The development of personality and the formation of its properties is a natural and causally determined process. There are many patterns, but everything can be reduced into three interconnected groups:

1) age patterns manifest themselves in a successive change of periods into which a person’s life path is divided: childhood, adolescence, youth, adulthood, old age, old age.

The change of ages is associated with biological laws that act inexorably and cause changes in the human body, affecting its psychological characteristics.

Age-related development also has a socio-psychological causality. There is a concept of “psychological age”, behind which there is psychological reality. It happens that a person in his youth looks like an old man: indifferent, devastated, lethargic, dreaming only of rest and relaxation. There are also old people who, in terms of their mental state and capabilities, are superior to many young people.

2) socio-psychological patterns lifetime development of a person is causally related to the influence of external conditions. These conditions are many and varied.

This is the state of society, the activities of all branches of government, government and education bodies, means mass media, public organizations and culture, living standards and crime rates, etc. Strong socio-psychological influence of parents (especially in childhood), peer groups, psychological circumstances of leisure, etc.

3) active patterns psychological development human - these are patterns of changes in internal conditions under the influence of one’s own activity

Activity is a universal law of development of any living organism and its properties. To develop memory, you need to systematically practice memorizing increasingly complex material, to develop determination and perseverance, you need to achieve the required result, etc. Man is almost entirely at the mercy of himself. And if he did not fully or incorrectly take advantage of these opportunities, he robbed himself psychologically, spiritually. Each person is 1/3 what he inherited from his parents, 1/3 what he was given by living conditions and other people, 1/3 what he made of himself.

Conclusion

The described psychological structure of personality forms the basis of a program for studying the personality of each person (including all properties and its components), allows for a detailed, step-by-step assessment of his characteristics, and also decides what needs to be paid attention to, what to improve and develop.

The famous German-American psychologist E. Fromm wrote: “Never has a person come so close as today to the realization of his most cherished hopes. It took millennia to reveal intellectual abilities man, so that he learns the rational organization of society and the concentration of forces. Man created new world, with its own laws and its own destiny. Looking at his creation, he can say: this is truly good. But what can he say about himself? Has he come closer to realizing another dream of the human race - the perfection of man himself? - A man who loves his neighbor, is just, truthful and realizes what he potentially is? It’s awkward to even ask this question; the answer is too clear.”

And indeed, Fromm is right, modern man directs all its intellectual forces to the implementation of technical progress and saves moral forces for spiritual and cultural enlightenment. But this is in the interests of both the individual and society as a whole, because society is always such that what type of personality prevails among its citizens. Society and life in it cannot become better if people do not become better and at the same time if society itself does not create the conditions for this.

The problem of regularity in psychology

Any developing, viable science is interested in constant methodological analysis of the current state. Modern psychology of memory (mnemonic abilities) and psychological practice are characterized by the presence of completely obvious problems, the roots of which are at the level of scientific methodology. The psychology of abilities in recent decades has been characterized by a wide variety of research areas (general and special abilities, abilities and giftedness, abilities and achievements, etc.), which, of course, has a positive meaning. At the same time, the increase in the number of experimental facts is not accompanied by theoretical breakthroughs. At least, the emergence of a new experimental fact is not always considered through the prism of mental properties. Quite often, the same phenomenon is studied in different paradigms (which, of course, has a positive meaning), but the results of these studies, as a rule, do not correlate with each other, are not considered in interrelation, for example: the structure of ability and the structure of intelligence, etc. .
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Of course, this fact does not add methodological power to psychology. The position (so close to the heart of every psychologist) that the psyche is a multi-level system, a system of systems, has acquired an almost axiomatic meaning. The “hidden” axiomatic nature of our science clearly does not contribute to the emergence of methodological or theoretical studies of a holistic plan; research of such a nature that, in a single systemic process, would analyze the properties, manifestations, qualities of the psyche and the real, life, existential, phenomenological picture. Such reasoning leads to the idea of ​​a methodological crisis. Unfortunately, in addition to these well-known facts, which indicate the crisis state of our science, the gap between academic science and psychological practice is widening. Theoretical and practical psychology exist as if in parallel planes.

However, the above is no more than a sketch; this is the tip of the iceberg. There are, apparently, many underlying reasons for this state of science, but one of the main ones is essentially that science, in its absolute tendencies, strives to explore objective laws, to generalize, and psychological practice will always deal with problems of a separate, individual , a specific personality, with problems of individuality. Is it possible, using objective laws, to explore and understand the essence of individuality?

Apparently, the time has come to discuss the methodology of psychology methodologically, and not for narrow utilitarian purposes. Indeed, the principles of natural science have made psychology a science. In addition to the fundamental statement about the connection between the psyche and the brain, the natural science line in psychology involves a search for commonality in phenomena. What does the presence of a generalization mean in relation to a person? This is almost always the loss of a given personality, for the essence of personality is in its individuality. However, it turns out that the natural scientific principles of acquiring knowledge, which created and strengthened the scientific positions of psychology, at the same time put an obstacle to the study of the psychology of individuality. This problem of the relationship between the general and the individual in the mental process (does the idea of ​​the general help to penetrate into the individual; is it possible to describe the individual with the help of concepts, the essence of which is in generalization; is it possible, in principle, to verbalize the essence of the individual, for words are signs, symbols that unite something, and therefore generalizing, generalized reflections...) is vital for any level of psychological knowledge: theoretical, experimental, methodological and practical. This contradiction has long been known to science; Both psychologists and philosophers have written about this. There are wishes to connect, combine the power of natural science knowledge and the dignity of the humanities. There are also more radical statements about the essence of psychology:

psychology as a science;

psychology as art;

psychology as a science of art.

But if we prefer to these trends, and with them to the romanticism of agnostics (“Let his soul remain a secret”), the research tasks that life poses to psychology on an ever-increasing scale, then the search for methodological and theoretical approaches to the problem of studying the individual in the mental process (the role of the individual in the mental act) will become a priority. Behind this super-evidence lies the problem of understanding the essence of the psyche: what the psyche is as a bearer of certain, explicit or implicit properties. It turns out that this question (the question of the subject of psychology) has almost disappeared in a sea of ​​​​various interpretations of the goals and objectives of research. If we try to generalize the various approaches to the study of the psyche, we can see at least three directions of research goals and objectives (researcher’s worldview):

search for objective patterns of development and functioning of mental phenomena;

search essential characteristics the phenomenon being studied;

study of the individual uniqueness of a mental phenomenon; the study of individuality, uniqueness of the individual.

At first glance, it seems that these directions do not contradict each other; they can quite successfully coexist peacefully and be complementary. The problem may lie solely in realizing the expediency of their combined functioning and creating principles appropriate to this situation. It is possible that each of the listed tasks individually is more understandable to a practitioner, and should be, to a researcher. Due to proximity to one or another worldview, a practitioner can work more or less successfully in a certain context: provide consultation based on an intuitive understanding of the essence of a given person (phenomenon, process); diagnose using comparisons; engage in correctional work, based on known patterns of mental development, etc. At the same time, despite the well-deserved successes of practitioners, theoretical and methodological problems (what develops as a result of the efforts made? what is diagnosed? how to explain the result obtained? etc., etc.) do not disappear, but remain and constantly remind psychologists about their powerlessness. At the root of these and many other acute problems is the problem of understanding the object and subject of research, the problem of the subject of our science. A retrospective analysis shows that one or another worldview of a psychologist gave rise to a corresponding methodology that interpreted the essence of the psyche in a way convenient for the researcher (explicitly or implicitly).

The most “strong” and lasting is the methodology of the first direction. This is a natural science line in psychology. The meaning of this approach is to search for repeating phenomena that can be generalized and recorded as objective patterns. With the help of the studied patterns, modern psychology can characterize the level of development of any mental process, predict and direct its development, etc. It is known, for example, that memory develops from direct to indirect memorization (A.N. Leontiev, A.A. Smirnov and his school, P.I. Zinchenko and his students, etc.); the development of cognitive abilities is associated with the appearance of operational mechanisms in their structure (V.D. Shadrikov and his school); when moving from one age period to another, the form of activity changes (D.B. Elkonin); development professional activity represents systemogenesis (V.D. Shadrikov), etc.

The tendency to model situations, phenomena, processes for research and other purposes can also be considered as a natural scientific line. Essentially, psychodiagnostics is the modeling of behavior, action or activity using the means introduced into the situation. This makes it possible to characterize the features, level of development of a particular phenomenon and, based on any objective laws, predict its functioning and development in general, predict the trend of functioning and development of the process.

The philosophical essence of this worldview is the understanding of the psyche as a property of highly organized matter. According to the dialectical-materialistic understanding of the psyche, its well-known properties are described: ideality, developability, finitude, etc., which, being truly inherent in the psyche, apparently far from exhausting its qualities. The search for the essence of the phenomenon under study has worried and worries any theorist, regardless of his philosophical and methodological orientation. It would seem that the first and second directions are inextricably linked; it is impossible to determine the primacy and secondary nature of one or another approach. The search for essence is difficult to imagine without exploring multi-level relationships: movement to essence through function, through process to understanding the structure and ontology of the phenomenon. But in real research, metamorphoses quite often occur with the subject of research: it dissolves, becomes narrower; is excessively phenomenologized or, on the contrary, turns into an abstract methodological construct, but in any case it is transformed and emasculated.

In this regard, we can give an example with the psychology of memory, which contains a wealth of experimental material proving the dependence of the success of memorization on the nature of the subject’s motivation, his attitudes, functional state, organization of the memorized material, gender, age, emotional mood, the nature of the activity and conditions of memorization, self-esteem and volitional qualities of the subjects, etc. Even without knowing the details of this kind of absolutely necessary and most often scientific research, there is reason to assume that they may not clarify the understanding of the essence of memory. It is enough to open any psychological dictionary to see: memory is defined through function (memory is the process of remembering, storing and reproducing information). Apparently this is one of the objective natural stages on a long and thorny path to understanding the nature of memory.

Not only the psychology of memory, but also other areas are characterized by tendencies that are a consequence of the natural-scientific thinking of researchers: the search for essence, the study of the nature of the mental process presupposes a description of objective laws. As a result, in addition to its undoubted scientific nature, psychological knowledge was so abstracted from the real existential layer of its existence that it was practically impossible to “return” to individuality, to a specific moment, the uniqueness of the manifestation of a particular phenomenon.

For large number Researchers' understanding of the nature of the mental phenomenon being studied “dissolves” in the interrelations, and the essence of the process is “lost.” This objective complexity gives rise to a craving for the use of metaphors (for example: memory is a “trace”; it is an “imprint”; it is a “growing tree”, etc.).

To avoid narrowness, mechanism, excessive analyticity, and unscientific research, many theorists proclaim complex, systemic, structural-functional approaches: in essence, they consider the psyche as a whole through the prism of their problem, and only in this case do ideas acquire conceptual force (B.G. Ananyev, structure of mental function; V.D. Shadrikov, systemogenesis of activity, psychology of cognitive abilities; M.A. Kholodnaya, psychology of intelligence; A.O. Prokhorov, mental states; etc.).

The study of the individual uniqueness of the mental process can be called the most mysterious activity. How often in the process of describing the seemingly fundamental foundations of personality (needs, motives) or the “highlight” of personality (Self-concept), the uniqueness of the personality slips away. Perhaps the solution to this problem needs to be approached not from general psychological laws or not only from them, but from a real piece of an individual’s life. This side must be a completely different methodology. Apparently, the great S. Freud came closest to the solution to individuality.

The problem of individuality within the framework of the natural-scientific worldview has been dealt with before and continues to be worked in this vein today. It is enough to recall the essay on the theory of individuality by V.S. Merlin, the work of V.M. Rusalov on temperament, etc.
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The result is a completely logical result of the natural scientific worldview: let’s analyze the differences, systematize them, integrate them, and if we get integrity, then this integrity (a symptom complex of distinctive features) will be individuality. However, in reality everything is different. Today it is much easier for any psychologist to study 5 - 10 or 100 people in comparison with each other, rather than to characterize the individual uniqueness of one person. But if we reason methodologically, then this situation can be called completely natural (objectively natural), due to the uniqueness of such a phenomenon as the psyche. In the first, and in the second, and in the third cases, we clearly simplify the problem and gravitate toward the “brick” nature of psychological knowledge.

The raison d'être of any science is to discover the laws and patterns of the functioning and development of its subject. Psychology is no exception; “Psychology studies the psyche in the patterns of its development” (S.L. Rubinstein). What is law in psychology?

Philosophical Dictionary interprets the law as an internal, essential and stable connection between phenomena that predetermines their orderly change. The concept of law is close to the concept of regularity, which is a set of laws interconnected in content that provide a stable trend or direction in changes in the system. The types of laws and types of patterns are diverse, because the grounds for their existence and identification are diverse. A law, as a rule, reflects one of the aspects of the essence of a phenomenon; therefore, any phenomenon is subject to several laws at the same time: universal, general, particular and specific. B.F. Lomov, discussing the problem of law in psychology, identifies the following features of the law: the law reflects objectively existing, necessary, stable, repeating connections (relationships) between phenomena.

Modern science laws are known that reveal the psyche in different sections, different planes, different dimensions, relating to different levels of the psyche. B.V. Lomov highlights:

‣‣‣ laws characterizing relatively elementary dependencies (psychophysical law, laws of association formation, detection, discrimination, identification and recognition of signals, etc.);

‣‣‣ laws that reveal the dynamics of mental processes in time (the “law of perception” by N.N. Lange, the phase nature of the perception process in the studies of A.A. Ukhtomsky, B.G. Ananyev, etc., the phase nature of mnemonic processes, etc.);

‣‣‣ laws characterizing the structure of mental phenomena (memory structure (R. Atkinson), functional memory system (S.P. Bocharova), the law of attitude formation (D.N. Uznadze), creativity (Ya.A. Ponomarev), systemogenesis activities (V.D. Shadrikov), etc.);

‣‣‣ laws that reveal the dependence of effectiveness (or activity) on the level of his (or her) mental regulation, as well as on the value of one or another dimension (the Yerkes-Dodson law, which reveals the relationship between the level of motivation and the success of solving behavioral problems under certain learning conditions); laws characterizing the levels of performance (E.P. Ilyin), stress conditions (G. Selye), etc.;

‣‣‣ laws that consider the process of human mental development on the scale of his life (the law of heterochronic development of mental functions, the laws of the sequence of stages of intellectual development (J. Piaget, etc.);

‣‣‣ laws that reveal the basis of various mental properties of a person (studies of the neurophysiological foundations of temperament by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn), concepts in which the individual’s activity in the system of social relations acts as the basis for the psychological properties of a person (A.N. .Leontyev) and others;

‣‣‣ laws of relations between different levels of organization of processes and properties (relations between different levels of anticipation, relations between different levels of organization in the personality structure) (L.I. Antsyferova), etc.

In the works of other authors, in addition to (or within the framework of) the widely used division of laws into universal, general, particular and specific, other grounds are proposed for the classification of laws and patterns of mental functioning. In particular, the scope of application of the law is proposed as the basis for a classification of an applied nature:

‣‣‣ laws of functioning that explain the course of the phenomena, processes, properties being studied;

‣‣‣ laws of development that explain the sequence, dynamics and direction of the appearance of changes in the objects being studied;

‣‣‣ control laws that explain the causality of the functioning, development and influence of the subjective factor on it in the form of human activity (training, education, self-education, self-education, socialization).

In all likelihood, the presented lists of laws cannot be called complete, and the authors did not claim to classify all laws known in psychology. The points of view of B. F. Lomov and other researchers are, most likely, only an illustration of the fact that these laws have different orders and reveal different aspects of the psyche. The laws relating to each of the listed groups highlight significant, stable, necessary connections in one specific and limited plane. At the same time, the results of studies in which certain laws were identified were obtained under certain conditions, with certain restrictions and assumptions; therefore, none of them, according to B.F. Lomov, can claim for versatility. The listed laws, he writes, are special and private. With the discovery of more general laws, when considering a person’s relationship with the world in a broader context, our ideas about those laws that are already known will probably change. With these words, B.F. Lomov outlined the problem of the relationship between universal, general, particular and special laws in psychology, which, without exaggeration, can be called fundamental. First of all, this question concerns the understanding of the subject of our science, and secondly, if “every law is narrow, incomplete, approximate,” then how, with the help of what, to what extent and under what circumstances can it be used in explanatory and for prognostic purposes? However, the problem of studying the relationship between different groups of laws arises acutely. At the same time, one cannot but agree with B.F. Lomov that both more general and more local and special laws relate to the same system of phenomena and, in this regard, there is no doubt that they must be internally connected. In this regard, B.F. Lomov states: a strictly scientific approach requires not only to identify an objective law, but also to outline the scope of its action, as well as the conditions in which it can only act, its boundaries. It is extremely important to dwell on this thesis in more detail. Psychologists, trying to explore the laws of the existence of the mental, explicitly or implicitly gravitate toward identifying the concepts of regularity (law) and objective regularity(objective law), apparently relying on the fundamental thesis of dialectical materialism about universal determination and conditioning by objective laws. In our opinion, the scope of the law is directly related to the type of law, and the type (level, class) of the law is predetermined by the extent to which it can be called objective. When applied to real objects, the concept of “objective” means that objects, properties and relationships exist outside and independently of the subject. What place does the objective and the subjective occupy in the psyche? This question can be called eternal and global. The answers to it were given very different: from agnosticism to complete denial of the specific laws of origin, functioning, and development of the psyche.

Natural scientific psychology sees its task in the search for objective laws and patterns of functioning of mental phenomena. The logic of reasoning in line with natural scientific knowledge leads to the fact that all other diversity inner world a person is perceived as random, unstable, apparent and not amenable to scientific study. But it is precisely the diversity of personal content that creates individuality, or at least determines one of the facets of a person’s individual uniqueness. Researchers from different times, noting the fundamental reasons for the difficulties in determining the laws of the psyche, looked for ways out of a uniquely complex situation. At the same time, the concepts of objective law, objective method, the concept of the nature of a phenomenon and explanation of its essence, the concept of psychologically “complex” and psychologically “simple”.

In Western literature, for a long time there has been a debate about the relationships that exist between the categories of “law” and “cause” of events. F.V. Bassin notes that the roots of this dispute go back to Descartes.

In the post-Kantian era, V. Dilthey was one of the first to express the idea of ​​the existence of two “psychologies” (and thus the extreme importance of a dual attitude to the idea of ​​law): ordinary, closer to the natural sciences, based on the same principles and the same research methodology, to the same understanding of the role of laws as natural science; and hermeneutics, which is part of the cycle of “spiritual sciences,” based on internal experience and studying not individual psychological functions, but the “life” of a person in its indivisible integrity.

Later, Dilthey's ideas found a sophisticated expression in the works of E. Spranger. Spranger does not reject the possibility of using the idea of ​​law in its natural scientific understanding to study various aspects mental life person. He speaks as if it has already been proven and justified about the differences that exist between the “psychology of elements” and “holistic psychology”. The concept of law appears in each of these strictly delimited “psychologies” in a significantly different form: as a means of describing “element-by-element” connections in one case and as a factor determining the formation of an integral structure, a general “style” of the psyche, worldview, in the second.

Further deepening of this unusually stable idea of ​​the fundamental two-facedness of psychology and, accordingly, a double attitude to the category of law gradually became the main content of a number of directions of psychological thought - from A. Bergson, L. Binswanger, M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers to J.P. Sartre, M. Foucault, G. Marcel, the creator of the “psychology of fate” L. Szondi and many others. This “dual relationship” can be called the most expressive and most characteristic feature of modern philosophically oriented psychological theories and the logical core common to most of them.

The further evolution of psychological ideas went in the direction diametrically opposite to what seemed to Dilthey, Spranger and their followers the only possible: not along the line of the gap between the methodology for studying the psychologically “elementary” and the methodology for studying the mentally “complex”, but along the line of seeing this elementary through the prism of the complex, along the line an ever deeper understanding of the dependence of even the most “simple” psychological reactions and phenomena on their significance for the subject, on the context of personal relationship (my italics - C.L.), in which these phenomena and reactions are one way or another included. This path can be called the desire to reveal the relationships connecting different levels of mental organization, to make visible the representation of the psychologically “complex” even in the most “simple”, most elementary psychological event (F.V. Bassin).

So, the study of the problem of law in psychology, with extreme importance, entailed an analysis of the essence of the objective and subjective, “simple” and “complex” in the mental, while the discussion of the relationships between the psychologically “simple” and the psychologically “complex” turned out to be the most intense and widespread in different directions and in different historical eras. For Dilthey, following Kant, the distinction between the psychologically “simple” and the psychologically “complex” was reduced, without much need for further decoding, to the demarcation between the needs of the “body” and the needs of the “spirit”.

Trying to get ahead in in this direction and understanding the relativity of the concepts of “simple” and “complex” in the mental, B.F. Lomov notes that any mental process proceeds in given specific conditions in a specific way. ʼʼExploring what seems to be the same process many times, we discover that each time it develops in a new way. And this is not just a matter of random deviations, although, of course, they do occur. At the same time, something else is more important: the mental as a subjective reflection cannot but be variable. Variability, changeability is its essential characteristic, arising from its very reflective nature. In psychology, a lot has been said, quite rightly, about the uniqueness of mental processes, states and properties. When considering the law as a general law with the special urgency inherent in our science, the problem of explaining the immanent origin of the diversity of individual manifestations of a certain general arises. What will allow psychology to reveal unity in diversity, the general in the individual, the stable in the changeable, the essential in the phenomenon, and the extremely important in the random?

As can be seen from the above, a discussion of the problem of law in psychology leads (naturally) to clarification of the properties of the psyche, to a discussion of the essence of the psyche. Setting as their goal what can be called a law in psychology, researchers turn to the analysis of “simple” and “complex” in the mental, to the issue of variability - stability of mental processes, to the problem of the relationship between the general and the individual, objective and subjective in a mental phenomenon, which, in turn, leads to awareness of: a) the extreme importance of discussing the subject of psychological science; b) the uniqueness of the psyche as its objective characteristics.

However, the problem of law (regularity) in psychology appears as a problem of understanding the essence of the psyche.

This fundamental question has a rich history. At one time, V.P. Zinchenko and M.K. Mamardashvili stated that “the desire to search for objective methods of psychological research, as well as the loss of faith in their existence, gives rise in psychology to forms of mental reduction that are unprecedented for any other science in their diversity.” They rightly noted that the expanding interdisciplinary connections of psychological science lead to the loss of the subject of their own research. It is known that the opposition between objective and psychological descriptions of the events of the world we know existed long before psychological science itself and is associated with the special nature of the grounds on which it arose in general. scientific knowledge as such. The search for an objective method for studying psychological phenomena only reproduces psychology, according to V.P. Zinchenko and M.K. Mamardashvili, in a generalized form. This search was undertaken, as mentioned above, by numerous directions and schools in psychology.

Various options solutions to the problem of objective and psychological oscillate between two poles: the objectivity of the method is achieved at the cost of refusing to understand mental reality, and preserving the mental - at the cost of refusing objective analysis. The difficulties of objective analysis of the psyche are associated with the contradictory nature of the characteristics of the psyche. V.P. Zinchenko and M.K. Mamardashvili argue that the first difficulty is associated with the shocking property of the psyche that it “transforms time, compressing it or stretching it and even causing it to “flow backwards.” But the main difficulty of an objective analysis of the psyche relates to the possible spatiality of mental processes and their products. The consequence of this situation is that in psychology the term “objective description” is used as a synonym for the term “physiological description”, and “psychological” - as a synonym for “subjective”.

The next fundamental point that distinguishes the processes under study both from most physical processes and from arbitrary mental, observational and similar constructions of their subjective carrier, agent, is their irreversibility. It is the irreversibility of the course of things, including the actions of subjectivity, that makes this subjectivity a reality. “To know it as such is the only opportunity for psychology as a science to objectively develop the subjective and define it in the actions of things in the world.” Due to the irreversibility of processes associated with the use of information, due to the special properties of living systems that are capable of evolving and self-control in experience, observation should not be abso- lute

solute, and there is no such reality, even a hypothetical one, in which there would be traces of all events and to which we could turn when constructing theoretical objects. It is precisely because specified properties living systems, it is important to understand that in experimental research we are dealing with verbally or in some other way (including material experimental influences) knowledge communicated to the subject about his own states or their initial conditions.

“The problem, therefore, is to use an understandable (that is, operationally and constructively solvable for the researcher) experimental device to control the individually integral (italics mine - L. Ch.) states that are actualized by the object of study.”

Consistent implementation of this idea in psychological research presupposes the acceptance of the fact that “subjectivity itself enters into the objective reality given to science, is an element of its definition, and is not located somewhere above it as a soaring phantom of physical events, eliminated by science, or behind her in the form of a mysterious soul. When we say that subjectivity “enters reality,” we mean that it enters that reality that is objective, causally organized in relation to the world of knowledge, which is also given to us in the “language of the internal.”

Realizing this trend(only by asking it at the very beginning, similar to how the phenomenon of life is in biology), we can talk about the objective processes of mental functioning (going on independently of observation and introspection) and highlight aspects of the subject of psychological research that are amenable to objective description in cases where it is inevitable and extremely important the use of the terms “consciousness”, “self-consciousness”, “will”, etc. One cannot but agree with the authors of the article that then it is already too late to connect consciousness with natural phenomena, and in this case, indeed, we will never, within the framework of one logically homogeneous study, reach the place “where something is thought by someone, seen, remembered, imagined, recognized.” , emotionally experienced, motivated.

The article by V. P. Zinchenko and M. K. Mamardashvili is of exceptional importance for the methodology of psychological research. And not only thanks to the anti-reductionist and anti-mentalist interpretation of the mental, but also in connection with the implicit but confident line of proof of the actual psychological laws of the functioning of the mental. The authors focused their analysis on the rarely discussed properties of the psyche, and this analysis together with repeated attempts in history to study the properties and qualities of the psyche, leads to the idea of ​​the uniqueness of the psyche due to the inconsistency of its properties.

Indeed, modern multi-paradigm studies of the ontology of mental processes, often with opposite results, methodological confrontation over the subject and method of psychology, a mass of inexplicable phenomena, apparently due to the characteristics of the psyche, as well as biographies and statements of great researchers who began their research as natural scientists, and who completed their scientific career in other positions, etc. and so on. - all this leads to the idea that the psyche, as a unique phenomenon, simultaneously possesses directly opposite properties:

ideal and material;

objective and subjective;

personified and transpersonal;

finite and infinite;

the psyche is connected to the brain and is relatively independent of it

Ability is just as controversial a phenomenon as the psyche as a whole, which is what makes it difficult to conceptualize this problem. Abilities develop and regress (S.L. Rubinshtein, V.D. Shadrikov, B.M. Tegagov, A.N. Leontiev, B.G. Ananyev, etc.), have a biosocial nature (L.S. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontyev, V. D. Shadrikov, V. N. Druzhinin, etc.); the effective side of the manifestation of abilities is associated with the characteristics of the brain organization, but is determined not only by this (S. L. Rubinstein, E. A. Golubeva, S. A. Izyumova, etc.). Abilities, therefore, are no less a unique phenomenon than the psyche as a whole. The uniqueness of the subject of research gives us the right to approach psychology as a science based on the actual psychological laws.

The problem of regularity in psychology - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “The problem of regularity in psychology” 2017, 2018.

Leonard Uralsky and Zulfiya Khalilova
Taking into account the theory of psychological functions, the individual and collective unconscious of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (twentieth century), seven basic laws of psychology are formulated that determine the behavior of psychological systems in inertial and non-inertial psychological space, as well as the order of inversion of the main axes of psychological functions (signs).

Key words: psychological functions, rational, irrational, logic, intuition, R, S - chirality, femininity and masculinity, inertial and non-inertial psychological space, psychological system, model L, inversion of psychological functions, individual and collective conscious and unconscious.

Previously, the definition of inertial psychological space in the five-dimensional dimension was given in the form of the following description: http://leonardural.livejournal.com/7058.html. In order to identify psychological individuals, we will use an orthogonal coordinate system to characterize the psychological space. The introduction of a “crystallographic system of axes” allows us to construct the following visual model (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Orientation of personality type in the five-dimensional space of psychological functions XYZL (R/S) (model L):
Blue arrow - logical-intuitive introvert male type LIIM "Systematic - Robespierre" in R-configuration; the red arrow is his complete dual pair: ethical-sensory extrovert female type ESEFS "Madonna-Gioconda" in opposite S-chirality.

On the X-axis we will place the rational axis that determines the participation of the individual’s rational activity, including the logical function L in the conditionally positive direction and the ethical function E in the opposite direction.
The irrational Y axis is represented by the conditionally positive intuitive I and conditionally negative sensory S directions. The inversion scale, located on the Z axis, also has two directions: extroversion E in the upper half-space, introversion I in the lower half-space.
We will agree to denote the fourth coordinate, which characterizes the vitality of an individual, by color, and we will choose the red (positive) part of the spectrum to be responsible for femininity F, and the blue (negative) region will be taken to denote masculinity M.
The fifth psychological coordinate corresponds to the mutual orientation of the axes in psychological space, the so-called chirality - incompatibility with its mirror image. For the dextrorotatory R (Rectus - to the right) element we will take a clockwise rotation from the logical element L to the intuitive I element when observed from the origin of coordinates towards introversion I. Rotation of the element in the opposite direction indicates its antipode S (Sinister - to the left) , its incompatible mirror image.
Chirality is manifested in determining the order of the leading and slave functions in relation to the orientation of the individual towards others or towards himself. The chirality of an individual can be specified by indicating the order of membership in the X and Y axes in relation to the Z axis, as this is implemented in the Jungian model by dividing individuals into rational and irrational types (X or Y, digital codes 1 or 2), logicians or ethics (+ or - on the rational axis, digital codes 3 or 4), intuitives or sensorics (+ or - on the irrational axis, digital codes 5 or 6), extroverts or introverts (+ or - on the vertex axis, codes 7 or 8). Only functions are added to the previously described elements vitality: female (red part of the spectrum, +, code 0) or male (blue part of the spectrum, -, code 9).
A feature of the inertial psychological space is the observance of the three basic laws of psychology in this space of psychological functions.
So, the definition first law of psychology:
A psychological space is called inertial if the three basic laws of psychology are observed in this space of psychological functions.
The first law of psychology refers to the law of conservation and is formulated as follows.
The psychological system will remain in the psychological space until it is influenced by external or internal motivating forces.

IN real life Obviously, the saying is more suitable:
“As he was, he remains the same!”

To formulate second law the concept was introduced psychological mass M, which was proposed to be assessed by using the generally accepted psychological classification proposed back in the 4th century BC by the Greek physician Hippocrates. He identified four main temperaments: choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic, which were based on various dynamic characteristics of a person’s emotional perception of the world around him, his affectivity as his psychological mass increases.

It is obvious to everyone that a phlegmatic person with his very large psychological mass is very difficult to stir, but if he is awakened and provoked, then it is impossible to stop him!
But there is no need to wake up a choleric person. He himself can be the first to strike the enemy like a flyweight boxer, with a lead, so to speak.
Sanguine people experience varying success, as a symbol of white and black stripes, while melancholic people have difficulty withstanding a psychological blow and are very prone to worries. They often cannot get out of difficult life situations on their own. Among them there is a higher risk of suicide.

Since human behavior and his reactions are quite observable, such a classification is successfully used to diagnose human temperament, and for this reason, it is still preserved. However, the predictive power of affective classification is limited to situations of human behavior under extreme and exceptional circumstances (in a state of passion). And reflects the body's reaction to psychological impact. In general terms, the second law of psychology is formulated as follows.
The reaction of the psychological system is proportional to the intensity of the impact on it, and inversely proportional to its psychological mass.
Third Law of Psychology describes the behavior of psychological systems when interacting with each other and is formulated as follows.

The forces of influence of psychological systems on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

This law is easily explained by the proverb that has become popular in recent political life: “Action is equal to reaction.”

There are quite a few useful consequences according to which it is possible to track the behavior of psychological systems in inertial space, where the coordinate system is either at rest or moving uniformly and rectilinearly in a certain direction.
However, according to the laws of logic, it can be assumed that the psychological space itself can change with some acceleration. Then, the concept of non-inertial psychological space can be formulated as follows.
Non-inertial psychological space is a space in which the first three basic laws of psychology are not observed.
Consequently, now non-inertial psychological space is easily identified by non-compliance with the basic laws of psychology. Where at least one of the laws of psychology is not observed, such space will, by definition, be non-inertial.
Then the fourth law of psychology is formulated as follows.

In non-inertial psychological space, an inversion of the psychological system can occur along at least one of the axes describing paired psychological functions.

So, for example, an individual with a “female” psychotype in a critical situation turns into its antipode - a “male” psychotype: http://leonardural.livejournal.com/16064.html
If, when the situation changes to a normal inertial system, the psychological type returns to its original state, then such a transition is called a reversible transition and characterizes the stability of the system.
If the system does not return to its original state when extreme loads are removed, then such a system is called unstable, and the processes occurring in this case are irreversible.

At the same time, when formulating the first four laws of psychology, the nature of psychological functions or traits, their origin, heritability and other patterns of their manifestation were not touched upon. Let's act according to the experience of constructing genetic laws by Mendel [Wikipedia: Methods and progress of Mendel's work].
. Mendel studied how individual traits are inherited.
. Mendel chose from all the characteristics only fundamental or alternative ones - those that had two clearly different options in his varieties (pea seeds are either smooth or wrinkled; there are no intermediate options). Such a conscious narrowing of the research problem made it possible to clearly establish the general patterns of inheritance.
Psychogenetics (Greek psychе - soul and Greek genesis - origin) is the science of heredity and variability of mental and psychophysiological properties, which arose at the intersection of psychology and genetics. In Western literature, the term “behavioral genetics” is more often used. Psychogenetics - Wikipedia -ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychogenetics
The subject of psychogenetics is the interaction of heredity and environment in the formation of inter-individual variation in human psychological properties (cognitive and motor functions, temperament). In recent years, such branches of psychogenetics as genetic psychophysiology, which studies the hereditary and environmental determinants of bioelectrical activity of the brain, genetics of individual development, as well as behavioral genomics, which studies the influence of genetic effects on behavior and various types of psychopathologies, have been actively developing.
To study the patterns of inheritance of psychological characteristics, we will select fundamental characteristics in the composition of alternative pairs, called psychological functions by Jung [Jung, Carl Gustav - Wikipedia]. Then, The fifth law of psychology is formulated as follows:

Fundamental psychological traits are genetically determined.

Important consequences follow from this.

Corollary 1. Certain genes are responsible for each fundamental psychological trait, and a set of genes is responsible for the entire psychological system of an individual.

Corollary 2. For pure lines of psychological characteristics, Mendel's three basic laws must be observed: the Law of Uniformity of First Generation Hybrids, the Law of Segregation of Characters, and the Law of Independent Inheritance of Characters.

IN modern interpretation The main provisions of Mendel's theory of heredity are as follows:
. Discrete (separate, non-mixable) hereditary factors - genes are responsible for hereditary or fundamental psychological characteristics (the term “gene” was proposed in 1909 by V. Johannsen)
. Each diploid organism contains a pair of alleles of a given gene, responsible for a given fundamental psychological trait: one of them is received from the father, the other from the mother.
. Hereditary psychological characteristics are transmitted to descendants through germ cells.
Obviously, in a non-inertial psychological space, other parts of the individual’s genome are responsible for the behavior of an individual. Then we propose the following formulation sixth law of psychology.

In non-inertial psychological space, “recessive” genes responsible for alternative psychological traits are activated.

. Corollary 1. The dominance of alternative (previously recessive) psychological paired traits leads to an inversion of the individual’s psychological type in a non-inertial psychological space.
. Corollary 2. Individuals with inverted psychological types are unstable in the inertial psychological space and return to their original state with the leading role of dominant psychological characteristics. Such systems are called stable psychological systems.
. Corollary 3. Unstable psychological systems with inverted psychological signs are not capable of independently returning to their original state. psychological condition during the transition to inertial psychological space.
Unstable psychological systems lose the ability to orient themselves in time, are susceptible to risks to life, and require external efforts to establish their coordination in psychological space and adequate medical care, so-called psychiatric care.
Psychiatry - Wikipedia ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry.
Psychiatry (German psychiatrie from Greek ψυχή - soul and Greek ιατρός - doctor; Greek ιατρικός - medical, medical) - branch clinical medicine, which studies mental (mental) disorders, deals with their treatment, prevention and assistance to the mentally ill, as well as the isolation of persons with mental disorders and persons with behavioral deviations who pose a potential danger to themselves or to others or who violate certain social norms.
The definition of psychiatry proposed by the German psychiatrist W. Griesinger (1845) as the study of the recognition and treatment of mental illnesses was widely recognized. According to a number of modern authors, this definition “contains the most essential features this medical discipline”, “precisely formulates the tasks facing psychiatry”, given that: recognition means not only diagnosis, but also the study of the etiology, pathogenesis, course and outcome of mental disorders. Treatment, in addition to therapy itself, includes the organization of psychiatric care, prevention, rehabilitation and social aspects of psychiatry. (Obukhov S.G. Psychiatry / Edited by Yu.A. Aleksandrovsky. M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2007. P. 8.)
The term “psychiatry” was proposed in 1803 by the German physician Johann Christian Reil (German: Johann Reil; 1759-1813) in his famous book“Rhapsodies” (Rhapsodien. 1803, 2nd ed. 1818), where, according to Yu. V. Kannabikh’s description, “the foundations of “real psychiatry” are outlined, that is (taking this word literally) - the treatment of mental illnesses.”
To formulate the 7th law of psychology, it is necessary to determine the correspondence of the widely used concepts “instincts”, “consciousness”, “soul”, “spirit” with the categories of psychological functions and the terms “individual and collective unconscious” (Unconscious - Wikipedia: ru.wikipedia .org/wiki/Unconscious).
Thus, the body’s instant instinctive response to an external stimulus is unambiguously described by Jung’s psychological category “Sensorics,” enriched by experience as a method of cognition for higher animals, including humans.
The individual unconscious is transmitted by the psychological category “Intuition” as an instant response of the body, requiring mental activity to recognize the stimulus signal and respond adequately to its action.
The concept of consciousness is primarily characterized by the psychological function “Logic”, since it is this function, unlike “Ethics”, that is formed as the basis for learning, collecting, processing external and internal information, identifying elements of systems and determining connections between them in a particular space , as a method of knowing oneself and the world around us, KNOWLEDGE ACTUALLY.
Unlike logic, “Ethics” characterizes the behavior of an individual “Like everyone else”, and in the early stages of an individual’s development allows the body to experience the world “on autopilot” using the family model “Follow me” as “mom-dad-brother-sister- family-pride-om-clan...". The psychological category of “Ethics” establishes the order of interaction between psychological systems and determines the forms of these interactions.
The leading psychological functions of the individual are active in the working state. Of particular interest are inactive states of the individual, such as “Sleep”, “Hibernation”, “Coma”, “Clinical death”.
Sleep is the most common form of rest necessary for the restoration of the body, especially characteristic of higher animals that have the function of brain activity. In a state of sleep, almost all leading psychological functions that require the participation of the brain are turned off, except for one, which belongs to the category of “Intuition”. It is the intuitive processes that continue to work, restoring pictures of the past in dreams, drawing images of the present and predicting the future. For example, it is well known in the memoirs of D.I. Mendeleev that after many years of painful searching, he dreamed of the Periodic Table in its entirety.
The state of sleep is characterized by the fact that the processes of intuitive activity of the body do not include elements of inhibition based on ethical (“no one has seen or heard this before”) or “abstruse” logical constructions (“this cannot be because this can never happen.” ").
The seventh law of psychology is associated with the state of mind or psychological processes, occurring within the individual, determined by the individual unconscious according to Jung. In the case of the individual unconscious, the process of processing information proceeds in a different way, different from the usual way of thinking in inertial psychological space, that is, the individual himself is in a non-inertial state.
The entry of an individual into a non-inertial state is carried out in two possible ways: under the influence of external non-inertial psychological space from the outside or with the participation of the internal forces of the individual himself, including painful conditions and illnesses of the individual himself.
So, for example, a logical-intuitive introvert in a non-inertial state turns into an intuitive-logical extrovert, prone to the flight of scientific thought: “The discoverer - Einstein”..html. I will give only some conclusions from this description.
Firstly, people enter an unconscious state in different ways: naturally or artificially. The link above describes the natural way. It also takes place in a dream. As an artificial way of entering an unconscious state, one can cite a state of widespread alcohol or drug intoxication. You can easily enter a partially unconscious state on your own by swinging for a long time on a swing or spinning around yourself for a long time, when you can practically lose control of yourself, lose your balance and even fall. In this case, the person himself creates Acceleration for the internal psychological state, his own vortex psychological state, which becomes non-inertial in relation to the external inertial space.
In a state of complete unconsciousness, people are in a dream, natural or artificial coma.
Secondly, in an unconscious state, a person is capable of receiving, registering and processing information in a different way than is done under normal conditions: it differs in speed, volume and depth of information processing.
Thus, if an individual in a normal state in inertial space has Logic as the leading psychological function, then in an unconscious state the inhibition along the logical channel is removed. Now he gains the ability to receive and process information according to the Intuitive type. At the same time, the type of Vertility changes. A deep “Introvert”, who in ordinary life studies individually, becomes an “Extrovert”, turns to external sources of information, connects to the conditional “World Mind”, a kind of prototype of the modern Internet.
Thus, in an unconscious state, there is a change in the order of location of the main psychological axes X and Y on the XY plane, and also an inversion of two alternative psychological functions located on the Vert axis occurs. It should be noted that the chirality of the psychological system is preserved. That is, the order of rotation of the main psychological functions from rational to irrational towards introversion, in the described case R (rectus - right), does not change.
Then, The seventh law of psychology states as follows:

In a non-inertial (as defined by Jung in the individual unconscious) state of an individual, under the influence of intense external influences or internal sources, it is possible to change the order of the leading functions on the main axes X and Y of the psychological space XYZ, and an inversion of two alternative psychological functions can also occur: introversion and extraversion.

In poetic or artistically one can also assume that in an unconscious state a certain “soul” of the individual manifests itself, which conditionally “works” outside ordinary consciousness.
A deeper “insanity” occurs when natural biological instincts manifest themselves, for example, during orgasm, when the partner’s “sensory” sensations work, and consciousness is “passed out” to such an extent that the “male” at this very time “is not afraid of death” .

The individual conscious and unconscious find total reflection and in the interaction of individuals with each other to form social systems.
In the case of collective consciousness, people, forming connections, are grouped into families, communities, “collective farms”, parties according to their own certain purposes and tasks.
The collective unconscious is defined as a set of certain “archetypes” according to Jung, and reflects deep collective processes of information transmission, transmitted genetically from generation to generation. Typical examples include the “psychology” of the crowd, which, despite possible losses, can sweep away any barrier, for example, football fans.
It could also be a collective spirit, the passionarity of the people according to Gumilyov (ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumilyov,_Lev_ Nikolaevich). Ideas that capture the masses are capable of defeating fascism or rebuilding society.
According to the remarkable statement of one of the participants in the Second World War, who fought on the side of Germany and was looking for that very Russian spirit after being wounded and captured for ten years in Russia, it sounded like this: “If any worthwhile idea comes to a Russian’s head, he is ready to give for her the most precious thing, her life.”
In the “collective unconscious” state of a society or group, “archetypal instincts” can operate that go beyond the framework of cultural universal values.
This is how, for example, pirates, terrorists, mafia and criminal groups operate, which can only be taken outside the law on a global scale.
Thus, the laws of interaction of psychological systems with each other in social systems, as well as with external psychological space, have their own characteristics, and will be discussed later http://sociological-s.livejournal.com/.

Literature
1. Leonard Khalil. Psychological systems. Classification and basic laws. Ufa: Monograph. 2005. 191 p.
2. Jung K. G. Psychological types // Transl. with him. / Ed. V.V. Zelensky. - Minsk: “Potpourri”, 1998. - 656 pp.; according to him. publication: Gesammelte Werke. Rascher Verlag, Zurich, 1960.—Bd. 6.
3. Jung K. G. // Psychology of the unconscious / Transl. from German - “AST-LTD Publishing House”, “Canon”, 1998. - 400 p.
4. Trubnikov V.I. Psychogenetics. Unit 1. - M.: Modern Humanitarian University, 2000. - 71 p.
5. Psychogenetics: Textbook. Alexandrov A. A. - St. Petersburg, 2007. - 192 p.: ill. — (Tutorial Series) ISBN 5-94723-662-1
6. Ravich-Shcherbo I.V., Maryutina T.M., Grigorenko E.L. Ed. I. V. Ravich-Scherbo Psychogenetics. Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2000. - 447 p. — ISBN 5-7567-0232-6 http://www.pedlib.ru/Books/1/0187/1_0187-1.shtml
7. Psychogenetics // Kondakov I. Psychological Dictionary, 2000
8. Dubinin N.P. // General genetics. - M.: “Nauka”, 1986. - 560 p.
9. Deviant behavior
10. Griesinger V. Mental illnesses. St. Petersburg: A. Cherkasova and Co., 1875. P. 1.
11. Guide to psychiatry. Ed. A. S. Tiganova. In 2 volumes. M.: Medicine, 1999. - T. 1. P. 17.
12. Smetannikov P. G. Psychiatry: A Guide for Doctors. — 5th edition, revised. and additional - M.: Medical book; N.Novgorod: Novgorod State Medical Academy, 2002. P. 6. Only email is available on the Internet. version of the 1st edition of this manual: Smetannikov P. G. Psychiatry: A short guide for doctors. - St. Petersburg: publishing house SPbMAPO, 1994.
13. Psychiatry: A textbook for students medical universities. Ed. V. P. Samokhvalova. - Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 2002. - P. 13.
14. “History of Psychiatry” by Yu. V. Kannabikh, ch. 18:2 (see: Kannabikh Yu. V. History of psychiatry. - M.: AST, Mn.: Harvest, 2002. - P. 235). Kannabich transcribes the name of the German psychiatrist as "Reil". Kannabikh Yu. V. History of psychiatry. - M.: AST, Mn.: Harvest, 2002. - P. 235.
15. Korkina M.V., Lakosina N.D., Lichko A.E. Psychiatry: Textbook. - M.: Medicine, 1995. - P. 5.
16. Gumilev L.N. "Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe". - Astrel, AST, 2004. ISBN 5-17-026279-5, 5-271-09769-2 (http://turkportal.ru/scientpopbooks/48-gumilev-rus-step.html)

The level of specific scientific methodology is applicable to a limited class of objects and cognitive situations specific to a given field of knowledge. The development of this level of methodological analysis is carried out by both scientific methodologists and theorists of the relevant fields of knowledge. At this level of methodological research, philosophical and general scientific principles are concretized and transformed in relation to this science and the reality that it studies. Not all creators of significant psychological theories have proven themselves to be methodologists of psychology. Among those who had a huge influence on the methodology of psychological science and practice were V. Wundt, Z. Freud, K. Levin, L.S. Vygotsky, J. Piaget, G. Allport, J. Kelly, and in our time - R. Sternberg.

As a rule, philosophical and methodological principles do not directly correlate with the principles formulated at the level of specific scientific methodology; they are first refracted and specified at the level general scientific principles and concepts.

Principle- these are the rules of action determined by beliefs and the norm of behavior in any sphere of life and the corresponding type of activity. The category “principle” can be used not only in relation to the subject of activity, but also to an object, including an inanimate one. For example, we can talk about the operating principle of a technical device. But even then we're talking about about the reflection in the consciousness of the subject of the fundamental, in his opinion, rules for the interaction of the parts of this mechanism with each other and the interaction of the device as a whole with the environment.

The principle has a dual role. On the one hand, the principle acts as a central concept, representing the generalization and extension of a position to all phenomena and processes of the area from which this principle is abstracted. On the other hand, it acts in the sense of a principle of action - a standard, a prescription for activity.

Principles are deeply related to patterns and laws.

The pattern is the most general shape incarnations theoretical knowledge. Lawful means carried out on the basis of the law.

Pattern- an objectively existing, repeatable cause-and-effect relationship of certain phenomena during their interaction, which, if it is sufficiently well known, is reflected in the formulation of the law.

A psychological regularity is a psychological law that has not yet been sufficiently disclosed, which is envisaged, but cannot yet be precisely formulated.

Law– a significant, objective, universal, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena and processes.

Based on the fact that the surrounding world is a collection of material objects and phenomena that are in diverse and complex connections and interdependencies on each other, the most significant relationships (connections) between objects are defined as laws. It is the essential relation, inherent not in a single object, but in the entire set of objects that make up a certain class, type, set of objects of the same type, that is the law. The essential relationship between objects, phenomena or between their parties, which determines the nature of their existence and development, expresses the main feature of the law.

Universality is also the most important feature of the law. Universality means that any law of nature and society is inherent in all objects and phenomena of a certain type, level, without exception, that is, the entire set of objects and processes that are covered by this law. All material objects, from microparticles to cosmic giants, obey the law of universal gravitation; all electrically charged bodies obey Coulomb's law, etc.

The laws of psychology have the form of laws-trends. The variability of manifestations of psychological laws does not negate the fact that they express something common, but this common thing acts as a tendency.

Types of laws in psychology:

· relatively elementary dependencies (for example, the basic psychophysical law);

· laws that reveal the dynamics of mental processes over time (the sequence of phases of the process of perception, decision-making, etc.);

· laws characterizing the structure of mental phenomena ( modern ideas about memory);

· laws that reveal the dependence of the effectiveness of behavior on the level of its mental regulation (the Yerkes-Dodson law, which reveals the relationship between the level of motivation and the success of performing behavioral tasks; laws that characterize levels of performance, stress conditions);

· laws that describe the process of human mental development on the scale of his life;

· laws that reveal the basis of various mental properties of a person - the laws of neurodynamics (neurophysiological foundations of temperament);

· laws on the relationships between different levels of organization of mental processes and properties (laws of relationships between different levels of organization in the structure of the individual).

A purely scientific approach requires not only to define an objective law, but also to outline the scope of its action, as well as the conditions under which it can operate, its limitations.

e (“psyche” – soul, “logos” – teaching, knowledge). This is a science, first of all, about the laws of mental life and human activity and various forms of human communities. Psychology as a science studies facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.
Psychology is the science of the patterns of emergence, formation, development, functioning and manifestations of the human psyche in various conditions and at different stages of their lives and activities.
The main tasks of psychology:
1. Knowledge of the origins and characteristics of the human psyche, the patterns of its occurrence, formation, functioning and manifestations, the capabilities of the human psyche, its influence on human behavior and activity.
2. Development of recommendations for people to increase their stress resistance and psychological reliability when solving professional and other problems in various circumstances of life and activity.
The main functions of psychology:
1. As a fundamental science, it is called upon to develop psychological theory, to identify patterns of individual and group psyche of people and its individual phenomena.
2. As an applied area of ​​knowledge - to formulate recommendations for improving professional activities and everyday life of people.
Psychology studies patterns mental activity in order to more correctly understand a person and thereby skillfully influence him. Therefore, the importance of psychology is great in all types practical activities, where people enter into complex relationships with each other and influence each other. Knowledge of psychology is necessary for the correct organization of a person’s moral and mental self-education. Psychology helps a person understand his own mental life, understand himself, realize his strengths and weaknesses, his shortcomings. Knowledge of psychology opens up ways for self-improvement of mental activity: knowing how to improve your attention and memory, how to correctly assimilate educational material, you can learn to achieve the highest results with the least amount of time and effort.

What is the meaning of the term “psychology” in the minds of the layman, the average person?
For example, a common expression: “He has such a psychology.” What implies a set of character traits, the inner world of a person or a group of people. IN the latter case The psychology of a group is the views, rules, customs, traditions, and various internal processes occurring in it.
In everyday life, each of us performs certain psychological work, being, as it were, an everyday psychologist, observing patterns and drawing appropriate conclusions (for example, how carefully we observe the expressions of other people’s faces, their actions and reactions in different situations, and then we draw certain conclusions and structure our behavior accordingly).
However, there are professional psychologists and specialists. Why are their services still in demand?
Indeed, a professional psychologist owns everything accumulated by generations of scientists scientific experience, has extensive practice, owns specific proven methods for determining the condition and therapy. A professional psychologist is already an everyday psychologist, but a scientific one.
Psychology as a science uses experiment, information is verified, proven, and scientific conclusions are drawn. Decisions made widely used in practice. What does it cost to create one test! A lot of preliminary research on a large sample of people, the use of mathematical methods, analysis, comparison, etc. Only if the test passes all tests is it considered scientific. Therefore, one should be critical of various pseudoscientific tests.
What questions do people turn to a psychologist with? These include issues of self-development, ways to resolve conflict situations, and ways to maintain relationships. There are many specializations of psychologists: children's, family, military, etc.
However, the types of activities that a psychologist carries out are almost similar.

Types of activities of a psychologist:

1. Psychological education.
2. Diagnostics.
3. Prevention.
4. Correction.
5. Development.
6. Therapy.
7. Consultation.

When preparing a specialist psychologist, special attention is paid to his knowledge of his rights, responsibilities and professional ethics. A psychologist who violates professional ethics may lose the right to practice forever.

Ethical principles activities of a psychologist:

1. Unconditional respect for the client's personality.
2. Honesty, sincerity.
3. Confidentiality of information except in cases where its concealment could harm the client.
4. Protection of client rights.
5. Psychoprophylactic presentation of the results.
6. The psychologist is obliged to communicate the purpose of psychodiagnostics and name the persons to whom the diagnostic results will be available.
7. The psychologist is obliged to accept the client’s refusal to work with him psychologically.
8. The psychologist is obliged to prevent the use psychological techniques incompetent persons.
9. A psychologist should not make promises to clients that he is unable to fulfill.
10. A psychologist should not give advice or specific instructions. The main thing is to expand the client’s perception of the situation and instill in him confidence in his abilities.
11. The psychologist is responsible for using certain psychological methods and methods and giving recommendations. The client is responsible for the choice of actions and the result (if the client is a child, then the parent).
12. Professional independence of a psychologist. His final decision cannot be overturned by the administration. Only a special commission consisting of highly qualified psychologists and endowed with appropriate authority has the right to cancel a psychologist’s decision.

For what purpose do you think painters and sculptors were introduced syllabus a subject like “Psychology”? This is explained by the fact that these specialties at the school have additional specialization– pedagogical, and in accordance with the new requirements, teachers must have psychological training.
You can say that you are lucky, because... you have a great opportunity to get in touch with this interesting science. Moreover, in addition to theoretical course, you will have practical lessons, where you will get to know yourself and each other, open your eyes to some things, and maybe even make a big discovery for yourself.

The term "psychology" is formed from two Greek words « psyche" - soul and « logos" - word, teaching. Those. - the doctrine of the soul. However, over the centuries, people have discovered where this very soul is located. And if not found, then what kind of scientific research can we talk about? Therefore, gradually it came to studying what could be more material in this regard. This subject turned out to be the psyche.
The psyche is the quality of the brain and is responsible for reflection, processing, accumulation of information and the issuance of behavioral reactions. An elementary example of how the psyche works is sensations. Sensations of the external world and the internal world of our body.
The brain and in particular and especially the nervous system are the basis for the psyche. All psychic phenomena, including emotions are explained by the work of the psyche. Character and abilities are more complex concepts, however, they also grow and are formed on a mental basis.

PSYCHOLOGY is the science of the patterns of emergence, formation and manifestation of the psyche.
The focus of attention in different historical periods was miscellaneous subject psychology:
- from ancient times to the 17th century. – psychology – the science of soul ;
- from the 17th century at the beginning 20th century – psychology – the science of consciousness ;
- in the beginning. 20th century – psychology – the science of behavior , science of unconscious manifestations of the psyche, etc.;
- modern understanding - psychology - the science of the patterns of emergence, formation and manifestation psyche ;
- in the future – psychology – the science of soul .

In the Psychology course you will become familiar with the main categories of psychology:

Exercise. "Branches of Psychology"
Before you move on to considering the categories of psychology, you can talk about the methods by which these categories are actually studied

Methods of psychological research.

Psychological research is based on general methodological principles that determine the types of psychological techniques used:
1. The principle of determinism– dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that produce them (biological and social).
2. The principle of unity of psyche and activity.
3. Systematic principle– all components depend on the whole and are manifested as a whole.
4. Principle of integrity– all mental processes are interconnected, thus, the psyche should be studied comprehensively, from all sides.
5. Development principle– taking into account dynamic qualitative changes in the psyche.

Scientific Research Methods– these are the techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable data to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.
Thanks to scientific methods, psychology has become able not only to assume, but also to prove cause-and-effect relationships between mental phenomena.
To collect primary data, psychology uses basic and auxiliary methods.
Basic methods:

1. Observation – scientifically targeted and in a certain way fixed perception of an object without interfering with its flow.
2. Everyday– unorganized, random.
3. Scientific– organized, with a clear plan and recording of results in a special diary.
4. Included– with the participation of the researcher
5. Not included– without the participation of the researcher.

Advantages – naturalness.
Flaws – passivity, subjectivism, inaccessibility of certain manifestations of the psyche.

1. Experiment – active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create the best conditions for the study of specific psychological phenomena.
2. Natural– occurs in natural conditions, with minor changes (for example, in order to study factors that help reduce fear of exams, the experimenter gives different settings to groups of students and analyzes the success of passing the exam depending on them).
3. Laboratory– takes place in specially organized conditions of isolation of the phenomenon being studied from external influences.

Natural and laboratory experiments can be ascertaining and formative.

1. Ascertaining– reveals facts and patterns that have developed during human development. Those. the facts are established and stated.
2. Formative– identifies the conditions and mechanisms for the development of certain qualities and abilities through their active formation. In the process, certain qualities of the subjects develop. It is expected that the research results will be put into practice followed by further study. possible changes and effects.

Advantages – activity of the researcher, possibility of repetition, control of conditions.
Flaws – artificial conditions, high costs.

Auxiliary methods.

1. Analysis of activity products is a method for studying psychological phenomena by practical results and objects of labor in which they are embodied creative forces and people's abilities.
2. Generalization of independent characteristics– identification and analysis of opinions about certain psychological phenomena and processes received from different people.

3. Classification of psychodiagnostic techniques (according to A.A. Bodalev).

1. Objective tests – techniques in which the correct answer is possible (for example, intelligence tests).
2. Standardized self-reports – focused on the use of the verbal abilities of the subjects, addressed to his thinking, imagination, memory.

- test questionnaire – involves a set of points (questions, statements) regarding which the subject makes judgments. Two or three alternative answer choices. The same psychological variable is represented by a group of questions.
- open questionnaire (questionnaire) – has no suggested answer. All responses fall into specific categories (e.g. agree/disagree).
- scale techniques – assessment of phenomena is carried out on scales (for example, “warm - cold”) according to the degree of expression of the specified quality. For example, the “Personal Differential” technique.
- individually oriented techniques – the parameters are not specified in them, but are allocated according to the responses of the subject. Allows statistical processing. For example, For example, the “Repertory Grids” technique by J. Kelly.
3. Projective techniques – they are based on the principle of projection, according to which the subject projects and reflects his unconscious or hidden needs and experiences onto insufficiently structured material (colors, spots of indefinite shape, etc.). The subject’s task is to organize the stimulus material or give it a personal meaning.
4. Dialogical techniques – in them the effect is achieved through contact with the subject.
- verbal DT : conversation - obtaining information in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of an issue; interview - obtaining information through oral answers to oral questions.
- nonverbal DT – diagnostic games (playing with a child, role-playing game).
The researcher’s involvement is maximum in dialogic methods, average – in projective techniques and rep tests, is minimal in objective tests and questionnaires.

Characteristics of tests.

Workshop. Self-doubt test.
In terms of popularity in educational and professional psychodiagnostics, the test method has held 1st place in world psychodiagnostic practice for about a century.
Testing refers to diagnostic methods that are characterized by an emphasis on the measurement (i.e., numerical representation) of some psychological variable.
A test is a short-term task, the completion of which can serve as an indicator of the perfection of certain mental functions.
Typically, the test consists of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answer options. Then, when counting, the answers are summed up, the total score is compared with test norms, and then standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.
Types of tests:

1. Personal
2. Intelligence tests.
3. Achievement Tests

Advantages of tests:

1. Standardization of conditions and results, i.e. uniformity of the procedure for conducting and assessing the test. Includes:

– precise instructions;
- temporary restrictions;
- preliminary display of the task;
- taking into account the way the questions are interpreted by the subjects
and etc.
2. Efficiency. Economical(a large number of subjects in a short period of time).
3. Optimal difficulty, i.e. accessibility for the average person. If during the aerobatics approximately half of the test subjects complete the task, then the task is successful and is left in the test. Also, the tasks of moderate difficulty included in the test can help increase confidence in many test takers.
4. Reliability. Any well-constructed educational test covers the main sections curriculum in general, the chances of “failing” among excellent students or “breaking out” among laggards decrease.
5. Justice. Protection from experimenter bias. There is no “it’s easier for your own people, it’s harder for strangers.”
6. Possibility of computerization.
7. Differentiated nature of assessment, i.e. The assessment is fractional; usually several (rather than two) categories are distinguished. For example, “hopeless – not hopeless – simply capable – very capable – talented.”
Disadvantages of tests:

1. The danger of “blind” (automatic) errors. It should be remembered that shifts may occur in the procedure, for example, the subject did not understand the instructions.
2. The danger of profanity– the use of tests by unqualified people: the use of 2-3 tests for everyone and everything, “for all occasions.” For example, MMPI was once used for personnel selection in our country. As a result, the “Schizophrenia” scale was interpreted as “originality of thinking”, “Psychopathy” - as “impulsivity”, etc.
3. Loss of individual approach. Individual characteristics can lead to distortion of results, and it is important for the researcher to notice such reactions to the test (for example, anxiety can lead to random errors).
4. Difficulties in expressing individuality, because The test answers are standard.
5. The formalized nature of the situation, testing procedures. In this regard, the researcher is obliged to establish a trusting environment, show participation, and reduce the resistance and defense of the subjects.

In any case, tests must be used in combination with other methods - written works, interviews, conversation, projective techniques.

Projective techniques.
Workshop. Psychogeometry, Determination of the dominant instinct.
Classification projective techniques:

1. Associative PT. They involve the presentation of some disordered material that needs to be given a subjective meaning (Rorschach blots. Here the content of the interpretation, color, shape of the blots, and the originality of the answers are assessed).
2. Interpretive PTs. The subject’s task is to interpret any events depicted in the pictures (it is assumed that everyone interprets them in connection with their attitude towards them) (for example, TAT (thematic apperception test). The subject identifies himself with the hero. His characteristics are discovered. Environmental pressure is revealed The powers of the hero and the environment are compared (the combination of the hero and the environment forms a “theme” as the structure of their interaction)).
3. PT based on addition. The test subject’s task is to complete a story or sentence (for example, Rosenzweig’s test of reaction to frustration. The type of reaction to an obstacle is determined: extrapunitive reaction - the external cause of frustration is condemned and resolution of the situation is required from another person; intrapunitive reaction - directed at oneself with acceptance guilt and responsibility for resolving the situation).
4. PT design. Separate details are presented, from which the subject makes up various kinds complete pictures (in connection with his own taste, experience, interests), and also comes up with a story based on individual fragments or after listening to sounds and noises.
5. Choice-based PTs from the presented material of such decisions that are indirectly related to hidden drives, sympathies, intentions (for example, the Szondi test, the eight-color Luscher test, “Psychogeometry” (determines the personality type by the contour of the figure)).

Distinctive features of projective techniques:

1. Relative freedom of the subject in choosing an answer and tactics of behavior.
2. Absence of external indicators of the evaluative attitude towards the subject on the part of the experimenter.
3. Comprehensive diagnostics of personal properties and relationships between the individual and the environment.

The most common form of PT is drawing tests: “Non-existent animal”, “Draw a person”, “Self-portrait”, “House-tree-person”, “My family”.

Application
Color and position values ​​in M. Luscher's eight-color test.
Blue- need for peace.
Green- need for self-affirmation.
Red– need for purposeful activity.
Yellow– need for spontaneous activity.
Violet– victory of red over blue.
Brown- the sensory basis of sensations.
Black– denial of the colors of life and existence itself.
Grey– shelter from external influences, release from obligations, fencing off.
Position meaning:
1st- the main method of action, a means of achieving a goal.
2nd- the goal to which the subject strives.
3rd and 4th- indicate a current situation or a course of action arising from a given situation.
5th and 6th– unused in this moment personality reserves, its characteristics.
7th and 8th– a suppressed need, or a need that should be suppressed, because there may be adverse consequences.

The task is to draw houses “House-Tree-Man”. At the next lesson, discuss and receive a printout of the interpretation.
- draw a person (interpretation according to the Machover drawing test).

The concept of the psyche.

The psyche, namely the patterns of its occurrence, formation and manifestation, is the subject of study of modern psychology.
The psyche is a systemic quality of the brain that provides humans and animals with the ability to reflect the effects of objects and phenomena in the surrounding world.
The main quality, function of the psyche, and also one of the basic categories of psychology is reflection. Reflection is a multi-level active process of processing information about the object of reflection and creating an adequate model of this object. The psyche is a “subjective image” objective world", because we reflect reality through the prism of our inner world.
Physiological basis of the psyche– the brain, namely the nervous system and the features of its work. In this case, it is important not only the presence of certain parts of the brain, but most importantly, multiple connections between them. The more connections and relationships there are, the more complex they are, the more perfect the psyche, the richer the person’s experience.
For the full functioning of the psyche, it is necessary following conditions:

1. Full brain activity;
2. Constant influx of external information;
3. Interaction with people and cultural objects in which the experience of humanity as a whole is concentrated.

Functions of the psyche:

1. Active reflection of the influences of the surrounding reality;
2. Regulation of behavior and activity. Behavior is an external form of manifestation of the psyche;
3. A person’s awareness of himself and his place in the world around him, and, consequently, adaptation and correct orientation in it.

The nervous system happens central(head and spinal cord) (CNS) and peripheral(nerve endings - receptors– which perceive various types of energy (mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic) and convert it into a nerve impulse.
The youngest and most advanced section of the nervous system is bark brain. This is where human thinking and consciousness and the highest levels of thinking in animals are formed.
The unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell. neuron. It consists of a body (soma) and processes - dendrites and axon. They transmit nerve impulses. The axon is the longest process and the most important. It is covered with a myelin sheath, which allows the impulse to travel very quickly (several tens of m/s). All cells are connected by synapses. These are enlarged plaques containing mediators - impulse transmitters on a biochemical basis. Under the influence of external and internal biochemical substances, impulse transmission can accelerate or slow down, thereby regulating and determining the mental state of the body.
The neuron is enveloped by glial cells that serve metabolism, as well as blood capillaries.
Neurons, glia and blood capillaries form nerves.
Neurons and nerves are sensitive (sensory), motor (motor), and also conductors of impulses from one part of the nervous system to another (local network neurons).
The brain also consists of two hemispheres- left and right.
The cerebral cortex consists of shares– frontal lobes (responsible for goal setting and activity), parietal lobes (responsible for sensations), occipital lobes (responsible for vision), temporal lobes (responsible for hearing) and zones– primary zones (perform analysis of information from receptors), secondary zones (perform synthesis of information from receptors), tertiary zones (perform complex synthesis of information from different zones(neurons are located at their boundaries)).
When the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes are damaged, the reception of information is disrupted and individual signs of the stimulus are lost. Moreover, if the right hemisphere is damaged, the person does not realize his defect. The person cannot name the object and is not oriented in space.
When the frontal lobes are damaged, muscle paralysis occurs, motor skills decay, goal setting for activities is disrupted, voluntary memorization etc., there is no program of activity, criticism of one’s actions is violated, the same actions are performed, cycling occurs (perseveration of movements). The frontal lobes begin to develop intensively at 6–7 years of age and finally mature by 15–16 years of age.
Analyzer is a system for processing information at all levels of its passage through the central nervous system. Thus, the analyzer can be visual, auditory, gustatory, skin, etc. Each analyzer has 3 sections:

1. Peripheral department - represented by a receptor (for example, the eye receptor - the retina);
2. Conductive department - represented by a nerve (for example, the optic nerve);
3. Central department - represented by corresponding zones in the cerebral cortex (for example, the occipital zone).

General patterns.

1. All human organs have a strictly defined representation in the cerebral cortex (in this case, the more developed and involved the organ, the larger the area occupied by its projection in the cerebral cortex);
2. The entire nervous system and brain ultimately take part in information processing (the principle of systemic activity of the brain);
3. The cerebral cortex is hierarchically organized (from primary to tertiary zones).

The psyche is diverse in its forms and manifestations:

1. Mental processes– mental phenomena that provide primary reflection and subsequent awareness by a person of influences environment. They are divided into cognitive processes(sensation, perception, etc.) and emotional-volitional processes.
2. Mental properties– the most stable and constantly manifesting personality traits, providing a certain qualitative and quantitative level of behavior and activity typical for a given person. These are orientation, abilities, temperament, character.
3. Mental conditions- This a certain level performance and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic of him at the moment. These are activity, passivity, fatigue, apathy, vigor, anxiety, etc.
4. Psychic formations- these are mental phenomena that are formed in the process of a person acquiring vital and professional experience, the content of which includes a special combination of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Stages of mental development in phylogenesis.

1. Elementary sensory psyche(protozoa, worms, gastropods). At this level, organisms are able to reflect individual properties of the environment. Based on sensations. Organisms purposefully move towards biologically useful substances and avoid harmful ones. This happens due to such a property as irritability. Irritability is the ability to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by changing the state of the body.
2. Perceptual psyche(fish, cephalopods, insects; at its highest level - birds, mammals). The ability to reflect the environment in the form of holistic images and the ability to learn appears. Behavioral responses are expanding. Behavior is plastic. Organisms can transfer a skill to new conditions.
3. Intellectual psyche(monkeys, dolphins). Behavior is very flexible. Animals can solve complex problems and change behavior when obstacles arise by identifying regular connections between objects. Thus, the presence of imaginative and visual-effective thinking is noted (i.e., for learning, manipulation of animal objects and observation is necessary). Monkeys understand the relationships “more - less”, “shorter - longer”, “more often - less”, different shape geometric shapes. The animal cannot abstract itself from a specific situation, and there is also no concept of time.

The concept of consciousness.

The psyche is represented at different levels. This consciousness– the highest level of mental development - and the deepest layer of the psyche – unconscious. The unconscious is a form of reflection of reality, during which its sources are not realized, and the reflected reality merges with experiences.
Consciousness.
Consciousness is the highest and most generalized form of reflection of the world. Several factors in the development of consciousness can be identified:

1. Making and using tools. Fine motor skills and thinking develop;
2. Development of sense organs;
3. Cooperative activity and communication through language. Language is a system of signs and symbols. Animals also have vocal reactions, but they are primitive and generalized (for example, they do not convey which predator is approaching). Thanks to language, an image appears in the mind - a person designates an object in his speech or mentally reproduces it. If he transfers it to another, then, thanks to the social nature of consciousness, the same image also arises. There is a meaning of the word - it has a social nature. But there is a meaning of the word - it has a subjective nature.
4. Production of objects of material and spiritual culture.

All these conditions are provided work.
CONSCIOUSNESS is the general quality of all mental functions of a person, the result of the socio-historical formation of a person in labor activity during constant communication with other people through language.

Distinctive features of consciousness:
1. Conditioned by social conditions (historical era, class, team, company). Consciousness that reflects social relations is social consciousness. Individual consciousness is the spiritual world of individual people. Social consciousness
refracted through the individual. Forms of social consciousness - science, art, religion, morality, etc.

1. Reflection of the world in its essential connections and relationships - highlighting the main characteristics of phenomena, what characterizes them and distinguishes them from others similar to them. For example, a table, a chair, a closet, a hanger, a notebook.
2. Predictive character (imagination of reality).
3. Creative transformation of reality.
4. The presence of intellectual schemes (mental structures in which concepts, rules, logical operations information processing, etc.).
5. The presence of self-awareness, reflection (i.e., knowing oneself by knowing others; self-knowledge by analyzing one’s own activities and behavior; self-control, self-education).

Some scientists call hallmark consciousness, intentionality of actions, focus on an object, purposefulness. But animals have this too. If the behavior of a bird that dismisses a predator from its nest by pretending to be wounded can still be called instinctive, then the behavior of higher primates provides interesting information. The ability of chimpanzees to communicate intentionally was studied by creating situations in which a human and an ape foraged together for food. They informed each other of her whereabouts. When a person helped a chimpanzee and gave it all the food it found, the monkey also sent the right signals about the place. If a person took all the food he found for himself, then the monkey misled him by not giving the necessary signals and not taking into account the “false” signals from him.
In addition, monkeys are capable of deception (Beata the monkey).
Altruism can be called a purely human sign of consciousness, when the interests of another person are the central point of behavior.
We can say that animals have the prerequisites for consciousness, but only humans are able to generalize their experience, create joint knowledge, which is consolidated in speech, samples of material and spiritual culture.
Impaired consciousness.
Loss of consciousness occurs during sleep, during illness, or in a state of hypnosis.

Self-awareness.
SELF-AWARENESS is the process by which a person comes to know and relate to himself. It is based on separation, opposition to the surrounding world.
Components of consciousness (according to V.S. Merlin):

1. Awareness of the difference between oneself and the rest of the world;
2. Consciousness of “I” (as an active subject of activity);
3. Awareness of one’s mental properties, emotional self-esteem;
4. Social and moral self-esteem, self-esteem based on experience.

IN scientific literature You can come across the concept of the image of “I”, or “I-concept”. This is the central link of self-awareness. It includes:
1. Intellectual component – ​​self-knowledge (knowledge of oneself, the ability to characterize oneself);
2. Emotional component – ​​self-attitude, self-esteem;
3. Behavioral component - a set and selection of characteristic, typical behavioral strategies and tactics.
Self-esteem is formed with experience, with the assessment of other people's reactions to the subject. Self-esteem can be adequate (with a slight discrepancy between the “real self” and the “ideal self”) and inadequate (overestimated and underestimated).
Disorders of self-awareness.

1. Depersonalization – loss of “I”, viewing oneself as a stranger, an outsider;
2. Split personality, split;
3. Violation of bodily identification - parts of the body are perceived as something separate;
4. Derealization is the loss of a sense of the reality of one’s life and the whole world.

The concept of the unconscious.

The first ideas about the unconscious go back to Plato. He metaphorically represented the unconscious as two rushing horses - black and white - ruled by consciousness. Thus, he first spoke about intrapersonal conflict.
UNCONSCIOUS person- these are those phenomena, states that are not realized and not controlled by him, but they exist and manifest themselves in a variety of involuntary actions:

1. Wrong actions– slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, errors in listening. They arise due to the collision of a person’s unconscious desires and a consciously set goal. When the unconscious desire, the motive, wins, a reservation arises;
2. Involuntary forgetting names, intentions, events (indirectly associated for a person with unpleasant experiences);
3. Dreams, dreams, daydreams. Dreams are a symbolic way of eliminating an unpleasant sensation, experience, or dissatisfaction. If consciousness and censorship are strong in a person, then the content of dreams becomes confusing and incomprehensible.

Levels of the unconscious:

1. Preconscious– sensations, perception, memory, thinking, attitudes;
2. Phenomena that were previously conscious– motor skills (walking, writing, etc.);
3. Personal unconscious– desires, thoughts, needs, crowded out of consciousness by censorship. This is the deepest layer of the unconscious.

Methods for studying the unconscious:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Free association method(the man relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Interpretation of dreams.
4. Transfer Analysis(a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with close people).
Workshop. Mandala image. The goal is self-knowledge, self-awareness, achieving personal harmony.

Stages of development of psychology

1. Pre-scientific (before the 6th century BC)

Primitive society.

2. Philosophical (6th century BC – 19th century)

Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times.

3. Scientific (from the 19th century).

Modern times.

Pre-scientific stage.

The mysteries of human life and behavior have worried people since primitive times. Ancient man tried to explain why he sees and hears, why one is brave, another is strong, one is more capable, learns knowledge faster, another slower.
Among ancient peoples, the soul is explained within the framework of various mythological and religious beliefs. In most cases, ideas about the soul arise along with funeral rites.
The soul appears to be a human double, a terrible demon or an incorruptible, foggy image. The soul was often depicted as a winged creature. The soul was considered as something supernatural, like an animal in an animal, a man in a man. The activity of an animal or a person is explained by the presence of this soul, and tranquility in sleep or death is explained by its absence. Sleep or trance is a temporary absence of the soul, and death is permanent. You can protect yourself from death either by closing the soul’s exit from the body, or, if it has left it, by achieving its return. To achieve these goals, taboos are used. The soul of the tribe, in particular, is contained in the totem.

Philosophical stage.

Antiquity.
The first more or less coherent teachings about human psychology appear in the era of antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers imagined the soul as the movement of air (Anaximenes) or a flame (Heraclitus), or a faint imprint of the world soul - the Cosmos.
Heraclitus, for example, called the Cosmos an “eternally burning fire,” and the soul its spark. Determined the difference between the souls of a child and an adult. As you grow older, your soul becomes drier and hotter. The degree of moisture of the soul affects its cognitive abilities. The soul of a child and a drunk is damp.
Aristotle believed that all objects where there is movement and heat have a soul, and distinguished plant, animal and rational souls. His doctrine of the universal spirituality of the world is called animism.
About 2 thousand years ago, in the era of antiquity, the human psyche was explained by 2 concepts:

Materialistic doctrine (Democritus).

Everything that exists on Earth has a soul, or rather, elements of the soul. Everything is made up of atoms that have different sizes and mobility. And the smallest and most mobile are the atoms of the soul. Those. the soul began to be understood as a material organ that animates the body. The atoms of the soul are independent and mobile, and with their help Democritus explained the processes of cognition, sleep, death (by the dynamics of the movement of these atoms).
After death, the soul dissipates into the air. I tried to explain the nature of sensations. Sensations are contact, because in the sense organs, the atoms of the soul are very close to the surface and can come into contact with microscopic, invisible to the eye, copies of surrounding objects - eidols - which float in the air, falling on the sense organs. Eidols expire from all items (the “expiration” theory).

Idealistic doctrine (Plato).

There is an ideal world where souls are born and reside, as well as ideas - perfect prototypes of all things. All things, objects, incl. and people strive for this perfection, being, as it were, variations of these ideas and concepts.
The soul is not material, and knowledge of the world is not the interaction of the psyche with the outside world, but the soul’s memory of what it saw in the ideal world before it entered the body. Therefore, thinking is reproductive.
Plato classified mental phenomena into reason (in the head), courage, “will” (in the chest) and lust, “motivation” (in abdominal cavity). The predominance of one or another part determined the individuality of a person and was correlated with his social position (reason - for aristocrats, courage - for warriors, lust - for slaves).
The soul is immortal, constant, it is the guardian of morality. Only the rational part of the soul is good, and all feelings and passions are evil.
Plato imagined the soul as a carriage, where the wild and ugly horse is the lower soul, the supple and beautiful horse is the higher one, and the driver is the rational part of the soul, the mind.

The materialistic understanding of the soul was reinforced by the successes of ancient doctors. Thus, thanks to permission to dissect the corpses of “rootless” people, various parts of the brain were described in detail, a connection was established between the number of convolutions and the perfection of the brain, the connection between the sense organs and the brain, the difference between sensory and motor nerves, the types of temperament were determined (Hippocrates defined temperament as the predominance of one of the body’s juices - bile, black bile, blood, mucus), etc.

Middle Ages.

Knowledge about the soul during this period becomes integral part doctrines about God, i.e. lose their independent value. The Church prohibits any experiments. Attempts are being made to combine ancient ideas about the soul with religious ones.
For example, the teachings of the Christian Platonist Aurelius Augustine the Blessed. According to Augustine, the basis of the soul is not reason, but will. All knowledge lies in the soul, which lives and moves in God. They are extracted by directing the will. Any mental processes are also controlled by the will, for example, from the “imprints” of the external world that are stored by the senses, the will creates memories.
The will acts in 2 directions:

1. Receives and accumulates external experience;
2. Provides inner experience, possessing highest value, – i.e. the soul has the ability to turn inward and comprehend itself (in modern terms, this is self-awareness).

Revival.

The Renaissance freed all sciences and art from the dogmas and restrictions of the church, and they began to actively develop.
During the Renaissance, the materialistic explanation of the soul continued to develop. Issued affect theory, or emotions: mental is a certain state of matter, subject to the law of self-preservation. Positive emotions reveal the strength of the soul striving for self-preservation, while negative emotions reveal its weakness.

New time.

One of the main questions that worried philosophers was the problem of the connection between soul and body. For a very long time, the prevailing point of view was that the nature of the soul and body are completely different, and their relationship is similar to the relationship between the puppeteer (soul) and the doll (body), i.e. it was believed that the soul could influence the body, but not vice versa.
French philosopher R. Descartes also believed that the body and soul have different nature and operate under different laws. Mechanics became one of the leading exact sciences that had a strong influence on the development of other sciences. It led to the creation of complex machines capable of performing all kinds of movements reminiscent of human and animal behavior. There was a temptation to apply the laws of mechanics to explain human movements. The first mechanical principle was realized by R. Descartes in the concept of “reflex”. A reflex is a mechanical motor response biological machine to external mechanical, physical impact. In the organic needs of man, naturalists saw an analogue of the energy source of a machine, and in the anatomical structure of the body, the articulations of the joints - something reminiscent of the lever system of a machine. Thus, the body, according to Descartes, is material and acts according to the laws of mechanics. The soul is immaterial, and its main property is the ability to think, remember and feel.
In the 18th century English philosopher J. Locke put forward an empiric-sensualistic concept, according to which the sensual principle prevails over the rational, over reason. There is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses. The child’s consciousness at birth – tabula rasa – “ blank board", on which life leaves its writings. Sensations are formed in us according to the principle of association (connections between mental units). This is how experience is formed. This idea formed the basis of many theories based on the idea of ​​the leading role of external influences for the development and education of a person. Thus, Locke attached great importance to education, including the formation of a positive attitude towards good deeds and a negative attitude towards bad ones.
In the 18th century Thanks to the development of medicine and physiology, a connection between the soul, psyche and brain is established. C. Bell opens two types of fibers - sensory and motor, confirming the idea of ​​​​the reflex.
For the first time reflex interpretation psychological phenomena and the processes get in the book THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the brain."
Over time, it is discovered that the reflex principle cannot explain the variability of human movements, their dependence on the mental state, and thinking.

Scientific stage.

In the 19th century In many scientific fields, experimentation is becoming increasingly valuable. Introduction to scientific psychology laboratory experiment belongs to a German scientist V. Wundtu. The first is psychological experimental laboratory under the leadership of Wundt opened in 1979. Sensation and perception were mainly measured.
For example, the psychophysical law of sensations was derived: “The intensity of sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus” (in order to obtain an increase in sensation in an arithmetic progression, it is necessary to increase the effect of physical stimuli in a geometric progression, i.e. the stimulus must be several times stronger, than the previous time to cause the same sensation). As for thinking, Wundt suggests using method of introspection(introspection), as well as study of cultural monuments, language, myths, art, etc.
During this period, the subject of psychology changes. Thanks to the experiment, it becomes consciousness, which is understood as the ability to think, feel, and desire. Psychology is becoming an independent science. Developing industries:
- experimental psychophysiology of sensory organs;
- psychology of individual differences. F. Galton introduced the twin method to clarify the relationship between heredity and environment in the determination of individual differences.
A natural experiment is developing (in natural conditions) ( A.F. Lazursky- psychology of Personality, V.M. Bekhterev– psychology of small groups).

The main directions of development of psychology after the crisis of the beginning. 20th century

The shortcomings of the introspection method lead to a crisis in psychological science. As a result, in the beginning 20th century A number of new directions are emerging, each of which has proposed its own subject of psychology and methods of studying it.

Behaviorism

The name comes from English. behavior - “behavior”. American psychologists are considered the founders E.L. Thorndike And J. Watson.
Behaviorists believed that consciousness is too subjective and hidden from us and therefore cannot be measured. They declared the psyche to be “a black box where a person hides his problems, creating the appearance of solving them.” You can measure and record the external manifestation of the psyche - behavior.
The behavior pattern was described by behaviorists in the form of a formula: S –R(“stimulus-response”). An incentive is any external influence on the body, and a reaction is any response action. The meaning of the formula is that knowing which stimulus causes a certain reaction, you can control the behavior of humans and animals. To do this, it is necessary to observe human behavior, establish patterns and later use the appropriate stimulus to evoke the desired reaction. To enhance the action, you need to use reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive (reward, praise, etc.) and negative (punishment, etc.), also direct (immediate) and indirect (when a person or animal observes the behavior of another individual and what such behavior can lead to). This is what happens learning, the process of acquiring individual, personal experience ( A. Bandura).
Neobehaviorists ( E. Tolman, B. Skinner) supplemented the formula S – R: S – O –R, where O – cognitive processes: thinking, memory, imagination.
The development of behaviorism was greatly influenced by the teachings of I.P. Pavlova and V.M. Bekhterev about the nature of the reflex.
Critics of behaviorism draw attention to the mechanistic approach to the psyche, its strict determination by external circumstances, and the blurring of the boundaries between human and animal psychology.

Psychoanalysis

The founder is the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist S. Freud. One of his biographers notes: “Copernicus moved humanity from the center of the world to its outskirts, Darwin forced us to recognize our kinship with animals, and Freud proved that reason is not the master of its own house.” Z. Freud revolutionized ideas about the human psyche - human behavior is determined not only and not so much by consciousness, but more by the unconscious (hidden, suppressed experiences, desires).
S. Freud made this conclusion based on his medical practice. He treated hysteria and neuroses. He noted that these diseases are caused by the suppression of various kinds of psychotraumas that took place mostly in early childhood. These psychotraumas do not disappear, but wander within a person, periodically coming out in dreams, slips of the tongue, drawings, jokes, etc. According to Freud, in order to get rid of them, it is necessary not to suppress them, but to remember them in all their colors, relive them and, most importantly, react. For these purposes, Freud used:
1. Hypnosis.
2. Method of free associations (the person relaxed and said whatever came into his head).
3. Interpretation of dreams.
4. Analysis of transference (a person transfers his images to the doctor, associates him with loved ones).
This is how psychoanalysis is carried out.

Gestalt psychology

Founders – German scientists K. Koffka, W. Köhler, M. Wertheimer. The name comes from it. gestalt – “form, image, structure.” From their point of view, the psyche is an integral structure that cannot be reduced to a set of individual elements. The whole is not the sum of its parts; the parts do not determine the whole, but on the contrary, the properties of the whole determine the properties of its individual parts. Thus, a musical melody cannot be reduced to a sequence of different musical sounds. It is important to study the structure of connections between them.
A holistic structure is what it is gestalt.
Concept "figure-ground"- one of the key ones in Gestalt psychology. For example, perception is not the sum of sensations, it is holistic. Figure and ground are difficult to see together. Usually one integral part stands out - either a figure or a background.
In psychotherapy, Gestalt techniques are also aimed at establishing integrity. Thus, a well-known exercise is the “Circle of Subpersonalities”, the task of which is to bring harmony individual manifestations personality (“I want”, “I need”, etc.). The Mandala exercise is also a typical example.

Cognitive psychology

Name from lat. сognitio – knowledge, cognition. Cognitive psychology examines the dependence of a person’s behavior on his existing cognitive maps (schemas), which determine his worldview. Associated with names A. Beck, A. Ellis.
Critics of cognitive psychology note the simplification of a person’s inner world, acting according to schemes and models, and identifying the brain with a machine. It is not without reason that the emergence and development of this direction are associated with the rapid development of computer technology and the development of cybernetics (the science of the laws of the process of managing and transmitting information).
The structure of cognitive schemas includes beliefs and rules through which people sort and use incoming information. At the same time, beliefs can be dysfunctional and cause cognitive errors leading to inappropriate behavior.
Examples of errors:
1. Arbitrary conclusion. Drawing conclusions in the absence of evidence. Example– a working mother who at the end have a hard day concludes, “I am a terrible mother.”
2. Selective abstraction. Selective attention to an unimportant detail while simultaneously ignoring a more significant one. Example- a lover who becomes jealous when he sees that his girlfriend tilts her head towards the interlocutor at a noisy party in order to hear him better.
3. Overgeneralization. Removal general rule from one or more isolated cases. Example– a woman who, after a disappointing date, comes to the conclusion “All men are the same. I will always be rejected."
4. Exaggeration and understatement.Example The first is a student who predicts disaster: “If I get even a little nervous, I will certainly fail.” Example the second is a man who says his terminally ill mother has “a slight cold.”
5. Personalization. Having a tendency to associate external events with you in the absence of adequate evidence. Example- a person sees someone walking along opposite side on the busy street of an acquaintance who doesn't notice his greeting wave and thinks, "I must have offended him in some way."
6. Dichotomous thinking.“Black and white”, “either-or”, etc., maximalism. Example– the student thinks: “If I don’t pass this exam with excellent marks, I’m a failure.”

A. Beck believes that reasons Such cognitive errors are:
1. Psychological trauma received in childhood.Example– a five-year-old boy went on a journey and, upon returning, found out that his beloved dog had died; As a result, the boy developed the attitude: “When I am physically at a great distance from others, something bad happens to them.”
2. Childhood abuse. This undermines self-esteem and makes the child vulnerable. Often, people significant to the child model offensive behavior that he will later use against other people or criticize himself excessively.
3. Negative life experiences, learning.

Humanistic psychology

It arose in the 60s of the 20th century. in USA. Founders A. Maslow, K. Rogers. The name comes from the Latin humanus – “humane”. Humanistic psychology studies only humans and argues that animals are not worth studying. This direction is based on an optimistic approach to understanding human nature: faith in the creative powers of every person, in the fact that he is able to consciously choose his destiny and build his life. Humanists argue that a person is initially good, and his aggression is the result of environmental influences. The focus is on a healthy, self-actualizing personality.
The highest human need is the need for self-actualization, i.e. in revealing your personal potential. Moreover, this higher need arises and can be satisfied by satisfying the lower ones (physiological, for example).

Domestic psychology

The roots of Russian psychological thought go back to the 19th century. One of the most significant applications for the construction of psychological knowledge at that time was the work THEM. Sechenov"Reflexes of the brain."
I.P. Pavlov- great Russian scientist-physiologist, founder of the doctrine of higher nervous activity (HNA).
Bekhterev V.I.- great Russian physiologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, founder of Russia's first experimental psychological laboratory and the Psychoneurological Institute (1908) - the world's first center for the comprehensive study of man. Developed a natural science theory of behavior.
Rubinshtein S.L.- an outstanding Russian psychologist and philosopher. Developed the activity principle in psychology, the principle of determinism, the principle personal approach.
Luria A.R.- an outstanding domestic psychologist, the founder of neuropsychology in our country. The main attention was paid to the experimental study of the localization of higher mental functions (HMF).
Vygotsky L.S.– the founder of the cultural-historical concept of mental development, according to which the mental development and formation of a child’s personality occurs through interaction with society, culture, in the process of appropriating culturally specified ways of acting with objects, and familiarity with the achievements of culture and science. Thus, the psyche is culturally and historically conditioned.
Leontyev A.N.- an outstanding domestic psychologist. He developed a psychological theory of activity, which is a recognized theoretical direction in domestic and world psychological science. According to it, the psyche is born, formed and manifested in activity. At the same time, at each stage of growing up, the leading activity that has the greatest impact is identified. For example, in preschool age it is a game, in primary school age it is learning, in adolescence– intimate and personal communication.