposes reliance on facts in their true content, not distorted or adjusted to fit a scheme. This principle requires considering each phenomenon in its versatility, inconsistency, and the totality of both positive and negative sides. The main thing in ensuring the principle of objectivity is the personality of the historian: his theoretical and professional skills. The principle of the social approach assumes that certain social interests: in economical

Czech region, political, inter-class and extra-class contradictions, relations between social psychology and traditions. This principle (it is also called the principle of the class, party approach) obliges us to correlate the interests of a certain social group with those of humanity, taking into account the subjective aspect in the practical activities of governments, parties, and individuals. Social approach to history is especially important when assessing programs, the real political activities of parties and their leaders, which allows one to draw important conclusions. At the same time, when deciding global problems In modern times, priorities are given not to class values, but to universal human values. Therefore, they should not be opposed, but complementary. The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of the occurrence of a particular event, phenomenon, process based on an analysis of objective realities and possibilities. Recognizing the historical alternative allows us to re-evaluate the path of each country, see the untapped possibilities of the process, and draw lessons for the future. In addition to general methodological principles, specific research methods are also used in historical knowledge:

• general scientific;
actually historical; special (borrowed from other sciences).

The method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts. TO general scientific methods Research includes historical, logical and classification methods. The historical method allows us to reproduce the development process with its general, special and uniquely individual features. Logical - connected with the historical, it generalizes the entire process in the theoretical form of laws. Both of these methods complement each other, since the historical method has its own cognitive limits, having exhausted which it is possible to draw conclusions and generalizations using the logical method. Classification as a method allows us to highlight the general and special in phenomena, facilitates the collection of material, systematizes knowledge, and promotes theoretical generalizations, identifying new laws. Historical research methods themselves can be divided into two groups:

1. methods based on various options for studying processes in time: chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method;
2. methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic.

The essence of the chronological method is that phenomena are presented in temporal (chronological) order. Chronological-problematic method

Provides for the study and research of Russian history by periods (topics) or eras, and within them - by problems. Taking into account the problem-chronological method, there is a study and research of any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent development. The synchronistic method makes it possible to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia and its regions. The periodization method makes it possible to identify changes quality features in development and establish periods of these qualitative changes.

The comparative historical method aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine the changes that have occurred, and identify ways of social development. Retrospective allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development. Structural-systemic establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are distinguished within a certain chronological framework.

Special methods: mathematical methods of process analysis, statistical methods, sociological research and social psychology. Special meaning for the analysis of historical situations they have the method of sociological research and the method of social psychology, since the masses (people) have a direct influence on the course of historical development. The following methodological principles underlie the study of the “History of Russia” course. Domestic history is integral part world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life. In studying the course, in our opinion, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. Wherein Special attention should be given to the most significant issues for the history of Russia: the formation and development of ethnic groups, the fate of civilizations on the territory of Russia, national customs and traditions, spiritual values, etc. Russia is a civilizational region, the original development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional ( religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The uniqueness of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process were significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to the contradictory influence of the West and the East on Russia. At the same time, recognition of originality does not mean isolation of Russia from general historical development; The history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

According to modern researchers, the path of Russian history (no matter what it is called: modernization, the civilizational cycle, the Eurasian path, etc.) represents not a “lag” or “delay” in development, but simply a different, original development, leading to a creative synthesis of the general and specific, internal and external, domestic and foreign experience. And in this regard, when consistently studying the history of Russia, in historical research it is permissible to use various categories and concepts, mainly sociological (modernization, stages, formation), cultural (totalitarianism), economic (industrialism and post-industrialism). Studying a course in the history of Russia involves acquiring knowledge of a historiographical nature. The classics of Russian historiography - N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky - made a significant contribution to Russian historical science. The works of other outstanding Russian historians enjoy well-deserved authority and influence. These are primarily the works of N. M. Kostomarov, A. A. Kornilov, S. F. Platonov, M. N. Pokrovsky, P. M. Milyukov, V. N. Tatishchev. The main difficulty in studying the history of Russia is the diversity of educational historical literature, the authors of which adhere to different historical schools and sometimes express mutually exclusive points of view on the problems of Russian history. Modern research Russian authors presented by textbooks, teaching aids, reference publications:

1. textbooks, teaching aids: “Review of Russian History” by S. G. Pushkarev (Stavropol, 1993), the first edition of which was published in 1953 in the USA; “Russian History” by G.V. Vernadsky (M., 1997) - the son of V.I. Vernadsky, a student of V.O. Klyuchevsky, R.Yu. Vipper, A.A. Kizevetter, who emigrated to the West and was recognized there as a leading specialist on Russian history; “Russian History” by M. I. Pokrovsky (M., 2002) is one of the most monumental works in world history and, without a doubt, the most thorough of the classical works on the history of Russia;

Of undoubted interest are publications of an educational and methodological nature containing Additional materials on the history of Russia, as well as problematic issues, tasks, etc. One of the first in this regard is the work of S. G. Smirnov “Problem book on the history of Russia” (M., 1995). In the textbook by S. G. Goryainov, A. A. Egorov “History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries.” (M., 1998) each topic is supplemented with excerpts from historical documents and assignments for them. In JI didactic materials. M. Lyashenko “History of Russia. XIX century" (Moscow, 2000) and A. G. Koloskova "History of Russia. XX century" (Moscow, 2000) presents a variety of training and testing tasks of varying complexity ( traditional issues, working with a document, tests, materials for reports, discussions, historical works and etc.). Questions and tasks contained in textbook E. A. Gevurkova, V. I. Egorova, A. G. Koloskova, JI. I. Larina “History of Russia: problems, events, people (differentiated questions and tasks)” (Moscow, 2000) are based on the use of a wide range of historical sources, have a teaching and control orientation. The album by A. T. Stepanishchev “History of Russia: IX-XX centuries: Schemes” (Moscow, 2001) includes more than 330 logical, problem-logical and block diagrams, graphs covering more than eleven centuries

History of Russia. The textbook by the same author, “History of Russia: Teaching at School,” focuses on understanding the conceptual and methodological problems of teaching and studying history, mastering specific methods for conducting various types and forms of classes, and organizing independent work for students. Considerable space is devoted to revealing the problems of educating the younger generation in the history of the Fatherland. The relevance of a balanced scientific approach to the study of history remains and even increases due to the fact that rethinking the past is not without costs and contradictions. Many problems have to be solved in conditions of transition from one social system to another, in conditions of fundamental changes in political system society, its economic foundations, the promotion of new political and ideological paradigms, new moral values. The task of teaching history in modern conditions- show the real story in all its complexities and contradictions, with its bright and tragic sides, maintaining objectivity, historical truth. This approach will help correct the mistakes of the past and give a true understanding of historical events and phenomena. School teachers and teachers of higher educational institutions realize that in order to truly understand history, their students must look beyond the textbook, see living history, and understand its meaning. In the process of teaching, they somehow bear the “burden of proof” of at least four truths:

1. HISTORY IS ONE.

The relationship between the historical destinies of peoples and states is reflected, it is shown that no one has ever been able to “fence off” from the world-historical process either with high walls, or long distances, or gold, or force. Yes, the West is the West, the East is the East, but this is only different sides unified history of mankind.

1. HISTORY IS MODERN.

The continuity of history is illustrated. Neither the fall of empires, the accession of new kings, nor attempts to destroy human memory can interrupt it. Events centuries ago vividly resonate with modern times. They help to more accurately understand today also because history does repeat itself, and because the current reality sometimes arose not only in past decades, but also in past centuries.

1. THE HISTORY IS SPECIFIC.

History is not only a manifestation of general historical laws, but also a memory of the real life of living people. Emperors and poets, freedom fighters and their executioners, thinkers and conquerors. The life of each of them helps us not only to see their time more clearly, but sometimes to understand the present day more deeply.

1. HISTORY IS INTERESTING.

History, like any subject, can be taught in an incredibly boring way. But who said that history itself is to blame for this? It is important, when thinking about historical events, to ask yourself questions: “Why did everything happen this way? Where are the reasons and origins? It’s interesting to pose such questions with your students and look for answers to them. The study of humanities constitutes important part general educational and ideological training of modern specialists and contributes to the intellectual development of the individual and the development of creative thinking. The course “National History” is an important element in the structure of the cycle of humanities. Its study is intended to provide:

an idea of ​​the basic patterns and features of historical development; understanding the role of Russia in the world historical process; the formation of historical consciousness, i.e., a system of views, ideas, theories, concepts through which the past is realized; the development of spiritual values ​​developed in the course of historical development, and determining your own attitude towards them; introducing students to the social experience, spiritual and moral values ​​of previous generations of Russians, embodied in philosophical and religious teachings, art and literature, folk customs and traditions; developing the ability to use acquired knowledge, independently extract it from historical sources, find the necessary information in a diverse stream of historical -journalistic literature; development of the ability to analyze and evaluate facts, phenomena and events, the ability to reveal cause-and-effect relationships between them; comprehension of new realities of modern national history, taking into account cultural and historical traditions Russia.

the main objective course “National History” - the formation of historical consciousness among students, instilling in them the skills of historical thinking.

In the structure of the goals and objectives of the course, an important place is occupied by the development of general educational and special skills and abilities:

general logical skills (the ability to analyze, classify, correctly correlate facts and generalizations, evaluate events, establish cause-and-effect relationships, patterns of social development, determine the specific historical conditions of a particular era, etc.);
• search and information skills (fluent use of dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias, catalogues, the ability to find the necessary information in books, collections, magazines, the ability to systematize literature within the framework of a specific task);
educational and cognitive skills (drawing up speech abstracts, scientific communication, report, abstract, preparation of an abstract; the ability to participate in a discussion, competently, logically, and convincingly express one’s thoughts).

Currently, the manuals available to high school students and applicants, college and university students are becoming outdated or simply disappearing from sale due to limited circulation. All this makes it relevant to publish new textbooks on the history of Russia. The French historian F. Braudel argued: “History constantly needs to be rewritten, it is always in the stage of formation and overcoming itself.” This judgment is applicable not only to the description of the historical process, but also to the understanding of its scientific aspect. The peculiarity of the work we propose is that the authors, without claiming to be an exhaustive presentation of Russian history, sought, based on the author’s approach, to provide an analysis of the main events and phenomena of Russian history. Our training manual contains pluralistic approaches and assessments that complement and enrich each other; alternatives were used historical concepts, opinions of various scientific schools, which are presented by the views of domestic and foreign authors on historical path Russia. Chapter 1. THE PRIMITIVE AGE OF HUMANITY

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history Origin of man Decomposition of the primitive communal system Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland Culture of primitive society

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history. Modern science suggests that the entire variety of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth - an ordinary planet in the solar system - is 4.6 billion years old. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago. There are several options for the periodization of humanity at the stage of the primitive communal system. Most often they use an archaeological scheme based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it in ancient era There are three periods:

stone Age(from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC); Bronze Age (IV-III millennium - to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC); Iron Age (from the 1st millennium BC) ).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic). Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming. The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:

low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement; collective appropriation of natural resources and production results; equal distribution;
• socio-economic equality;
the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecines marked the emergence of material culture directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity. The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; only with the advent of harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with increased labor activity primitive man in his heavy

In the struggle for existence, new skills emerge, tools are improved, and new social forms are developed. The path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system passed through a number of stages: 1) mastery of fire; 2) collective hunting of large animals; 3) adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier; 4) invention of the bow; 5) transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture); 6) discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron); 7) creation of a complex tribal organization of society. Development rate human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a producing economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, and areas with a mild climate, reserves of ores and minerals moved faster towards civilization. A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropes (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, etc.), in the glacial period - paleoanthropes (Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the late Paleolithic - neoanthropes, modern people. Human Origins. Among different peoples in different regions of the Earth, the appearance of certain tools and forms of social life did not occur simultaneously. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin). Scientists have identified the following problems of anthropogenesis: 1) the origin of man as a species, the place and chronology of this phenomenon, the definition of the line between man as an actively thinking creature of living nature and his closest ancestors; 2) the connection between anthropogenesis and the development of material production; 3) raceogenesis - the study of the causes and processes of racial-genetic differences. The origin of man has always been considered from two mutually exclusive positions: as a result of a supernatural, divine, cosmic (alien in the modern version) beginning and as a result evolutionary development living nature, as a kind of pinnacle of this process. In Soviet science, the evolutionary view of anthropogenesis dominated. Back in the 17th century. materialist scientists, based on the idea of ​​the unity of the entire animal world, considered man as part of nature and expressed the idea of ​​his origin from the ancients great apes. This view did not appear by chance, since significant scientific mathematics had been accumulated.

Rial, who proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes. Ancient ancestors modern humans were like apes, which, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. The further evolution of the habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropes (from the Greek "pithekos" - monkey, "anthropos" - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek "achaios" - ancient). Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany). The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow. General scheme human evolution is as follows:

Australopithecine Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus); modern man physical appearance(late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

As a result of the accumulation of new anthropological and archaeological materials, modern science suggests that the process of formation of modern people took place in the territory covering South-Eastern Europe, North Africa And Western Asia. From this zone, the modern type of man, as the most developed, settled throughout the entire territory of the earth. As a result of settlement, extensive cultural and historical communities emerged. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the linguistic families from which came the peoples who currently inhabit our country. The following cultural and historical communities are distinguished:

• Indo-European;
• Ugro-Finnish;
• Turkic;
• Iberian-Caucasian.

The largest language family is Indo-European. It was formed on the territory modern Iran and Asia Minor, spread to Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia and the region of the Hindustan Peninsula. Subsequently, the Indo-European cultural community was divided into several branches:

1. Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.);
2. Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.;
3. eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired characteristics changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Thus, within the Mongoloid race there are South Asian, Siberian and American branches, the Negroid is divided into two, and within the Caucasoid race there are northern and southern branches. Historically, the development of mankind has proceeded in a constant dialectical unity of different principles - evolutionary and the phenomenon of a qualitative leap, biological and social. Substitution of one for the other is completely excluded. At the same time, we must not forget that the development of mankind took place in constant and close interaction with nature. And the more perfect a person became, the more actively he influenced it and adapted it to his needs. However, in archaeological eras, unlike industrial ones, this adaptation was always rational; man thought of himself only as a part of his natural environment. Decomposition of the primitive communal system. Around the IV-V millennium BC. e. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade. With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid. From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the form of family relationships changes; a patriarchal family based on private property arises. The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men. The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes.

Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones. Signs of the collapse of the tribal system:

the emergence of property inequality;
• allocation of nobility;
concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders; frequent armed clashes; turning captives into slaves; transformation of the clan from a consanguineous group into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations did not occur simultaneously; the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others formed slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some to colonial capitalism ( peoples of America, Australia). Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland. The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology). Parking lots primitive people open on site of Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, Crimea, Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East. For example, on the territory of the former USSR, the remains of above-ground dwellings dating back to the Early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts dwellings. About 1,500 Upper Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered in Russia. When choosing places for settlements, people of the Late Ice Age cared primarily about the convenience of hunting, so settlements were usually located at the edge of river valleys, often in groups. Such a group of Paleolithic settlements is known on the Don in Voronezh region near the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, on the Desna - near Novgorod-Seversky, in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids. Siberian ancient Paleolithic monuments are also located in groups. Unlike the earlier period, Late Paleolithic dwellings are more advanced. Large, connected dwellings and settlements consisting of individual small huts confirm the conclusion about the coexistence of communities and communal farming. Within communities, individual dwellings and centers of large dwellings could belong to individual paired families. In the developed Neolithic on the European territory of Russia, significant changes were observed in the distribution of cultures, many new archaeo-

Logical cultures, which is associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes ethnic composition Neolithic population, movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev. The tribes of the so-called Belev culture (named after the settlement of the city of Belev) occupied, for example, the region of the upper reaches of the Oka. It is characterized by the widespread use of massive and long knife-like plates in the manufacture of tools. Narrow and long leaf-shaped daggers and arrowheads were made from them. At the same time, in this culture, Paleolithic-looking incisors and side scrapers existed for a long time. The surface of the vessels was covered with a pattern in the form of rhombic or oval depressions. Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is associated mainly with the work of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevyanko. In the Amur basin, four Neolithic cultures are known: Novopetrovsk, Gromatukha, Osinovo-Ozersk and Lower Amur. At the end of the Neolithic, a division of labor occurred among the tribes of the Far East: some began to engage in agriculture, others in fishing, hunting and gathering, which determined the features of their development in the future. In general, on the territory of our country in the history of primitive society, several stages are distinguished in terms of the degree of development of productive forces, social organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower stage to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity grew in primitive society, exchange intensified, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. The primitive society on the territory of Russia was replaced by a feudal society. The culture of primitive society. According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is complex phenomenon, which strikes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state. First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis: 1) the extinction over a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;

2) the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases of violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons. In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used. Archaeological finds- These are mainly tools of labor corresponding to certain historical eras. During the Paleolithic period - points, scrapers, awls and piercings. In a later period, along with long ones, hunters made shorter dart spears that could be thrown over a long distance. One of the most significant achievements of the Upper Paleolithic period was the discovery of several ways to make fire. The first method was the striking of a spark by sharp impacts of flint on the ore mineral pyrite. The second method was to make fire by rubbing wood against wood, but the reliability of data on the widespread use of this method still raises doubts among scientists. The formation of a mature form of a social organism is associated with the formation of the maternal family. With the help of establishing certain traditions, they learned to regulate relations between the sexes, methods and forms of raising children. The structure of collectivist consciousness was formed. Arose certain types mythological consciousness, which included the first forms: religious, moral, technological, labor. Unfortunately, researchers have still not been able to find works of art that date back to an earlier historical period than the Late Paleolithic. The most common sculptural images during this period were female figurines. Each tribe had its own gods, its own revered mythological creatures. This belief is originally rooted in the veneration of nature spirits. In addition, each tribe has its own sacred ancestors, who are most often identified with certain animals. This belief system was called totemism. Another belief characteristic of myth is fetishism. Fetishism is the deification of a special object, which is perceived as a carrier of demonic powers and which is mystically connected with the fate of a given tribe. Subject to which they relate In a similar way, and there is a fetish. In the conditions of primitive society, magical art develops. Magic could not influence the objective properties of things, but it fully controlled the psyche of primitive man. Magic words and rituals influenced a person - and not on his mind, which was still too weak and undeveloped, but on his unconscious. Magic could not physically cause rain or ensure a harvest, but it inspired people with unity, optimism and success in a difficult and dangerous task. In general, in primitive culture the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, prospects for further development.

Chapter 2. SLAVE CIVILIZATIONS OF THE TRANSCAUCASUS, CENTRAL ASIA AND THE BLACK SEA REGION.

ANCIENT SLAVS (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)

Features of the formation of the most ancient slave statesPredecessors of the ancient SlavsThe ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis

Features of the formation of the most ancient slave states. The first slave-owning civilizations arose during the era Bronze Age in the lane with favorable climate, stretching from the Mediterranean to China: the despotisms of the Ancient East, Greece, Rome, India and China. Slavery existed as the dominant form of organization of life on a world-historical scale until the 3rd-5th centuries. n. e. The prerequisites for the creation of statehood took shape over hundreds of years. The form of the first civilizational relations could be different: in some conditions - slave-owning, in others - feudal. The process of transition from primitive communal relations to civilization lasted for several thousand years; among the peoples of the Ancient East it took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e., and for some peoples it began only in the 19th century. n. e. On the territory of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region, large slave states emerged that preceded the emergence of feudal society and influenced the course of world history. In slaveholding and feudal societies there were both free community members and slaves, although the latter did not play a major economic role under feudalism. The difference between these societies was that slavery was based on the forced use in the master’s economy of the labor of people who were completely the property of their master and did not have their own means of production, and feudalism was based on the forced exploitation of the labor of people (peasants) running their own farm and owning means of production (except land owned by the master). However, even during the transition to feudalism directly from primitive society, slavery had a significant place (patriarchal form of slavery). The development of slave-owning civilization was facilitated by the presence of a number of conditions:

1. organization of a large master's farm (with primitive technology);
2. control of the tribal nobility, and subsequently the state, over vital means of community farming (irrigation canals, ore mines, etc.);
3. expanding sources of obtaining new slaves.

Despite the extreme cruelty of slavery, slave civilization was a significant step forward compared to primitive society:

specialized crafts developed; wide trade relations;cities with a high culture for that time arose; writing appeared, which preserved the names of peoples and precious information about their language and way of life.

The Transcaucasian tribes' own written language tells us about the transformation in the 11th century. BC e. union of tribes into the state of Urartu. It existed for about three centuries and was destroyed around 590 BC. e. Milians, southern neighbors of the Urartians. Dozens of tribes were subjugated and united into one significant state, which became in the 8th century. BC e. a rival of the Assyrian power and a major force in the Ancient East. Various sectors of the economy were developed in Urartu. In the river valleys, agriculture predominated, requiring artificial irrigation; in the mountains - semi-nomadic (eilag) cattle breeding. Various varieties of wheat, barley, millet were cultivated, grapes, figs, and almonds were grown. Among domestic animals, cows and sheep were known. Horse breeding, which was of great importance for the needs of the royal army, gradually expanded. Camels were bred. Urartian artisans were experienced craftsmen who mastered the techniques of processing bronze, iron, precious metals, stone, clay, wood, etc. All the luxury of the royal palaces and temples, known from descriptions and archaeological excavations, was the work of local craftsmen, most of whom belonged to , in all likelihood, to slaves. The main slave owner of Urartu was the king, who stood at the head of a large army. He owned many cities, fortresses, canals and numerous slaves. Great wealth belonged to the temples and priests. The inhabitants of Urartu sacrificed bulls, rams, and, in especially important cases, people to their numerous gods. The people also preserved remnants of religious ideas from the time of primitive society: the cult of the tree as a symbol of life was developed, and magical spell drawings were widely used. The population of Urartu had their own written language (cuneiform), mathematical science arose, their own measures and their own digital system were created. In Central Asia by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. There was a massive transition to settled agriculture with artificial irrigation, which led to the emergence of slave relations. Created by the Indo-European peoples of Central Asia ancient epic(“Avesta”) mentions Khorezm - “the country of the sun” (along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya), Sogdiana - “rich in people and herds” (in the Zeravshan valley), Bactria - “a country with high banners” (in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya). The peculiarity of the development of these countries, like other countries of the Ancient East, was the preservation of elements of the tribal system. Predecessors of the ancient Slavs. On the northern shores of the Black Sea, which the Greeks called Pont Euxine, in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Numerous Greek colonies arose - city-states (polises). The most famous

Some of them were Olvia (near Nikolaev), Chersonesos (on the territory of present-day Sevastopol), Panticapaeum (Kerch), Tanais (near Rostov-on-Don), etc. Almost all the city-states of the Black Sea region were slave-owning republics and largely copied the structure and the way of life of the Greek world. Ancient slavery, in contrast to slavery in eastern despotisms and patriarchal slavery of peoples at the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, was based on high level commodity production. Active maritime trade stimulated specialization of production. Large land latifundias emerged that produced grain, wine, and oil. The craft has developed significantly. As a result of the wars, the number of slaves increased, which all free citizens had the right to own. The Greeks not only conducted lively trade with the local population - the Scythians, but also exerted a cultural influence on them. The Greeks bought mainly bread and fish, and sold fabrics, wine, oil, and luxury goods. As a result of such connections, Hellenic-Scythian settlements were created. With its center in Panticapaeum, the Bosporus Kingdom arose (V-IV centuries BC), uniting some Greek cities, as well as local Scythian tribes. Scythian nomadic tribes in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. came from Asia to the southern and southeastern steppes, displacing the dominant ethnic community there - the agricultural people of the Cimmerians, who went to Thrace. Under common name“Scythians” are known for numerous nomadic tribes that differed in their place of settlement and their occupations. The main tribe was considered the royal Scythians, who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper on the left bank. On the right bank of the lower Dnieper lived Scythian nomads, to the west of them there were Scythian farmers and Scythian ploughmen on the middle Dnieper. The Scythians were not the direct ancestors of the Slavs, but their descendants, according to scientists, merged with ancient Slavic tribes and enriched, in particular, their language with such words as “good”, “axe”, “dog”, corresponding to the Slavic “good”, “axe”, “dog”. The main occupations of the Scythians were cattle breeding and agriculture. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, they grew “the best wheat in the world.” The Scythians were good at crafts: they processed iron and bronze, made weapons, and tanned leather. In the VI-IV centuries. BC e. the Scythians united into a large tribal union, on the basis of which arose Scythian kingdom with its capital in Scythian Naples (near Simferopol). This state was a union of warlike tribes led by a king, and tribal leaders led troops during campaigns. The power of the king was inherited. In the 3rd century. BC e. The Scythians are being replaced by a new ethnic community - the Sarmatians. The borders of the Sarmatians, according to the testimony of ancient writers, were more extensive: almost from the Carpathians, Vistula, Danube to the Don, Volga, and Ural. In the II-III centuries. n. e. the Sarmatians were ousted Germanic tribes ready. The leader of the Goths, Hermanaric, glorified in songs and legends, united not only the Gothic tribes, but also subjugated neighboring ones, including Finnish and Slavic ones.

IV-VII centuries known in history as the Great Migration. The invasion of the Huns opens campaigns against Europe. Having led a powerful alliance of tribes, the Huns defeated the Goths and undertook devastating campaigns in many countries. The Huns reached their greatest power when they were led by the leader Attila. In the VI century. The Huns are replaced by the Avars, who lived in the Danube basin, oppressing the conquered tribes, including the Slavs. In the 7th century a new nomadic tribe of the Khazars appeared, who founded a vast state from Caucasus Mountains to the Volga and Middle Dnieper - the Khazar Khaganate (until the end of the 10th century). All these peoples and tribes not only preceded the appearance of Slavic tribes on the East European Plain, but also subsequently coexisted with them, exerting mutual influence on each other. The ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis. Scientists put forward several versions of the ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis. But the basis of most theories is the ancient Russian written monument- the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years”, in which the monk Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor puts forward a mythological version of the origin of the Slavs: as if their family goes back to the youngest son of Noah, Japheth. It was Japheth who, after dividing the lands with his brothers, received the Northern and Western countries as an inheritance. Gradually, historical facts appear in the narrative. Nestor settles the Slavs in the Roman province of Noricum, located between the upper reaches of the Danube and Drava. From there, pressed by the Romans, the Slavs were forced to move to new places - to the Vistula and Dnieper. The “Danube” version of the ancestral home of the Slavs was adhered to by the Russian historian S. M. Solovyov, while referring to the ancient Roman historian Tacitus. The student of S. M. Solovyov, the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, also recognized the “Danube” version of the ancestral home of the Slavs. But he added his own clarifications to it: before the Eastern Slavs from the Danube came to the Dnieper, they stayed in the foothills of the Carpathians for about 500 years. According to Klyuchevsky, only from the 7th century. Eastern Slavs gradually settled on the modern Russian Plain. Some domestic scientists were inclined to the “Danube” origin of the Slavs, but the majority adhered to the version that the ancestral home of the Slavs was much further north. At the same time, they disagreed about the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, and about where the Slavs formed into a single ethnic community - in the Middle Dnieper region and along Pripyat or in the area between the Vistula and Oder rivers. B. A. Rybakov, based on the latest archaeological data, tried to combine both of these versions of the possible ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis. In his opinion, the Proto-Slavs occupied wide strip Central and Eastern Europe.

Currently, there are two most common points of view on the issue of the area of ​​origin of the Slavic ethnic community. According to one, such an area was the territory between the Oder (Odra) and the Vistula - the Oder-Vistula theory, according to another - it was the area between the Oder and the Middle Dnieper - the Oder-Dnieper theory (M. S. Shumilov, S. P. Ryabikin). In general, the problem of the origin and settlement of the Slavs is still under discussion. Apparently, the separation of the Slavs from the Indo-European community occurred during the transition to arable farming. Ancient (I-II centuries) and Byzantine (VI-VII centuries) authors mention the Slavs under different names: Wends, Ants, Sklavins. By the time the Slavs joined the Great Migration of Peoples (VI century), the countries of the world had come a long way of development: states arose and collapsed, active migration processes were underway. In the 4th century. The huge Roman Empire collapsed. In Europe, the Western Roman State was formed with its center in Rome. On the territory of the Balkans and Asia Minor a powerful state arose - the Eastern one, with its center in Constantinople, which later received the name Byzantine Empire(existed until 1453). IN Western Europe in the V-VII centuries. There was a settlement of Germanic tribes that conquered the territory of the Roman Empire. The so-called “barbarian” kingdoms arose here - Frankish, Visigothic, Lombard, etc. In the 6th century. Slavs (called Slovenes) joined the world migration process. The settlement of the Slavs took place in the VI-VIII centuries. in three main directions: to the south - to the Balkan Peninsula; to the west - to the Middle Danube and between the Oder and Elbe rivers; to the east and north - along the East European Plain. At the same time, the Slavs were divided into three branches: southern, western and eastern.

Chapter 3. EASTERN SLAVS ON THE THRESHOLD OF STATE FORMATION (VI-IX centuries)

Natural conditionsTerritory of the Eastern SlavsEconomic developmentSocial systemCustoms, morals and beliefs

Natural conditions. A number of factors have a decisive influence on the formation and development of the state: geographical location, climatic and natural conditions. The eastern half of Europe is a plain bordered by four seas - the White, Baltic, Black and Caspian - and three mountain ranges - the Carpathians, the Caucasus and the Urals. IN ancient times the main means of communication and places of settlement were rivers with their numerous tributaries. The climate in the middle zone of the East European Plain is continental: hot, relatively short summers are replaced by long and snowy winters. These natural conditions influenced the way of life of the peoples of the East European Plain. All human life was connected with the forest. It was used as a building material, fuel, and for making household utensils. The main industries associated with the forest were hunting and beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees. In the forest, residents hid from the invasion of enemies. Rivers had no less beneficial influence on people's lives. They served as a means of communication between tribes, supplying people with fish for food and for exchange. Slavic tribes settled along the banks of the rivers: settlements were built - first small villages, and then large villages and cities. Over time, river routes acquired international significance; they no longer only connected individual tribes, but also different peoples and countries. The most important was known from the 6th century. the great water trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” This route went from north to south, from the Baltic (Varangian) Sea along the Neva River to Lake Ladoga (Lake Nevo), then along the rivers to the Black Sea. Thus, the Eastern Slavs maintained contact with the Black Sea Greek colonies, and through them with Byzantium. Another international river route - “from the Varangians to the Persians” went southeast along the tributaries of the upper Volga and further along this river to the lands of the Volga Bulgarians and through the Khazar kingdom to the Caspian Sea. This trade route served as a link with the Volga Bulgarians, Khazar Khaganate and further - with Central Asia and Arab world: in its significance it was not inferior to the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the process of settling the Eastern Slavs across the East European Plain, they experienced the decomposition of primitive

Community system. In the VI-IX centuries. they united into communities that no longer had only a tribal, but also a territorial and political character. Tribal unions are a stage on the path to the formation of statehood of the Eastern Slavs. The Tale of Bygone Years tells about the settlement of Slavic tribes. The term "tribes" in relation to these associations has been proposed by historians. It would be more accurate to call these associations tribal unions. These unions included 100-200 separate tribes, whose names have already been lost. Each individual tribe, in turn, consisted of a large number of clans and occupied a significant territory.

Russian history

Derevyanko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A.

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.

The textbook outlines the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, taking into account the latest research on Russian history. The problems of socio-economic and political development countries, domestic and foreign policies, culture are considered. The manual will allow you to successfully prepare for exams and seminar classes in accordance with state educational standard higher vocational education Russian Federation. For applicants, students, graduate students, teachers, as well as anyone interested in history.

Preface
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind
Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)
Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation (VI-IX centuries)
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries
4.1.Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century
Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age"
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries
10.1. Economic and social development
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century
Chapter 13. USSR in the second half of the 20s-30s. XX
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941)
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of Khrushchev
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, early XXI century
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)
20.1. Culture of the Old Russian state and the era of appanage principalities (IX-XIII centuries)
20.2. Development of culture of the Moscow state (XIV-XVII centuries)
20.3. Cultural evolution of the Russian Empire (XVIII-XX centuries)
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia
Rulers

PREFACE

Our era is a time of painful reassessment of values ​​and radical experiments, a time of choosing socio-political, economic, moral and ethical guidelines for every family, every person. You and I have had the privilege of living, studying, and working during a period of change of centuries, fundamental changes in the development of society, when the pace of change in the life of states and peoples is rapidly accelerating and new, largely unknown perspectives are opening up in the historical development of Russia and the whole world.

The truth is known - parents are not chosen. In infancy and early childhood they are loved because they are parents. Then they are loved for their care, affection and help in all matters. If parents are unkind or cruel, the child is unlikely to respond to them with anything other than coldness. Growing up, a person one day tries to look at his father and mother as if from the outside, through the eyes of a curious observer, to evaluate the merits and demerits of their character in the same way as he evaluates other, non-relative people. Gradually, he determines for himself what his parents are good at and what they are bad at, that is, he begins to treat them consciously, as something explained, something that has become understandable.

The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make a mistake, “you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it .

We have received a spiritual heritage from past generations, which we are adding to based on our own experience. This is knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society (science), emotional perception of the environment (culture), a set of rules of communication (morality), ideals and motives of activity (ideology, religion), methods and forms of transmitting spiritual heritage from generation to generation (education).

At turning points, there is a revaluation of the spiritual heritage: a change in scientific paradigms, the renewal of cultural and ethnic values, the destruction of old and the formation of new ideals, changes in education. This is a painful, painful, long process. It is associated with destruction

habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views.

How to choose the right path to the future, avoid making a fatal mistake, and distinguish the truth in this motley palette of tempting ideas? History can help with this, which contains not just a fascinating or boring (depending on the literary gift of the chronicler) description of past events, the deeds of historical figures and peoples. Knowledge of history presupposes generalization, comprehension of past experience, every grain of which was paid at a high price. Despite all the apparent uniqueness of the events taking place today, one can always find similarities, and considerable ones, with what peoples who found a way out of similar crises have already experienced in the past. It is necessary to learn the lessons of history, periodically adding to the acquired knowledge based on your own experience. In this sense, each of us is a student of history, diligent or frivolous.

History (from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned) is considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of nature and humanity, and, secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, try to find answers to many questions in the world historical experience. Using historical examples, people are brought up to respect eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences.

Since antiquity, the science of the past has become an independent field of human knowledge. But the science of history itself developed much later (in Russia - approximately from the beginning of the 18th century). In the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. there was a clarification of the subject of history in connection with a turn to the study of economics, culture and social relations.

For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.

History is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc. , as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures).

There are auxiliary historical disciplines that have a relatively narrow subject of study, study it in detail and thus contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole. These include: genealogy (the study of the origins and relationships of individuals and families), heraldry (the study of coats of arms), numismatics (the study of coins and their minting), chronology (the study of chronological systems and calendars), paleography (the study of , studying handwritten monuments and ancient writing), etc.

The most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source studies, which studies historical sources, and historiography (the history of historical science), the task of which is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study patterns in the development of historical science.

History is a concrete science that requires precise knowledge of the chronology (dates) of facts and events. It is closely related to other sciences, but unlike them, it examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their interrelations and interdependence. At the same time, each of the existing sciences (social, economic, technical) has gone through its own history during the development of human society. And at the present stage, all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created, such as historical geography, historical geology, etc.

According to the breadth of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

History of the world as a whole;

History of a continent, region (history of Europe, African studies, Balkan studies);

People (Chinese studies, Japanese studies);

Groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, and the formation of the main state and public institutions.

Any literate person should know the history of his Fatherland. It is impossible to live in our native land and not know who lived here before us, not to know and not to remember their works, glory, delusions and mistakes. We received from them not only a material, but also a spiritual inheritance and we take everything for granted. But do we always know how to be grateful to our fathers and grandfathers? Before our eyes, Russia is changing, the old is dying,

new. It cannot always be assessed unambiguously, and it is not always for the benefit of Russia. To understand modern processes, to determine our own view of what is happening around and inside Russia, and not to get lost in the diversity of opinions - history will help us with this.

Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property. Russia had its own complex, contradictory, heroic and dramatic, original history, unlike other countries. And, despite everything, Russia has made a worthy contribution to world culture and civilization. Studying the history of Russia leads to the conviction that it was all created by the strength of the Russian spiritual character. The outstanding thinker of the 20th century correctly noted. Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin: “From Theodosius of Pechersk to Sergius, Hermogenes and Seraphim of Sarov; from Monomakh to Peter the Great, and to Suvorov, Stolypin and Wrangel; from Lomonosov to Mendeleev - the entire history of Russia is a victory of the Russian spiritual character over difficulties, temptations, dangers and enemies.”

The interests of modern society, the main directions of development of historical science and the consistent study of history in school and higher education institutions coincide in some principles:

1) respect for all peoples and cultures without exception. It is necessary to recognize the significance of all eras and societies, to strive to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning. At the same time, when studying this process, it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, the historical distance. This seems to be the meaning of the civilizational approach;

2) caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society. History is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature can be, and how difficult it is to restore them. This awareness is facilitated by the concept of the price of progress;

3) consideration of a person as a part of a social organism, a complex social system. Man must take his place at the center of historical research and historical storytelling. After all, it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and other people’s ideas;

4) the intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought. People demand to be treated with the same respect as civilization. History must be populated by people, living people, concrete, unique individuals. Kings, sages, villains, artists were endowed not only with social, but also with individual psychology; they not only reflected their era, but also influenced reality. They must be recognized as having the right to free will, to the opportunity to significantly change the course of history. Thus, history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities;

5) the principle of proportionality and involvement. This principle is manifested in the study of people's lifestyles. Biographies bring proportionality to history. This form of understanding history has proven its effectiveness. History is best perceived through the prism of participation

STI - as the history of your family, your city, your land, included in the context of a larger history;

6) the principle of unity. History should instill an understanding of the synchronicity of events, an understanding that, for example, Shakespeare was a contemporary of False Dmitry. It is interesting to explore the interaction of history with geographical space, to study the dynamics of interaction between man and environment. The story should be narrative, vivid, specific. As a cumulative science, history must integrate the achievements of predecessors - not only their positive contributions, but also their concepts. We must keep in mind the possibility of the existence of different approaches and points of view on problems.

Many facts, events, phenomena of our history, with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, with the improvement of theoretical knowledge, are assessed differently today than they were several years ago. Modern Russian historical science is going through a special period when new approaches to history are just beginning to be developed. Thus, in modern domestic historiography, traditional system-forming categories are widely used: primitive society, slave-owning system, feudal fragmentation, etc. At the same time, many scientists critically, or even negatively evaluate the concept of “socio-economic formation”, which was fundamental in the past.

The complexity of the historical development of mankind and the diversity of worldview positions of scientists have led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished:

1) religious (theological, providential): E. N. Trubetskoy - explanation of the origin of humanity, its development by divine will; V. S. Solovyov - formulation of the problem of the unity of history; N. N. Filoletov - an attempt to comprehend the meaning of history and its purpose from a divine point of view;

2) natural science (naturalistic): a) geographical determinism. C. Montesquieu believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface are the decisive factors that determine the spirit of peoples, forms of government and legislation, and the nature of historical development; L.I. Mechnikov attached special importance to the hydrosphere. Associated with it is his division of human history into three periods: river civilizations (civilizations that developed in the basins of great rivers - Egypt, China, India, etc.), maritime (Ancient Greece, etc.), oceanic (with the discovery of America); b) demographic: T. Malthus - population is of decisive importance in history. Population growth is in geometric progression, and the production of means of subsistence is in arithmetic progression. The unbridled proliferation of the people leads to poverty and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions; c) ethnogenetic: L.N. Gumilyov distinguishes between social and ethnic history. The subject of the latter is the ethnic group - a “geographical phenomenon”. The decisive reason for the emergence and development of an ethnos is passionarity;

3) socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period - human society in the process

Its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production and in the characteristics of the socio-political organization of society. The disadvantages of this theory are as follows: firstly, predominant importance is given to the economic factor of development, secondly, the specifics of development are not taken into account (each country must go through all stages of development);

4) cultural-historical (cultural-civilizational): a) J. Vico, I. G. Greder, G. V. F. Hegel - priority development of the spiritual sphere, culture, recognition of the unity of history, its progress, faith in the rational nature of the historical process; b) N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others - the concept of closed (local) civilizations; c) N. A. Berdyaev, K. Jaspers and others - a kind of distrust of rational knowledge, doubts about its ability to solve the problems of history;

5) peace - systemic analysis of Immanuel Wallerstein - an attempt to integrate cultural, economic-deterministic, class and statist approaches into a single whole.

In order to identify an objective picture of the historical process, historical science must rely on a certain methodology, certain general principles that would make it possible to organize the material accumulated by researchers and create effective explanatory models. The principles of obtaining historical knowledge are the main, fundamental principles of science. They are based on the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is a significant difference between patterns and principles: patterns act objectively, and principles are a logical category; they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people. The principle can be considered as a basic rule that must be followed when studying all phenomena and events in history.

The basic scientific principles are as follows.

The principle of historicism is one of the basic principles of the approach to the study of nature and society. All historical facts, phenomena and events are considered in accordance with the specific historical situation, in their interrelation and interdependence. Each historical phenomenon should be studied in its development: how it arose, what stages it went through in its development, what it ultimately became. It is impossible to consider an event or person outside of time and circumstances.

The principle of objectivity presupposes reliance on facts in their true content, not distorted or adjusted to fit a scheme. This principle requires considering each phenomenon in its versatility, inconsistency, and the totality of both positive and negative sides. The main thing in ensuring the principle of objectivity is the personality of the historian: his theoretical and professional skills.

The principle of the social approach assumes that certain social interests manifest themselves in the development of social processes: in economics

ical field, political, inter-class and extra-class contradictions, relations between social psychology and traditions. This principle (it is also called the principle of the class, party approach) obliges us to correlate the interests of a certain social group with those of humanity, taking into account the subjective aspect in the practical activities of governments, parties, and individuals. The social approach to history is especially important when assessing programs, the real political activities of parties and their leaders, which allows us to draw important conclusions. At the same time, when solving global problems of our time, priorities are given not to class, but to universal human values. Therefore, they should not be opposed, but complementary.

The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of the occurrence of a particular event, phenomenon, process based on an analysis of objective realities and possibilities. Recognizing the historical alternative allows us to re-evaluate the path of each country, see the untapped possibilities of the process, and draw lessons for the future.

In addition to general methodological principles, specific research methods are also used in historical knowledge:

General scientific;

Actually historical;

Special (borrowed from other sciences).

The method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts.

General scientific research methods include historical, logical and classification methods. The historical method allows us to reproduce the development process with its general, special and uniquely individual features. Logical - connected with the historical, it generalizes the entire process in the theoretical form of laws. Both of these methods complement each other, since the historical method has its own cognitive limits, having exhausted which it is possible to draw conclusions and generalizations using the logical method. Classification as a method allows us to highlight the general and special in phenomena, facilitates the collection of material, systematizes knowledge, contributes to theoretical generalizations, and the identification of new laws.

Historical research methods themselves can be divided into two groups:

1) methods based on various options for studying processes in time: chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method;

2) methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic.

The essence of the chronological method is that phenomena are presented in temporal (chronological) order. Chronological-problematic method

provides for the study and research of Russian history by periods (topics) or eras, and within them - by problems. Taking into account the problem-chronological method, there is a study and research of any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent development. The synchronistic method makes it possible to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia and its regions. The periodization method makes it possible to identify changes in qualitative features in development and establish periods of these qualitative changes.

The comparative historical method aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine the changes that have occurred, and identify ways of social development. Retrospective allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development. Structural-systemic establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are distinguished within a certain chronological framework.

Special methods: mathematical methods of process analysis, statistical methods, sociological research and social psychology. Of particular importance for the analysis of historical situations are the method of sociological research and the method of social psychology, since the masses (people) have a direct influence on the course of historical development.

The following methodological principles underlie the study of the “History of Russia” course.

National history is an integral part of world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life.

In studying the course, in our opinion, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. At the same time, special attention should be paid to the most significant issues for the history of Russia: the formation and development of ethnic groups, the fate of civilizations on the territory of Russia, national customs and traditions, spiritual values, etc.

Russia is a civilizational region, the unique development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The uniqueness of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process were significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to the contradictory influence of the West and the East on Russia. At the same time, recognition of originality does not mean isolation of Russia from general historical development; The history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

According to modern researchers, the path of Russian history (no matter what it is called: modernization, the civilizational cycle, the Eurasian path, etc.) represents not a “lag” or “delay” in development, but simply a different, original development leading to a creative synthesis of the general and specific, internal and external, domestic and foreign experience. And in this regard, when consistently studying the history of Russia, in historical research it is permissible to use various categories and concepts, mainly sociological (modernization, stages, formation), cultural (totalitarianism), economic (industrialism and post-industrialism).

Studying a course in the history of Russia involves acquiring knowledge of a historiographical nature. The classics of Russian historiography - N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky - made a significant contribution to Russian historical science. The works of other outstanding Russian historians enjoy well-deserved authority and influence. These are primarily the works of N. M. Kostomarov, A. A. Kornilov, S. F. Platonov, M. N. Pokrovsky, P. M. Milyukov, V. N. Tatishchev.

The main difficulty in studying the history of Russia is the diversity of educational historical literature, the authors of which adhere to different historical schools and sometimes express mutually exclusive points of view on the problems of Russian history.

1) textbooks, teaching aids: “Review of Russian History” by S. G. Pushkarev (Stavropol, 1993), the first edition of which was published in 1953 in the USA; “Russian History” by G.V. Vernadsky (M., 1997) - the son of V.I. Vernadsky, a student of V.O. Klyuchevsky, R.Yu. Vipper, A.A. Kizevetter, who emigrated to the West and was recognized there as a leading specialist on Russian history; “Russian History” by M. I. Pokrovsky (M., 2002) is one of the most monumental works in world history and, without a doubt, the most thorough of the classical works on the history of Russia;

Of undoubted interest are publications of an educational and methodological nature, containing additional materials on the history of Russia, as well as problematic issues, tasks, etc. One of the first in this regard is the work of S. G. Smirnov “Problem book on the history of Russia” (M., 1995). In the textbook by S. G. Goryainov, A. A. Egorov “History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries.” (M., 1998) each topic is supplemented with excerpts from historical documents and assignments for them. In JI didactic materials. M. Lyashenko “History of Russia. XIX century" (Moscow, 2000) and A. G. Koloskova "History of Russia. XX century" (Moscow, 2000) presents a variety of training and testing tasks of varying complexity (traditional questions, work with a document, tests, materials for reports, discussions, historical essays, etc.). Questions and tasks contained in the textbook by E. A. Gevurkova, V. I. Egorova, A. G. Koloskova, JI. I. Larina “History of Russia: problems, events, people (differentiated questions and tasks)” (Moscow, 2000) are based on the use of a wide range of historical sources, have a teaching and control orientation.

The album by A. T. Stepanishchev “History of Russia: IX-XX centuries: Schemes” (Moscow, 2001) includes more than 330 logical, problem-logical and structural diagrams, graphs, covering more than eleven centuries

history of Russia. The textbook by the same author, “History of Russia: Teaching at School,” focuses on understanding the conceptual and methodological problems of teaching and studying history, mastering specific methods for conducting various types and forms of classes, and organizing independent work for students. Considerable space is devoted to revealing the problems of educating the younger generation in the history of the Fatherland.

The relevance of a balanced scientific approach to the study of history remains and even increases due to the fact that rethinking the past is not without costs and contradictions. Many problems have to be solved in conditions of transition from one social system to another, in conditions of fundamental changes in the political system of society, its economic foundations, the promotion of new political and ideological paradigms, and new moral values.

The task of teaching history in modern conditions is to show real history in all its complexities and contradictions, with its bright and tragic sides, while maintaining objectivity and historical truth. This approach will help correct the mistakes of the past and give a true understanding of historical events and phenomena.

School teachers and teachers of higher educational institutions realize that in order to truly understand history, their students must look beyond the textbook, see living history, and understand its meaning. In the process of teaching, they somehow bear the “burden of proof” of at least four truths:

1. HISTORY IS ONE.

The relationship between the historical destinies of peoples and states is reflected, it is shown that no one has ever been able to “fence off” from the world-historical process either with high walls, or long distances, or gold, or force. Yes, the West is the West, the East is the East, but these are just different sides of the single history of mankind.

2. HISTORY IS MODERN.

The continuity of history is illustrated. Neither the fall of empires, the accession of new kings, nor attempts to destroy human memory can interrupt it. Events centuries ago vividly resonate with modern times. They help to more accurately understand today also because history does repeat itself, and because the current reality sometimes arose not only in past decades, but also in past centuries.

3. THE HISTORY IS SPECIFIC.

History is not only a manifestation of general historical laws, but also a memory of the real life of living people. Emperors and poets, freedom fighters and their executioners, thinkers and conquerors. The life of each of them helps us not only to see their time more clearly, but sometimes to understand the present day more deeply.

4. HISTORY IS INTERESTING.

History, like any subject, can be taught in an incredibly boring way. But who said that history itself is to blame for this? It is important, when thinking about historical events, to ask yourself questions: “Why did everything happen this way? Where are the reasons and origins? It’s interesting to pose such questions with your students and look for answers to them.

The study of humanities is an important part of the general educational and worldview training of modern specialists and contributes to the intellectual development of the individual and the development of creative thinking. The course “National History” is an important element in the structure of the cycle of humanities. Its study is intended to provide:

An idea of ​​the basic patterns and features of historical development;

Understanding the role of Russia in the world historical process;

Formation of historical consciousness, i.e. a system of views, ideas, theories, concepts, thanks to which the past is realized;

Mastering spiritual values ​​developed during historical development and determining one’s own attitude towards them; introducing listeners to the social experience, spiritual and moral values ​​of previous generations of Russians, embodied in philosophical and religious teachings, art and literature, folk customs and traditions;

Formation of the ability to use acquired knowledge, independently extract it from historical sources, find the necessary information in a diverse stream of historical and journalistic literature;

Development of the ability to analyze and evaluate facts, phenomena and events, the ability to reveal cause-and-effect relationships between them;

Understanding the new realities of modern national history, taking into account the cultural and historical traditions of Russia.

The main goal of the course “National History” is to develop students’ historical consciousness and instill in them the skills of historical thinking.

In the structure of the goals and objectives of the course, an important place is occupied by the development of general educational and special skills and abilities:

-general logical skills(the ability to analyze, classify, correctly correlate facts and generalizations, evaluate events, establish cause-and-effect relationships, patterns of social development, determine the specific historical conditions of a particular era, etc.);

-search and information skills(fluent handling of dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias, catalogues, the ability to find the necessary information in books, collections, magazines, the ability to systematize literature within the framework of a specific task);

-educational and cognitive skills(drawing up abstracts of speeches, scientific reports, reports, synopses, preparing abstracts; the ability to participate in discussions, competently, logically, and convincingly express one’s thoughts).

Currently, the manuals available to high school students and applicants, college and university students are becoming outdated or simply disappearing from sale due to limited circulation. All this makes it relevant to publish new textbooks on the history of Russia. The French historian F. Braudel argued: “History constantly needs to be rewritten, it is always in the stage of formation and overcoming itself.” This judgment is applicable not only to the description of the historical process, but also to the understanding of its scientific aspect.

The peculiarity of the work we propose is that the authors, without claiming to be an exhaustive presentation of Russian history, sought, based on the author’s approach, to provide an analysis of the main events and phenomena of Russian history. Our training manual contains pluralistic approaches and assessments that complement and enrich each other; alternative historical concepts and opinions of various scientific schools are used, which are represented by the views of domestic and foreign authors on the historical path of Russia.

Chapter 1. THE PRIMITIVE AGE OF HUMANITY

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history

Human Origins

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland

The culture of primitive society

General characteristics and options for periodization of ancient history. Modern science suggests that the entire variety of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth - an ordinary planet in the solar system - is 4.6 billion years old. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

There are several options for the periodization of humanity at the stage of the primitive communal system. Most often they use an archaeological scheme based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it, three periods are distinguished in the ancient era:

Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC);

Bronze Age (IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC);

Iron Age(from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the transitional to bronze Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic).

Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.

The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:

Low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement;

Collective appropriation of natural resources and production results;

Equal distribution;

Socio-economic equality;

The absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecines marked the emergence of material culture directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.

The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult

In the struggle for existence, new skills appear, tools are improved, and new social forms are developed.

The path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system passed through a number of stages: 1) mastery of fire; 2) collective hunting of large animals; 3) adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier; 4) invention of the bow; 5) transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture); 6) discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron); 7) creation of a complex tribal organization of society.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, reserves of ores and minerals moved faster towards civilization.

A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropes (pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), in the glacial period - paleoanthropes

(Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

Human Origins. Among different peoples in different regions of the Earth, the appearance of certain tools and forms of social life did not occur simultaneously. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin).

Scientists have identified the following problems of anthropogenesis: 1) the origin of man as a species, the place and chronology of this phenomenon, the definition of the line between man as an actively thinking creature of living nature and his closest ancestors; 2) the connection between anthropogenesis and the development of material production; 3) raceogenesis - the study of the causes and processes of racial-genetic differences.

The origin of man has always been considered from two mutually exclusive positions: as the result of a supernatural, divine, cosmic (alien in the modern version) beginning and as a result of the evolutionary development of living nature, as a kind of pinnacle of this process.

In Soviet science, the evolutionary view of anthropogenesis dominated. Back in the 17th century. Materialist scientists, based on the idea of ​​the unity of the entire animal world, considered man as a part of nature and expressed the idea of ​​his origin from ancient apes. This view did not appear by chance, since significant scientific mathematics had been accumulated.

rial, which proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes.

The most ancient ancestors of modern man resembled apes, who, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. The further evolution of the habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropes (from the Greek "pithekos" - monkey, "anthropos" - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek "achaios" - ancient). Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany).

The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

Australopithecine man

Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);

Man of modern physical appearance (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

As a result of the accumulation of new anthropological and archaeological materials, modern science suggests that the process of formation of modern people took place in an area covering Southeast Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. From this zone, the modern type of man, as the most developed, settled throughout the entire territory of the earth. As a result of settlement, extensive cultural and historical communities emerged. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the linguistic families from which came the peoples who currently inhabit our country. The following cultural and historical communities are distinguished:

Indo-European;

Ugro-Finnish;

Turkic;

Iberian-Caucasian.

The largest language family is Indo-European. It took shape on the territory of modern Iran and Asia Minor, and spread to Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia and the region of the Hindustan Peninsula. Subsequently, the Indo-European cultural community was divided into several branches:

1) Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.);

2) Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.;

3) eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired characteristics changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Thus, within the Mongoloid race there are South Asian, Siberian and American branches, the Negroid is divided into two, and within the Caucasoid race there are northern and southern branches.

Historically, the development of mankind has proceeded in a constant dialectical unity of different principles - evolutionary and the phenomenon of a qualitative leap, biological and social. Substitution of one for the other is completely excluded. At the same time, we must not forget that the development of mankind took place in constant and close interaction with nature. And the more perfect a person became, the more actively he influenced it and adapted it to his needs. However, in archaeological eras, unlike industrial ones, this adaptation was always rational; man thought of himself only as a part of his natural environment.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system. Around the IV-V millennium BC. e. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the form of family relationships changes; a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes.

Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

Signs of the collapse of the tribal system:

The emergence of wealth inequality;

Selection of nobility;

Concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders;

Frequent armed clashes;

Turning prisoners into slaves;

Transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations did not occur simultaneously; the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others formed slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some to colonial capitalism ( peoples of America, Australia).

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland. The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology).

Sites of primitive people have been discovered in Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, Crimea, the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East. For example, on the territory of the former USSR, the remains of above-ground dwellings dating back to the Early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts of the dwelling were also found here. About 1,500 Upper Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered in Russia. When choosing places for settlements, people of the Late Ice Age cared primarily about the convenience of hunting, so settlements were usually located at the edge of river valleys, often in groups. Such a group of Paleolithic settlements is known on the Don in the Voronezh region near the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, on the Desna - near Novgorod-Seversky, in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids. Siberian ancient Paleolithic monuments are also located in groups. Unlike the earlier period, Late Paleolithic dwellings are more advanced. Large, connected dwellings and settlements consisting of individual small huts confirm the conclusion about the coexistence of communities and communal farming. Within communities, individual dwellings and centers of large dwellings could belong to individual paired families.

In the developed Neolithic on the European territory of Russia, significant changes were observed in the distribution of cultures, many new archaeo-

logical cultures, which is associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes in the ethnic composition of the Neolithic population, and the movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev.

The tribes of the so-called Belev culture (named after the settlement of the city of Belev) occupied, for example, the region of the upper reaches of the Oka. It is characterized by the widespread use of massive and long knife-like plates in the manufacture of tools. Narrow and long leaf-shaped daggers and arrowheads were made from them. At the same time, in this culture, Paleolithic-looking incisors and side scrapers existed for a long time. The surface of the vessels was covered with a pattern in the form of rhombic or oval depressions.

Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is associated mainly with the work of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevyanko.

In the Amur basin, four Neolithic cultures are known: Novopetrovsk, Gromatukha, Osinovo-Ozersk and Lower Amur. At the end of the Neolithic, a division of labor occurred among the tribes of the Far East: some began to engage in agriculture, others in fishing, hunting and gathering, which determined the features of their development in the future. In general, on the territory of our country in the history of primitive society, several stages are distinguished in terms of the degree of development of productive forces, social organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower stage to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity grew in primitive society, exchange intensified, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. The primitive society on the territory of Russia was replaced by a feudal society.

The culture of primitive society. According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is a complex phenomenon that strikes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state.

First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis:

1) the extinction over a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;

2) the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases of violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons.

In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used.

Archaeological finds are mainly tools corresponding to certain historical eras. During the Paleolithic period - points, scrapers, awls and piercings. In a later period, along with long ones, hunters made shorter dart spears that could be thrown over a long distance.

One of the most significant achievements of the Upper Paleolithic period was the discovery of several ways to make fire. The first method was the striking of a spark by sharp impacts of flint on the ore mineral pyrite. The second method was to make fire by rubbing wood against wood, but the reliability of data on the widespread use of this method still raises doubts among scientists.

The formation of a mature form of a social organism is associated with the formation of the maternal family. With the help of establishing certain traditions, they learned to regulate relations between the sexes, methods and forms of raising children. The structure of collectivist consciousness was formed. Certain types of mythological consciousness arose, which included the first forms: religious, moral, technological, labor.

Unfortunately, researchers have still not been able to find works of art that date back to an earlier historical period than the Late Paleolithic. The most common sculptural images during this period were female figurines.

Each tribe had its own gods, its own revered mythological creatures. This belief is originally rooted in the veneration of nature spirits. In addition, each tribe has its own sacred ancestors, who are most often identified with certain animals. This belief system was called totemism.

Another belief characteristic of myth is fetishism. Fetishism is the deification of a special object, which is perceived as a carrier of demonic powers and which is mystically connected with the fate of a given tribe. An object that is treated in this way is a fetish.

In the conditions of primitive society, magical art develops. Magic could not influence the objective properties of things, but it fully controlled the psyche of primitive man. Magic words and rituals influenced a person - and not on his mind, which was still too weak and undeveloped, but on his unconscious. Magic could not physically cause rain or ensure a harvest, but it inspired people with unity, optimism and success in a difficult and dangerous task.

In general, primitive culture reveals the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, and prospects for further development.

Chapter 2. SLAVE CIVILIZATIONS OF THE TRANSCAUCASUS, CENTRAL ASIA AND THE BLACK SEA REGION.

ANCIENT SLAVS (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)

Features of the formation of the most ancient slave states

Predecessors of the ancient Slavs

The ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis

Features of the formation of the most ancient slave states. The first slave-owning civilizations arose in the Bronze Age in a zone with a favorable climate stretching from the Mediterranean to China: the despotisms of the Ancient East, Greece, Rome, India and China. Slavery existed as the dominant form of organization of life on a world-historical scale until the 3rd-5th centuries. n. e.

The prerequisites for the creation of statehood took shape over hundreds of years. The form of the first civilizational relations could be different: in some conditions - slave-owning, in others - feudal. The process of transition from primitive communal relations to civilization lasted for several thousand years; among the peoples of the Ancient East it took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e., and for some peoples it began only in the 19th century. n. e.

On the territory of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region, large slave states emerged that preceded the emergence of feudal society and influenced the course of world history.

In slaveholding and feudal societies there were both free community members and slaves, although the latter did not play a major economic role under feudalism. The difference between these societies was that slavery was based on the forced use in the master’s economy of the labor of people who were completely the property of their master and did not have their own means of production, and feudalism was based on the forced exploitation of the labor of people (peasants) running their own farm and owning means of production (except land owned by the master). However, even during the transition to feudalism directly from primitive society, slavery had a significant place (patriarchal form of slavery).

The development of slave-owning civilization was facilitated by the presence of a number of conditions:

1) organization of a large master's farm (with primitive technology);

2) control of the tribal nobility, and subsequently the state, over the vital means of running a community economy (irrigation canals, ore developments, etc.);

3) expanding the sources of obtaining new slaves.

Despite the extreme cruelty of slavery, slave civilization was a significant step forward compared to primitive society:

A specialized craft developed;

Extensive trade relations were established;

Cities with a high culture for that time arose;

A written language appeared that preserved the names of peoples and precious information about their language and way of life.

The Transcaucasian tribes' own written language tells us about the transformation in the 11th century. BC e. union of tribes into the state of Urartu. It existed for about three centuries and was destroyed around 590 BC. e. Milians, southern neighbors of the Urartians. Dozens of tribes were subjugated and united into one significant state, which became in the 8th century. BC e. a rival of the Assyrian power and a major force in the Ancient East.

Various sectors of the economy were developed in Urartu. In the river valleys, agriculture predominated, requiring artificial irrigation; in the mountains - semi-nomadic (eilag) cattle breeding. Various varieties of wheat, barley, millet were cultivated, grapes, figs, and almonds were grown. Among domestic animals, cows and sheep were known. Horse breeding, which was of great importance for the needs of the royal army, gradually expanded. Camels were bred.

Urartian artisans were experienced craftsmen who mastered the techniques of processing bronze, iron, precious metals, stone, clay, wood, etc. All the luxury of the royal palaces and temples, known from descriptions and archaeological excavations, was the work of local craftsmen, most of whom belonged to , in all likelihood, to slaves.

The main slave owner of Urartu was the king, who stood at the head of a large army. He owned many cities, fortresses, canals and numerous slaves.

Great wealth belonged to the temples and priests. The inhabitants of Urartu sacrificed bulls, rams, and, in especially important cases, people to their numerous gods. The people also preserved remnants of religious ideas from the time of primitive society: the cult of the tree as a symbol of life was developed, and magical spell drawings were widely used. The population of Urartu had their own written language (cuneiform), mathematical science arose, their own measures and their own digital system were created.

In Central Asia by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. There was a massive transition to settled agriculture with artificial irrigation, which led to the emergence of slave relations. The ancient epic ("Avesta") created by the Indo-European peoples of Central Asia mentions Khorezm - "the country of the sun" (along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya), Sogdiana - "rich in people and herds" (in the Zeravshan valley), Bactria - "a country with high banners" ( in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya). The peculiarity of the development of these countries, like other countries of the Ancient East, was the preservation of elements of the tribal system.

Predecessors of the ancient Slavs. On the northern shores of the Black Sea, which the Greeks called Pont Euxine, in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Numerous Greek colonies arose - city-states (polises). The most famous

Some of them were Olbia (near Nikolaev), Chersonesos (in the territory of present-day Sevastopol), Panticapaeum (Kerch), Tanais (near Rostov-on-Don), etc.

Almost all the city-states of the Black Sea region were slave-owning republics and largely copied the structure and way of life of the Greek world. Ancient slavery, in contrast to slavery in eastern despotism and patriarchal slavery of peoples at the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, was based on a high level of commodity production. Active Marine

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Smirnov A.S. History of textile science. Part 1. History of cotton spinning in Russia (Document)

Yanin V.L. (chief ed.), etc. Domestic history. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. Encyclopedia in 5 volumes. Volume 1: A - D (Document)

Ryabov Yu.A. History of Russia in the 20th century (Document)

Pavlenko N.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. 2nd edition (Document)

Milov L.V. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century (Document)

History of railway transport in Russia. Volume 1: 1836-1917 (Document)

Presentation - Ethnic history of Russia (Abstract)

Shinkarchuk S.A. History of Russia in painting (Document)

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Derevyanko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A.

D36 History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - 560 p.
CONTENT

Preface	3
Chapter 1. The primitive era of mankind	16
Chapter 2. Slave-owning civilizations of Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region. Ancient Slavs (1st millennium BC - IV century AD)	23
Chapter 3. Eastern Slavs on the threshold of state formation( VI- IXcenturies)	28
Chapter 4. Ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries	35
4.1. Old Russian state (IX-XII centuries)	35
4.2. Russian lands and principalities in the 11th - first half of the 13th century	49
4.3. Rus''s struggle for independence in the 13th century	56
Chapter 5. Formation of the Russian centralized state (end of the 13th - first half of the 16th century)	65
Chapter 6. The Russian state in the 16th century. Ivan groznyj	81
Chapter 7. Russia in the 17th century	97
7.1. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles	98
7.2. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. "Rebellious Age"	105
Chapter 8. Russian Empire in the 18th century	121
8.1. The birth of an empire: the time of Peter the Great (end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century)	122
8.2. Russia in the era of palace coups, 1725-1762	135
8.3. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century	148
Chapter 9. Russia in the 19th century	164
9.1. Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century	164
9.2. Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century	191
Chapter 10. Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries	210
10.1. Economic and social development	211
10.2. The political system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	223
10.3. Revolutionary crises in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century	235
10.4. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century	257
Chapter 11. Soviet Russia in 1917-early 20s	263
Chapter 12. The Soviet state in the first half of the 20s. XX century	282
Chapter 13. USSR on Tuethe second half of the 20s-30s. XX	295
13.1. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the 20-30s. XX century	295
13.2. Economic and social development of the USSR in the 20-30s	314
13.3. Foreign policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941)	325
Chapter 14. USSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)	339
Chapter 15. Post-war restoration and development of the USSR	363
Chapter 16. USSR in 1953-1964. Decade of KhrushchevA	380
Chapter 17. USSR in the mid-60s to mid-80s	400
Chapter 18. Perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991)	422
Chapter 19. Russia in the 90s. XX century, early XXI century	441
Chapter 20. Culture of Russia (IX-early XXI centuries)	472
20.1. Culture of the Old Russian state and the era of appanage principalities (IX-XIII centuries)	473
20.2. Development of the culture of the Moscow state ( XIV- XVIIcenturies)	478
20.3. Cultural evolution of the Russian Empire ( XVIII- XXcenturies)	487
20.4. Soviet period of development of Russian culture	511
20.5. The current sociocultural situation in Russia	534
Rulers	541

PREFACE
Our era is a time of painful reassessment of values ​​and radical experiments, a time of choosing socio-political, economic, moral and ethical guidelines for every family, every person. You and I have had the privilege of living, studying, and working during a period of change of centuries, fundamental changes in the development of society, when the pace of change in the life of states and peoples is rapidly accelerating and new, largely unknown perspectives are opening up in the historical development of Russia and the whole world.

The truth is known - parents are not chosen. In infancy and early childhood they are loved because they are parents. Then they are loved for their care, affection and help in all matters. If parents are unkind or cruel, the child is unlikely to respond to them with anything other than coldness. Growing up, a person one day tries to look at his father and mother as if from the outside, through the eyes of a curious observer, to evaluate the merits and demerits of their character in the same way as he evaluates other, non-relative people. Gradually, he determines for himself what his parents are good at and what they are bad at, that is, he begins to treat them consciously, as something explained, something that has become understandable.

The country in which a person is born, like his mother and father, can be caring or unkind. The time comes when you have to determine your attitude towards her, consciously choosing love or indifference. In order not to make a mistake, “you should know the history of your fatherland. Not only a cold list of events and characters, but also the very essence of the history of our country, its pedigree. It is necessary to try to understand what the homeland is, how it became this way and what fate awaits it .

We have received a spiritual heritage from past generations, which we are adding to based on our own experience. This is knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society (science), emotional perception of the environment (culture), a set of rules of communication (morality), ideals and motives of activity (ideology, religion), methods and forms of transmitting spiritual heritage from generation to generation (education).

At turning points, there is a revaluation of the spiritual heritage: a change in scientific paradigms, the renewal of cultural and ethnic values, the destruction of old and the formation of new ideals, changes in education. This is a painful, painful, long process. It is associated with destruction

Habitual stereotypes of thinking and behavior, with the emergence of many alternative positions, with the sudden invasion of long-forgotten and discarded views.

How to choose the right path to the future, avoid making a fatal mistake, and distinguish the truth in this motley palette of tempting ideas? History can help with this, which contains not just a fascinating or boring (depending on the literary gift of the chronicler) description of past events, the deeds of historical figures and peoples. Knowledge of history presupposes generalization, comprehension of past experience, every grain of which was paid at a high price. Despite all the apparent uniqueness of the events taking place today, one can always find similarities, and considerable ones, with what peoples who found a way out of similar crises have already experienced in the past. It is necessary to learn the lessons of history, periodically adding to the acquired knowledge based on your own experience. In this sense, each of us is a student of history, diligent or frivolous.

History (from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned) is considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of nature and humanity, and, secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the primary task of history. Historia est magistra vitae (history is the teacher of life), the ancients said. And indeed, people always, especially during critical periods in the life of mankind, try to find answers to many questions in the world historical experience. Using historical examples, people are brought up to respect eternal human values: peace, goodness, justice, beauty, freedom. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. History as a single process of the evolution of nature and society is studied by a set of social sciences with the involvement of data from the natural and technical sciences.

Since antiquity, the science of the past has become an independent field of human knowledge. But the science of history itself developed much later (in Russia - approximately from the beginning of the 18th century). In the XVIII-first half of the XIX century. there was a clarification of the subject of history in connection with a turn to the study of economics, culture and social relations.

For history, the object of study is the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. The subject of history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.

History is a multidisciplinary science; it is made up of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: economic history,

Political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc. , as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures).

There are auxiliary historical disciplines that have a relatively narrow subject of study, study it in detail and thus contribute to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole. These include: genealogy (the study of the origins and relationships of individuals and families), heraldry (the study of coats of arms), numismatics (the study of coins and their minting), chronology (the study of chronological systems and calendars), paleography (the study of , studying handwritten monuments and ancient writing), etc.

The most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source studies, which studies historical sources, and historiography (the history of historical science), the task of which is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study patterns in the development of historical science.

History is a concrete science that requires precise knowledge of the chronology (dates) of facts and events. It is closely related to other sciences, but unlike them, it examines the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.), their interrelations and interdependence. At the same time, each of the existing sciences (social, economic, technical) has gone through its own history during the development of human society. And at the present stage, all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created, such as historical geography, historical geology, etc.

According to the breadth of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

• 
  history of the world as a whole;
• 
  history of a continent or region (European history, African studies, Balkan studies);
• 
  people (Chinese studies, Japanese studies);
• 
  groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, and the formation of the main state and public institutions.

Any literate person should know the history of his Fatherland. It is impossible to live in our native land and not know who lived here before us, not to know and not to remember their works, glory, delusions and mistakes. We received from them not only a material, but also a spiritual inheritance and we take everything for granted. But do we always know how to be grateful to our fathers and grandfathers? Before our eyes, Russia is changing, the old is dying,

New. It cannot always be assessed unambiguously, and it is not always for the benefit of Russia. To understand modern processes, to determine our own view of what is happening around and inside Russia, and not to get lost in the diversity of opinions - history will help us with this.

Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property. Russia had its own complex, contradictory, heroic and dramatic, original history, unlike other countries. And, despite everything, Russia has made a worthy contribution to world culture and civilization. Studying the history of Russia leads to the conviction that it was all created by the strength of the Russian spiritual character. The outstanding thinker of the 20th century correctly noted. Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin: “From Theodosius of Pechersk to Sergius, Hermogenes and Seraphim of Sarov; from Monomakh to Peter the Great, and to Suvorov, Stolypin and Wrangel; from Lomonosov to Mendeleev - the entire history of Russia is a victory of the Russian spiritual character over difficulties, temptations, dangers and enemies.”

The interests of modern society, the main directions of development of historical science and the consistent study of history in school and higher education institutions coincide in some principles:

1. 
   respect for all peoples and cultures without exception. It is necessary to recognize the significance of all eras and societies, to strive to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning. At the same time, when studying this process, it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, the historical distance. This seems to be the meaning of the civilizational approach;
2. 
   caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society. History is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature can be, and how difficult it is to restore them. This awareness is facilitated by the concept of the price of progress;
3. 
   consideration of a person as part of a social organism, a complex social system. Man must take his place at the center of historical research and historical storytelling. After all, it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and other people’s ideas;
4. 
   the intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought. People demand to be treated with the same respect as civilization. History must be populated by people, living people, concrete, unique individuals. Kings, sages, villains, artists were endowed not only with social, but also with individual psychology; they not only reflected their era, but also influenced reality. They must be recognized as having the right to free will, to the opportunity to significantly change the course of history. Thus, history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities;
5. 
   the principle of proportionality and involvement. This principle is manifested in the study of people's lifestyles. Biographies bring proportionality to history. This form of understanding history has proven its effectiveness. History is best perceived through the prism of participation

7

Ste - as the history of his family, his city, his land, included in the context of a larger story;

6) the principle of unity. History should instill an understanding of the synchronicity of events, an understanding that, for example, Shakespeare was a contemporary of False Dmitry. It is interesting to explore the interaction of history with geographical space, to study the dynamics of interaction between man and environment. The story should be narrative, vivid, specific. As a cumulative science, history must integrate the achievements of predecessors - not only their positive contributions, but also their concepts. We must keep in mind the possibility of the existence of different approaches and points of view on problems.

Many facts, events, phenomena of our history, with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, with the improvement of theoretical knowledge, are assessed differently today than they were several years ago. Modern Russian historical science is going through a special period when new approaches to history are just beginning to be developed. Thus, in modern domestic historiography, traditional system-forming categories are widely used: primitive society, slave-owning system, feudal fragmentation, etc. At the same time, many scientists critically, or even negatively evaluate the concept of “socio-economic formation”, which was fundamental in the past.

The complexity of the historical development of mankind and the diversity of worldview positions of scientists have led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished:

1) religious (theological, providential): E. N. Trubetskoy - explanation of the origin of humanity, its development by divine will; V. S. Solovyov - formulation of the problem of the unity of history; N. N. Filoletov - an attempt to comprehend the meaning of history and its purpose from a divine point of view;

1. 
   natural science (naturalistic): a) geographical determinism. C. Montesquieu believed that climate, soil and the state of the earth's surface are the decisive factors that determine the spirit of peoples, forms of government and legislation, and the nature of historical development; L.I. Mechnikov attached special importance to the hydrosphere. Associated with it is his division of human history into three periods: river civilizations (civilizations that developed in the basins of great rivers - Egypt, China, India, etc.), maritime (Ancient Greece, etc.), oceanic (with the discovery of America); b) demographic: T. Malthus - population is of decisive importance in history. Population growth is in geometric progression, and the production of means of subsistence is in arithmetic progression. The unbridled proliferation of the people leads to poverty and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions; c) ethnogenetic: L.N. Gumilyov distinguishes between social and ethnic history. The subject of the latter is the ethnic group - a “geographical phenomenon”. The decisive reason for the emergence and development of an ethnos is passionarity;
2. 
   socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period - human society in the process

8

Its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production and in the characteristics of the socio-political organization of society. The disadvantages of this theory are as follows: firstly, predominant importance is given to the economic factor of development, secondly, the specifics of development are not taken into account (each country must go through all stages of development);

1. 
   cultural-historical (cultural-civilizational): a) G. Vico, I. G. Greder, G. V. F. Hegel - priority development of the spiritual sphere, culture, recognition of the unity of history, its progress, faith in the rational nature of the historical process; b) N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee and others - the concept of closed (local) civilizations; c) N. A. Berdyaev, K. Jaspers and others - a kind of distrust of rational knowledge, doubts about its ability to solve the problems of history;
2. 
   world - systemic analysis of Immanuel Wallerstein - an attempt to integrate cultural, economic-deterministic, class and statist approaches into a single whole.

In order to identify an objective picture of the historical process, historical science must rely on a certain methodology, certain general principles that would make it possible to organize the material accumulated by researchers and create effective explanatory models. The principles of obtaining historical knowledge are the main, fundamental principles of science. They are based on the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is a significant difference between patterns and principles: patterns act objectively, and principles are a logical category; they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people. The principle can be considered as a basic rule that must be followed when studying all phenomena and events in history.

The basic scientific principles are as follows.

The principle of historicism is one of the basic principles of the approach to the study of nature and society. All historical facts, phenomena and events are considered in accordance with the specific historical situation, in their interrelation and interdependence. Each historical phenomenon should be studied in its development: how it arose, what stages it went through in its development, what it ultimately became. It is impossible to consider an event or person outside of time and circumstances.

The principle of objectivity presupposes reliance on facts in their true content, not distorted or adjusted to fit a scheme. This principle requires considering each phenomenon in its versatility, inconsistency, and the totality of both positive and negative sides. The main thing in ensuring the principle of objectivity is the personality of the historian: his theoretical and professional skills.

The principle of the social approach assumes that certain social interests manifest themselves in the development of social processes: in economics

Czech region, political, inter-class and extra-class contradictions, relations between social psychology and traditions. This principle (it is also called the principle of the class, party approach) obliges us to correlate the interests of a certain social group with those of humanity, taking into account the subjective aspect in the practical activities of governments, parties, and individuals. The social approach to history is especially important when assessing programs, the real political activities of parties and their leaders, which allows us to draw important conclusions. At the same time, when solving global problems of our time, priorities are given not to class, but to universal human values. Therefore, they should not be opposed, but complementary.

The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of the occurrence of a particular event, phenomenon, process based on an analysis of objective realities and possibilities. Recognizing the historical alternative allows us to re-evaluate the path of each country, see the untapped possibilities of the process, and draw lessons for the future.

In addition to general methodological principles, specific research methods are also used in historical knowledge:

• 
  general scientific;
• 
  actually historical;
• 
  special (borrowed from other sciences).

The method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts.

General scientific research methods include historical, logical and classification methods. The historical method allows us to reproduce the development process with its general, special and uniquely individual features. Logical - connected with the historical, it generalizes the entire process in the theoretical form of laws. Both of these methods complement each other, since the historical method has its own cognitive limits, having exhausted which it is possible to draw conclusions and generalizations using the logical method. Classification as a method allows us to highlight the general and special in phenomena, facilitates the collection of material, systematizes knowledge, contributes to theoretical generalizations, and the identification of new laws.

Historical research methods themselves can be divided into two groups:

1. 
   methods based on various options for studying processes in time: chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method;
2. 
   methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic.

The essence of the chronological method is that phenomena are presented in temporal (chronological) order. Chronological-problematic method

Provides for the study and research of Russian history by periods (topics) or eras, and within them - by problems. Taking into account the problem-chronological method, there is a study and research of any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent development. The synchronistic method makes it possible to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia and its regions. The periodization method makes it possible to identify changes in qualitative features in development and establish periods of these qualitative changes.

The comparative historical method aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine the changes that have occurred, and identify ways of social development. Retrospective allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development. Structural-systemic establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are distinguished within a certain chronological framework.

Special methods: mathematical methods of process analysis, statistical methods, sociological research and social psychology. Of particular importance for the analysis of historical situations are the method of sociological research and the method of social psychology, since the masses (people) have a direct influence on the course of historical development.

The following methodological principles underlie the study of the “History of Russia” course.

National history is an integral part of world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life.

In studying the course, in our opinion, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. At the same time, special attention should be paid to the most significant issues for the history of Russia: the formation and development of ethnic groups, the fate of civilizations on the territory of Russia, national customs and traditions, spiritual values, etc.

Russia is a civilizational region, the unique development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The uniqueness of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process were significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to the contradictory influence of the West and the East on Russia. At the same time, recognition of originality does not mean isolation of Russia from general historical development; The history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

According to modern researchers, the path of Russian history (no matter what it is called: modernization, the civilizational cycle, the Eurasian path, etc.) represents not a “lag” or “delay” in development, but simply a different, original development leading to a creative synthesis of the general and specific, internal and external, domestic and foreign experience. And in this regard, when consistently studying the history of Russia, in historical research it is permissible to use various categories and concepts, mainly sociological (modernization, stages, formation), cultural (totalitarianism), economic (industrialism and post-industrialism).

Studying a course in the history of Russia involves acquiring knowledge of a historiographical nature. The classics of Russian historiography - N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky - made a significant contribution to Russian historical science. The works of other outstanding Russian historians enjoy well-deserved authority and influence. These are primarily the works of N. M. Kostomarov, A. A. Kornilov, S. F. Platonov, M. N. Pokrovsky, P. M. Milyukov, V. N. Tatishchev.

The main difficulty in studying the history of Russia is the diversity of educational historical literature, the authors of which adhere to different historical schools and sometimes express mutually exclusive points of view on the problems of Russian history.

Title: (15th Edition)

Publisher: Moscow "Prosveshchenie"
Year: 1983., 145 pages

The Vorontsov-Velyaminov textbook is one of the best textbooks on astronomy of the USSR. Entire generations studied astronomy in Soviet schools using this textbook. The way he captivated us and kept us reading is something not many books can do again. And someone didn’t read this textbook at all... :)

File information:
Size: 3.60 MB (3771627 bytes)
Format: DJVU

Astronomiya.(kl.10).djv

Contents of the book and examples of some pages:

I - INTRODUCTION

1. Subject of astronomy
2. Astronomical observations and telescopes
3. Constellations. Apparent motion of stars
4. Ecliptic and “wandering” luminaries - planets
5. Star charts, celestial coordinates and time

II - STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

6. Composition of the Solar System
7. Laws of motion of planets and artificial celestial bodies
8. Configurations and synodic periods of revolution of the planets
9. Disturbances in the motion of planets. The concept of tides. Determination of the masses of celestial bodies
10. The struggle for a scientific worldview
11. Earth, its size, shape, mass, movement
12. Determination of distances and sizes of bodies in the Solar System

III - PHYSICAL NATURE OF BODIES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

13. Methods for studying the physical nature of celestial bodies
14. General characteristics of planets terrestrial group and Earth
15. Physical conditions on the Moon and its relief
16. Planets Mercury, Venus and Mars
17. Giant planets
18. Movement of the Moon and planetary satellites. Eclipses
19. Asteroids and meteorites
20. Comets and meteors

IV - SUN AND STARS

21. Sun - nearest star
22. Spectra, temperatures, luminosities of stars and distances to them
23. Double stars. Masses of stars
24. Variables and novae
25. Variety of stellar characteristics and their patterns

V - STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE

26. Our Galaxy
27. Diffuse matter
28. Movements of stars in the Galaxy
29. Star systems- galaxies. Metagalaxy
30. Age of celestial bodies. The emergence and development of galaxies and stars
31. The emergence of planetary systems and the Earth
32. Materialistic picture of the universe. The problem of extraterrestrial civilizations

Applications
Subject index

Astronomiya.(kl.10).djv

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