Psychology
Psychology
First psyche.
Secondly
feature of psychology
Third
tasks of psychology:
1
2
3
three groups:
1
) mental processes;
2
) mental states;
3
Mental process
Mental processes
Mental condition
Mental condition
methods:
-observation;
-biographical method;
Experimental method
Observation methods
Test Method
according to B.G. Ananyev):
Group I
Group II
III group
IV group
Psyche
Psyche:
1 Touch. Reflection of individual stimuli: the subject reacts only to biologically significant stimuli (irritability).
2 Perceptual. Expressed in the ability to reflect a complex of stimuli as a whole
3 Intelligent. It manifests itself in the fact that in addition to the reflection of individual objects, a reflection of their functional relationships and connections arises
Being a property, a product of brain activity, the psyche in its content is a subjective reflection of the objective world. The psyche is not a simple, but a complex and diverse subjective reflection of the objective world. There are mental processes associated with cognitive activity, feelings in which a person’s attitude to surrounding phenomena is expressed, and processes associated with volitional actions that he performs. In the process of cognition, a person reflects the external world in sensations, perceptions, ideas and concepts. Sensations are a reflection of individual properties of objects.
5 Main branches of psychological science
The problems that psychology solves as a science determined the emergence and development of its specific branches.
General psychology studies the content, features and general patterns of functioning of the psyche and human consciousness, mental processes, properties, states and formations of the individual.
Social Psychology explores psychological phenomena and processes determined by a person’s belonging to specific communities.
Zoopsychology(or comparative psychology) reveals the characteristics and patterns of the psyche of animals
Pedagogical psychology engages in research into the psychological characteristics and patterns of the processes of training and education of the younger generation.
Age-related psychology studies the uniqueness of the psyche of people of different ages, the process of formation of their personality and mental development, age-related characteristics of the processes of perception, thinking, memory, interests, motives of activity, etc.
Engineering psychology aims to resolve the problems of the relationship between the technical requirements of modern machines and the mental capabilities of humans
Psychology of art studies the psychological specifics of creative activity in various types of arts
Psychology of sports engages in research into the psychological characteristics of sports activities.
Cosmic psychology includes in its range of problems the study of the characteristics of mental processes occurring in the human body during space flights
Legal psychology explores the psychology of offenders and criminals, as well as issues reflected in judicial practice.
Military psychology studies the psychology of the warrior’s personality, the psychology of the military collective
Medical psychology is engaged in the study of disorders and disorders of mental activity in various diseases, promoting the development of rational methods of their treatment.
Consciousness
Consciousness– the highest level of mental reflection and regulation, inherent only to man as a socio-historical being. From a practical point of view, consciousness can be considered as a continuously changing set of sensory and mental images that directly appear before the subject in his inner world and anticipate his practical activity. Consciousness is being studied many sciences - philosophy, anthropology, neurophysiology, sociology, psychology, physiology, etc. All religions pay close attention to consciousness.
From a psychological point of view, we can talk about several established properties of consciousness:
1)
the consciousness of an individual is characterized by activity, which is determined primarily by the specific internal state of the subject at the moment of action, as well as by the presence of a goal and sustainable activity to achieve it;
2
) consciousness is characterized by intentionality, i.e., focus on any object. Consciousness is always consciousness of something;
3
) the ability of human consciousness for reflection, introspection, i.e. the possibility of awareness of consciousness itself;
4
) consciousness has a motivational and value character. It is always motivated, pursuing some goals, which is determined by the needs of the body and personality.
One of the functions of consciousness is the formation of goals of activity, the preliminary mental construction of actions and the anticipation of their results, which ensures reasonable regulation of human behavior and activity. Consciousness developed in humans only in social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness developed and became possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, in conditions of labor activity. In addition, both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, speech becomes the subjective carrier of human consciousness, which first acts as a means of communication, and then becomes a means of thinking.
In psychology there are several types of consciousness
person:
everyday- is formed first among other types of consciousness, arises during interaction with things, is fixed in language in the form of the first concepts;
design- covers a range of tasks related to the design and implementation of specific business goals;
scientific- relies on scientific concepts, concepts, models, explores not the individual properties of objects, but their relationships;
aesthetic- associated with the process of emotional perception of the surrounding world;
ethical- determines a person’s moral attitudes (from extreme integrity to immorality). Unlike other types of consciousness, the degree of development of a person’s ethical (moral) consciousness is difficult to assess by himself.
Sensations and perceptions
Sensation, sensory experience is the simplest mental process, which is a mental reflection of individual properties and states of the external environment, arising from direct influence on the sense organs, a differentiated perception by the subject of internal or external stimuli and irritants with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are considered the first stage (in fact, they are not included there) in a series of biochemical and neurological processes, which begins with the influence of the external (environmental) environment on the receptors of the sensory organ (that is, the organ of sensation) and then leads to perception, or perception (recognition ).
Perception, perception (from Latin perceptio) is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world. This is a mental process consisting of the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception is one of the biological mental functions that determine the complex process of receiving and transforming information received through the senses, forming a subjective holistic image of an object that affects analyzers through a set of sensations initiated by this object. As a form of sensory reflection of an object, perception includes the detection of the object as a whole, the discrimination of individual features in the object, the identification of informative content in it that is adequate to the purpose of the action, and the formation of a sensory image.
Sensation (in psychology) is the process of reflecting individual properties of objects in the surrounding world.
It differs from the concept of perception (as a holistic impression, for example, the perception of a cup of coffee as a holistic image) quantitatively (the sensation of coffee aroma, color, temperature, etc.).
Perception consists of one or more sensations that create the most complete picture of an object. Those. the perception will be, even if the person does not touch the cup, with his eyes closed he will inhale the aroma of coffee (one sensation).
Types of sensations and perceptions
Feel:
By receptor location
Exteroceptive
Interoceptive
Proprioceptive
According to the leading analyzer: Sensory sensations:
Atmospheric pressure (specifically sound)
Chemical substance, its concentration (in particular, taste)
Humidity
Mechanical stress
Tissue damage
Osmotic pressure
Body position
Temperature
Electromagnetic radiation (particularly light)
According to the interaction of receptors with stimuli:
Contact
Distant
Basic types of perception
Perception as a direct reflection of the world is classified on various grounds.
Traditionally, five types of perception are distinguished in accordance with the leading analyzer involved in the construction of a perceptual image (according to the modality of perception):
Visual;
Auditory;
Tactile (tactile);
Flavoring;
Olfactory.
Types of attention and memory
Types of attention:
Involuntary attention (passive) - It is established and maintained regardless of a person’s conscious intention. It is based on unconscious human attitudes. As a rule, short-term, quickly turning into arbitrary. The occurrence of involuntary attention may be caused by the peculiarity of the stimulus
Voluntary attention - The physiological mechanism of voluntary attention is the focus of optimal excitation in the cerebral cortex, supported by signals coming from the second signaling system.
Post-voluntary attention - A type of attention in which there is a conscious choice of the object of attention, but there is no tension
Types of memory:
Instant (iconic) memory is a direct reflection of the image of information perceived by the senses
Short-term memory retains for a short period of time
RAM is designed to retain information for a certain, predetermined period of time
Long-term memory is capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time.
Genetic memory is determined by the genotype and is passed on from generation to generation
Functions and types of motives
The main types of human motives contain six components:
External motives. They are caused by external components. For example, if your friend bought a new thing, and you saw it, then you will be motivated to earn money and also buy a similar thing.
Internal motives. They arise within the person himself. For example, it can be expressed in the desire to go somewhere and change the environment. Moreover, if you share this thought with others, then for some it may become an external motive.
Positive motives. Based on positive reinforcement. For example, such a motive is contained in the attitude - I will work hard, I will get more money.
Negative motives. They are factors that push a person away from making a mistake. For example, I won’t get up on time and be late for an important meeting.
Stable motives. Based on human needs and do not require additional reinforcement from outside.
Unstable motives. They require constant reinforcement from outside.
All these types of motives perform three main functions:
Inspiration to action. That is, identifying those motives that force a person to act;
Direction of activity. The function with which a person determines how he can achieve a goal and satisfy his need;
Control and maintenance of achievement-oriented behavior. Keeping in mind his ultimate goal, a person will adjust his activities taking into account its achievement.
By the way, as for activity, here too there is a set of motives. It depends not only on a person’s internal needs, but also on his interaction with the social environment.
Conflict Management
There are several ways to manage a conflict situation. They can be divided into two categories: structural methods and interpersonal styles of conflict resolution.
1. Structural methods of conflict resolution
Clarification of job requirements. One of the best management techniques to prevent dysfunctional conflict is to clarify what results are expected from the employee or group. The following should be mentioned: the level of results, sources of information, the system of powers and responsibilities, policies, procedures and rules are defined.
Moreover, the leader clarifies all these issues not for himself, but so that his subordinates understand well what is expected of them in each situation.
Coordination and integration mechanisms. This method is based on the correct use of the formal structure of the organization, in particular, hierarchy and the principle of unity of command. The principle of unity of command (sometimes it is not entirely correctly called the principle of unity of command) facilitates the use of hierarchy to manage a conflict situation, since the subordinate knows perfectly well whose orders he must obey.
In managing a conflict situation, methods that are used to integrate the structure (i.e., prevent the emergence of a “swan, crayfish and pike” situation) are useful.
Organization-wide comprehensive goals. Effectively achieving complex goals requires the joint efforts of two or more workers, so setting goals that are common to all workers can serve as a method of preventing conflict.
For example, if three shifts in a production department are in conflict with each other, goals should be formulated for the entire department rather than for each shift individually. Likewise, establishing clearly defined organization-wide goals will also encourage department heads to make decisions that benefit the entire organization, not just their functional area.
Reward system structure. The reward system (material and non-material) can both contribute to the occurrence of conflicts and reduce the possibility of their occurrence. The reward system should be organized in such a way as to encourage those employees whose actions contribute to the achievement of corporate goals and who try to approach problems in an integrated manner. On the contrary, the reward system should not reward employees who seek solutions to narrow problems at the expense of other departments and divisions. For example, sales employees should not be rewarded for increasing sales volume if they achieved this by providing customers with a wide range of discounts to the detriment of the overall profit of the company.
2. Interpersonal conflict resolution styles
Evasion. This style implies that a person is trying to avoid conflict. "...do not get into situations that provoke the emergence of contradictions, do not enter into a discussion of issues that are fraught with disagreement. Then you will not have to get into an excited state, even if you are trying to solve a problem."
Smoothing. This style is characterized by behavior that is dictated by the belief that there is no point in getting angry because “we are all one happy team and we should not rock the boat.”
The smoothing style can ultimately lead to serious conflict because the problem underlying the conflict is not resolved. The “smoother” achieves temporary harmony among workers, but negative emotions live inside them and accumulate.
Compulsion. Within this style, attempts to force people to accept their point of view at any cost prevail. Anyone who tries to do this is not interested in the opinions of others, behaves aggressively and uses power through coercion to influence others. This style can be effective in situations where the boss has significant power over subordinates. The disadvantage of this style is that it suppresses the initiative of subordinates, creating the danger that when making a management decision, any important factors will not be taken into account, since only one point of view is presented.
This style may cause resentment, especially among younger, more educated staff.
Compromise. This style is characterized by accepting the other party's point of view, but only to some extent. The ability to compromise is highly valued in management situations, as it minimizes ill will and often allows conflict to be resolved quickly to the satisfaction of both parties. However, using compromise early in a conflict over a serious issue may hinder the diagnosis of the problem and reduce the search for possible alternatives. As a result, the decisions made may not be optimal.
Problem solving. This style is an acknowledgment of differences of opinion and a willingness to engage with other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find a course of action acceptable to all parties. Those who use this style do not seek to solve their problems at the expense of others, but rather look for the best solution to a conflict situation.
Methods for resolving conflicts:
Determining the main cause of the conflict is identifying the prerequisites and factors that led to its occurrence;
Determining the secondary causes of the conflict, after clarifying the main problem, it is necessary to identify the reason that allowed the transition to open confrontation. It, as well as the main reason, may contain important information for resolving the conflict;
The search for ways to resolve the conflict is based on solving the following questions: - why does this conflict need to be resolved?
What can each of the opponents do to resolve it?
A joint decision to exit a conflict is the development of a compromise solution for all parties to the conflict;
Conflict resolution is carried out by eliminating the causes of the conflict situation;
Assessing the effectiveness of efforts made to resolve the conflict. Based on its results, a conclusion is drawn about the extent to which the problem has been eliminated and the need for repeated actions.
Law of Information Distortion
Sometimes it is called the law of loss of meaning of management information, or the law of splitting the meaning of management information. The essence of this law is that management information (directives, orders, instructions, etc.) has an objective tendency to change meaning in the process of moving from top to bottom.
Law of self-preservation
The essence of this law is that one of the leading motives that determine people's behavior is the preservation of personal status, wealth, and self-esteem. Direct or indirect violation of dignity causes a negative reaction.
Law of Compensation
In general, this law means that a person who has some shortcomings, difficulties or problems in one area of life, consciously or unconsciously tries to compensate for them by working harder in another area.
Managing people and groups- the concept of personnel management, developing within the framework of a humanistic approach to management. Focused on considering personnel functions in their integrity. The concept assumes that management should focus on specific individual human characteristics.
Human management.
Individual characteristics of behavior.
Each person has an individuality. This is the kind of person who enters the organization, does a certain job and plays a certain role in the organization, and this is the kind of person who needs to be managed.
Man as a product of nature and society is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. A person lives and acts by performing certain actions. His activities and communication with other people are united by the single concept of “behavior.” In the behavior, actions and deeds of a person, his basic socio-psychological properties are manifested. A person’s behavior, his actions and actions depend on: the biological and psychological characteristics of his body; living conditions and from various influences on it, from how a person’s interaction is organized with the world of material and spiritual culture, as well as with the people around him
Group management.
A group is a community of people limited in size, distinguished from the social whole on the basis of certain characteristics (the nature of the activity performed, social or class affiliation, structure, composition, level of development, etc.).
A manager in his work has to deal with different types of groups, but there is something in common, some rules that can be quite successfully applied to different groups. Let's consider the structure of the group, its main members, with proper influence on whom it is possible to manage the activities of the entire group.
Upbringing
has two meanings in pedagogical science. In broad terms, this is a process of targeted influence, the purpose of which is the accumulation by a person of the social experience necessary for life in society and the formation of a certain system of values; education is considered as a purposeful process of forming the intellect, spiritual and physical strength of the individual, preparing him for life and active work.
In a narrow sense, education is a systematic, purposeful influence on those being educated in order to form in them certain, specific qualities, views, beliefs, and the desired attitude towards people and phenomena of the world around them.
Education is also interpreted in a more specific sense - as the solution to a specific educational problem.
Self-education
– a person’s conscious and purposeful work to develop desired traits, personality traits, and forms of behavior.
Education
– a purposeful process of interaction between teachers and students (trainees) for the transfer and assimilation of social experience, the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. In this case, the activities of teachers are called teaching, and the activities of students are called teaching.
Training, in a certain sense, differs from upbringing in the degree of organization - the learning process is defined by a clearer and stricter framework (content, time, technological, target, etc.), and is characterized by the use of special teaching tools.
Education
– the process and result of mastering the levels of cultural heritage determined by society, mastering by students a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, forming on their basis a worldview, moral and other personality traits, developing creative powers and abilities; a pedagogically organized process of transmitting the culture accumulated by people and the associated level of individual development.
Self-education
- purposeful and purposeful work of a person associated with the search and assimilation of knowledge.
Development
– the process of formation, formation and improvement of a person’s personality under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrollable social and natural factors, among which targeted training and education play a leading role.
In a narrower sense, development is understood as the improvement of intellectual, physical and other qualities of an individual.
Features of psychology as a science, its tasks
Psychology-academic and applied science of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology is an area of scientific knowledge that studies the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development (changes) of mental processes (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination), mental states (tension, motivation, frustration, emotions, feelings) and mental properties (direction , abilities, inclinations, character, temperament) of a person, that is, the psyche as a special form of life activity, as well as the psyche of animals.
First the reason why it is necessary to highlight psychology in the system of sciences is that it studies the most complex thing known to mankind - this psyche.
Secondly Psychology is a unique science, in it the subject and object of knowledge merge.
feature of psychology as a science is that the tasks of psychology are the most complex when compared with other sciences. Only in this science does a person’s thought, which was previously directed towards the world around him, become directed over time towards himself.
Third The peculiarity of psychology lies in its unique practical consequences.
Psychology constantly accumulates more and more new facts in the process of a person’s self-knowledge.
This science is not only cognizing, but also constructing and creating man, and only for this reason can it be classified as a special type.
tasks of psychology:
1 . Study of qualitative (structural) features of mental processes as reflections of objective reality.
2 . Analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena in connection with the conditioning of the psyche by the objective conditions of human life and activity.
3 . Study of the physiological mechanisms underlying mental processes
2. Classification of mental phenomena
All mental phenomena are divided into three groups:
1
) mental processes;
2
) mental states;
3
) mental properties of a person.
Mental process is an act of mental activity that has its own object of reflection and its own regulatory function.
Mental processes are divided into cognitive (sensation, perception, thinking, memory and imagination), emotional and volitional.
All human mental activity is a combination of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes.
Mental condition- this is a temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by its content and a person’s attitude to this content.
Mental condition- this is the general functional level of mental activity depending on the conditions of a person’s activity and his personal characteristics.
Mental states can be short-term, situational and stable, personal.
3 Methods of psychological research
To solve problems in psychology, the following are used: methods:
-laboratory and natural experiment;
-observation;
-research of products of activity;
-questioning and testing;
-biographical method;
-psychological modeling;
-comparative genetic method, etc.
Experimental method- the main method of psychology; differs in that the researcher specifically creates circumstances that stimulate the manifestation of a certain mental phenomenon
Observation methods suggest an explanation of a mental phenomenon in the process of its specially organized perception.
Purposeful scientific observation is based on a specific theoretical hypothesis; it is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, and its progress and results are clearly recorded.
The observation method is adjacent to
: a method of studying the products of activity, which allows you to determine a person’s abilities, the level of his knowledge, skills and abilities; questionnaire method, and in particular the clinical conversation method.
Test Method) -method for diagnosing the mental capabilities of an individual. The biographical research method consists of identifying the key factors in the formation of an individual, his life path, crisis periods of development, and characteristics of socialization.
Comparative genetic method- a method of studying mental patterns by comparing individual phases of the mental development of individuals.
In psychology there are four groups of methods ( according to B.G. Ananyev):
Group I-organizational methods. They include the comparative method (comparing different groups by age, activity, etc.); longitudinal method (multiple examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time); complex method
Group II- empirical methods, including: observation and introspection; experimental methods, psychodiagnostic methods (tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversations), analysis of activity products, biographical methods.
III group- methods of data processing, including: quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (differentiation of material into groups, analysis) methods.
IV group- interpretive methods, including genetic (analysis of material in terms of development, highlighting individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural (establishes structural connections between all personality characteristics) methods.
Psyche
Psyche:
A special aspect of the life of animals and humans and their interaction with the environment.
The ability to actively reflect reality or a set of mental processes and phenomena (perception of information, subjective sensations, emotions, memory, etc.)
A systemic property of highly organized matter, which consists in the subject’s active reflection of the objective world and self-regulation on this basis of his behavior and activities.
Forms of mental reflection:
1 Touch. Reflection of individual stimuli.
1. Subject, tasks and features of psychology as a science
Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. Few people know psychology as a system of proven knowledge, mainly only those who specifically study it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe them in other people.
The term “psychology” first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that every person easily detects in his own consciousness as a result of introspection. Later, in the 17th-19th centuries, the scope of psychologists' research expanded significantly to include unconscious mental processes (the unconscious) and human activity.
In the 20th century, psychological research went beyond the phenomena around which it had been concentrated for centuries. In this regard, the name “psychology” has partly lost its original, rather narrow meaning, when it referred only to subjective, directly perceived and experienced phenomena of consciousness by a person. However, according to the centuries-old tradition, this science still retains its former name.
Since the 19th century psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge.
What is the subject of studying psychology? The subject of psychology is the study of the structure and patterns of emergence, development and functioning of the psyche in its various forms, including consciousness as the highest form of mental reflection. Considering that “psychology is in a special position because in it the object and subject of knowledge seem to merge,” and also imagining the relationship in which the object and subject of scientific knowledge are usually located, by the object of psychology we will further understand the unity of three elements:
part of the material world that directly and indirectly affects the psyche;
those changes in the material world that are directly and indirectly a consequence of mental activity;
actual mental phenomena, explained first as a consequence and then as a cause of recorded material indicators, indicators, criteria for assessing the psyche. Such an understanding of the object of psychology, in general, opens up great opportunities for researchers in formulating and clarifying the objects of various branches of psychology. First of all, the psyche of humans and animals, which includes many subjective phenomena. With the help of some, such as sensations and perception, attention and memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person understands the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena regulate his communication with people and directly control his actions and actions. They are called mental properties and states of personality, including needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness. In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.
Man does not simply penetrate the world through his cognitive processes. He lives and acts in this world, creating it for himself in order to satisfy his material, spiritual and other needs, and performs certain actions. In order to understand and explain human actions, we turn to such a concept as personality.
In turn, mental processes, states and properties of a person, especially in their highest manifestations, can hardly be fully comprehended if they are not considered depending on the conditions of a person’s life, on how his interaction with nature and society is organized (activities and communication). Communication and activity are also therefore the subject of modern psychological research.
Mental processes, properties and states of a person, his communication and activity are separated and studied separately, although in reality they are closely related to each other and form a single whole, called human life.
Studying the psychology and behavior of people, scientists look for their explanation, on the one hand, in the biological nature of man, on the other, in his individual experience, and on the third, in the laws on the basis of which society is built and according to which it functions. In the last Case, the dependence of a person’s psyche and behavior on the place he occupies in society, on the existing social system, structure, methods of teaching and upbringing, the specific relationships that a given person develops with the people around him, on the social role that he plays in society is explored. , from the types of activities in which he is directly involved.
In addition to individual psychology of behavior, the range of phenomena studied by psychology also includes relationships between people in various human associations - large and small groups, teams.
The tasks of psychology mainly boil down to the following:
Learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;
Learn to manage them; use the acquired knowledge in order to increase the efficiency of those branches of practice at the intersection of which already established sciences and industries lie;
To be the theoretical basis for the practice of psychological services.
By studying the patterns of mental phenomena, psychologists reveal the essence of the process of reflecting the objective world in the human brain, find out how human actions are regulated, how mental activity develops and the mental properties of the individual are formed. Since the psyche and consciousness of a person is a reflection of objective reality, the study of psychological laws means, first of all, the establishment of the dependence of mental phenomena on the objective conditions of human life and activity. But since any human activity is always naturally conditioned not only by the objective conditions of human life and activity, but also sometimes by subjective ones (attitudes, attitudes of a person, his personal experience, expressed in the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for this activity), then psychology is faced with the task identifying the features of the implementation of activities and its effectiveness, depending on the relationship between objective conditions and subjective aspects.
Thus, by establishing the laws of cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, thinking, imagination, memory), psychology contributes to the scientific construction of the learning process, creating the opportunity to correctly determine the content of educational material necessary for the assimilation of certain knowledge, skills and abilities. By identifying the patterns of personality formation, psychology assists pedagogy in the correct construction of the educational process.
The wide range of problems that psychologists are engaged in solving determines, on the one hand, the need for relationships between psychology and other sciences involved in solving complex problems, and on the other hand, the identification within psychological science itself of special branches involved in solving psychological problems in one or another area of society .
2. Scientific and everyday psychology: differences in goals, method, language
Any science has as its basis some everyday, empirical experience of people. For example, physics relies on the knowledge we acquire in everyday life about the movement and fall of bodies, about friction and energy, about light, sound, heat and much more.
Mathematics also comes from ideas about numbers, shapes, quantitative relationships, which begin to form already in preschool age.
But the situation is different with psychology. Each of us has a stock of everyday psychological knowledge. There are even outstanding everyday psychologists. These are, of course, great writers, as well as some (though not all) representatives of professions that involve constant communication with people: teachers, doctors, clergy, etc. But the average person also has certain psychological knowledge. This can be judged by the fact that each person, to some extent, can understand another, influence his behavior, predict his actions, take into account his individual characteristics, help him, etc.
How does everyday psychological knowledge differ from scientific knowledge?
I (Gippenreiter) will tell you five such differences.
First: everyday psychological knowledge, concrete; they are confined to specific situations, specific people, specific tasks. They say that waiters and taxi drivers are also good psychologists. But in what sense, to solve what problems? As we know, they are often quite pragmatic. The child also solves specific pragmatic problems by behaving in one way with his mother, in another with his father, and again in a completely different way with his grandmother. In each specific case, he knows exactly how to behave in order to achieve the desired goal. But we can hardly expect from him the same insight in relation to other people's grandmothers or mothers. So, everyday psychological knowledge is characterized by specificity, limited tasks, situations and persons to which it applies.
Scientific psychology, like any science, strives for generalizations. To do this, she uses scientific concepts. Concept development is one of the most important functions of science. Scientific concepts reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena, general connections and relationships. Scientific concepts are clearly defined, correlated with each other, and linked into laws.
For example, in physics, thanks to the introduction of the concept of force, I. Newton was able to describe, using the three laws of mechanics, thousands of different specific cases of motion and mechanical interaction of bodies.
The same thing happens in psychology. You can describe a person for a very long time, listing in everyday terms his qualities, character traits, actions, relationships with other people.
Scientific psychology seeks and finds such generalizing concepts that not only economize descriptions, but also allow us to see behind the conglomerate of particulars the general trends and patterns of personality development and its individual characteristics. One feature of scientific psychological concepts should be noted: they often coincide with everyday ones in their external form, that is, simply put, they are expressed in the same words. However, the internal content and meanings of these words are usually different. Everyday terms are usually more vague and ambiguous.
The second difference between everyday psychological knowledge is that it is intuitive in nature. This is due to the special way they are obtained: they are acquired through practical trials and adjustments.
This method is especially clearly visible in children. I have already mentioned their good psychological intuition. How is it achieved? Through daily and even hourly tests to which they subject adults and which the latter are not always aware of. And during these tests, children discover who can be “twisted into ropes” and who cannot.
Often teachers and trainers find effective ways of education, training, and training by following the same path: experimenting and vigilantly noticing the slightest positive results, that is, in a certain sense, “going by touch.” They often turn to psychologists with a request to explain the psychological meaning of the techniques they have found.
In contrast, scientific psychological knowledge is rational and fully conscious. The usual way is to put forward verbally formulated hypotheses and test the logically following consequences from them.
The third difference lies in the methods of knowledge transfer and even in the very possibility of its transfer. In the field of practical psychology, this possibility is very limited. This directly follows from the two previous features of everyday psychological experience - its concrete and intuitive nature. The profound psychologist F. M. Dostoevsky expressed his intuition in the works he wrote, we read them all - after that did we become equally insightful psychologists? Is life experience passed on from the older generation to the younger? As a rule, with great difficulty and to a very small extent. The eternal problem of “fathers and sons” is precisely that children cannot and do not even want to adopt the experience of their fathers. Each new generation, each young person has to “pull his weight” himself to gain this experience.
Psychology is a special type of science. The formation of psychology as a science was preceded by the development of two large areas of knowledge: natural sciences and philosophy; Psychology arose at the intersection of these areas, so it has not yet been determined whether psychology should be considered a natural science or a humanities one. From the above, it appears that none of these answers are correct. In the system of human sciences, psychology has a very special place, and for these reasons.
Differences between psychology and other sciences:
1. A person in psychology is simultaneously both a subject and an object of research;
2. the subject of psychology research is the most complex substance known to mankind;
3. unique practical consequences;
4. occupies an intermediate position between philosophical and social sciences;
5. consists of numerous scientific schools and movements that interpret the subject of psychology research in different ways.
1) Firstly, this is the science of the most complex thing so far known to mankind.
After all, the psyche is “a property of highly organized matter.” If we mean the human psyche, then to the words “highly organized matter” we need to add the word “most”: after all, the human brain is the most highly organized matter known to us. It is significant that the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle begins his treatise “On the Soul” with the same thought. He believes that, among other knowledge, research about the soul should be given one of the first places, since “it is knowledge about the most sublime and amazing.”
The Armenian poet Paruyr Sevak wrote: “We still don’t even really know why a person laughs, only a person, and no one else.”
2) Secondly, in it the object and subject of knowledge seem to merge. Since a person explores his consciousness with the help of consciousness.
To explain this, I will use one comparison. Here a man is born. At first, being in infancy, he is not aware and does not remember himself. However, its development is proceeding at a rapid pace. His physical and mental abilities are formed; he learns to walk, see, understand, speak. With the help of these abilities he understands the world; begins to act in it; his circle of contacts is expanding. And then, gradually, from the depths of childhood, a completely special feeling comes to him and gradually grows - the feeling of his own “I”. Somewhere in adolescence it begins to take on conscious forms. Questions arise: “Who am I? What am I?”, and later, “Why me?” Those. mental abilities and functions, which until now have served the child as a means for mastering the external world - physical and social, are turned to self-knowledge; they themselves become the subject of comprehension and awareness.
Exactly the same process can be traced on the scale of all humanity. In primitive society, the main forces of people were spent on the struggle for existence, on mastering the outside world. People made fire, hunted wild animals, fought with neighboring tribes, and gained their first knowledge about nature.
Humanity of that period, like a baby, does not remember itself. The strength and capabilities of humanity gradually grew. Thanks to their psychic abilities, people created material and spiritual culture; writing, art, and science appeared. And then the moment came when a person asked himself questions: what are these forces that give him the opportunity to create, explore and subjugate the world, what is the nature of his mind, what laws does his inner, spiritual life obey?
This moment was the birth of the self-awareness of humanity, that is, the birth of psychological knowledge. An event that once happened can be briefly expressed as follows: if previously a person’s thought was directed to the outside world, now it has turned to itself. Man dared to begin to explore thinking itself with the help of thinking.
Thus, in psychology, a person’s scientific consciousness becomes his scientific self-consciousness.
3). Thirdly, the peculiarity of psychology lies in its unique practical consequences.
American psychologist Frank Beach rightly noted: “The most difficult task today is not to understand and use the surrounding nature, but to understand the mechanisms of one’s own behavior and learn to manage it.”
After all, to know something means to master this “something”, to learn to control it. Learning to manage your mental processes, functions, and abilities is, of course, a daunting task. At the same time, it must be especially emphasized that, by getting to know oneself, a person will change himself.
Psychology has already accumulated many facts showing how a person’s new knowledge about himself makes him different: it changes his relationships, goals, his states and experiences. If we move again to the scale of all humanity, then we can say that psychology is a science that not only cognizes, but also constructs and creates a person.
4) Psychology consists of numerous scientific schools and movements that interpret the subject of psychology research in different ways;
5) Occupies an intermediate position between philosophical and social sciences.
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At identification the researcher imagines himself in the place of another person, as if mentally embodied in him. Unlike empathy, identification uses intellectual, logical operations: comparison, analysis, reasoning, etc.
3. Methods of psychological practicePsychological practice in its tasks, methods, and forms represents diverse types of practices. It includes work with people with mental disabilities or problems, and is focused on working with representatives of communicative professions and people of different ages. It is impossible to describe all the methods and techniques used in modern psychological practice, especially since their arsenal is constantly expanding. The main ones are:
Psychotherapy;
Psychological consultation;
Psychocorrection;
Psychotraining, etc.
Choosing methods in psychology is not an easy matter. The study of complex socio-psychological phenomena, as a rule, should be based not on individual methods, but on their combination.
2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences
A person as a subject of research can be considered from various points of view: as a biological object, as a social being, as a bearer of consciousness. At the same time, each person is unique and has his own individuality. The variety of manifestations of man as a natural and social phenomenon has led to the emergence of a significant number of sciences that study man. Psychology as a field of humanitarian and anthropological knowledge is closely related to many sciences. It occupies an intermediate position between philosophical, natural, social and technical sciences.
First of all, it is necessary to dwell on the relationship between psychology and philosophy. Having become an independent science, psychology retained a close connection with philosophy. Today there are scientific problems and concepts that are considered both from the perspective of psychology and philosophy, for example, the meaning and purpose of life, worldview, political views, moral values, the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of human thinking, the influence of the individual on society and society on the individual and etc.
For a long time there was a fundamental division of philosophy into materialistic and idealistic. Most often, this opposition was antagonistic in nature, that is, there was a constant opposition of views and positions. For psychology, both of these main trends of philosophy have the same significance: materialist philosophy was the basis for the development of problems of activity and the origin of higher mental functions, the idealistic direction made it possible to study such concepts as, for example, responsibility, the meaning of life, conscience, spirituality. Consequently, the use of both directions of philosophy in psychology most fully reflects the dual essence of man, his biosocial nature.
Another science that, like psychology, studies problems related to the individual and society is sociology, which borrows from social psychology methods for studying personality and human relationships. At the same time, psychology widely uses traditional sociological methods of collecting information in its research, such as surveys and questionnaires. There are problems that psychologists and sociologists study together, such as relationships between people, the psychology of economics and state politics, the socialization of the individual, the formation and transformation of social attitudes, etc. Sociology and psychology are in close relationship both at the level of theoretical research and at the level using certain methods. Developing in parallel, they complement each other's research in the study of the relationship between man and human society.
Another science closely related to psychology is pedagogy, since the upbringing and training of children cannot fail to take into account the psychological characteristics of the individual.
Psychology is closely related to history. One example of a deep synthesis of history and psychology is the theory of the cultural and historical development of higher mental functions of man, developed by L. S. Vygodsky, the essence of which is that the main historical achievements of mankind, primarily language, tools, sign systems, became a powerful factor that significantly advanced the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of people. Another, no less famous example of the relationship between history and psychology is the use in psychology historical method, the essence of which is that in order to understand the nature of any mental phenomenon it is necessary to trace its phylogenetic and ontogenetic development from elementary forms to more complex ones. In order to understand what the highest forms of the human psyche are, it is necessary to trace their development in children. Thus, the opinions of psychologists and historians agree that modern man, with his psychological qualities and personal properties, is a product of the history of human development.
A distinctive feature of psychology is its connection not only with social, but also with technical sciences. This is due to the fact that a person is a direct participant in all technological and production processes. Psychological science considers man as an integral part of technological progress. In the research of psychologists involved in the development of sociotechnical systems, a person acts as the most complex element of the “man-machine” system. Thanks to the research of psychologists, samples of technology are being created that take into account the mental and physiological capabilities of a person.
Psychology is no less closely related to medical And biological sciences. This connection is due to the dual nature of man - both a social and a biological being. Most mental phenomena and, above all, mental processes have a physiological basis, therefore knowledge in the field of physiology and biology helps to better understand certain mental phenomena. Today the facts of psychosomatic and somatic mutual influence are well known. The essence of this phenomenon is that a person’s mental state is reflected in his physiological state, and vice versa, various diseases, as a rule, affect the mental state of the patient. Taking this into account, methods of psychotherapeutic influence have received active development in modern medicine.
Thus, modern psychology is closely related to various areas of science and practice. It can be argued that wherever a person is involved, there is a place for psychological science. Therefore, the rapid development of psychology, its introduction into various areas of scientific and practical activity led to the emergence of various branches of psychology.
3. Main branches of psychology
Modern psychological science is a multidisciplinary field of knowledge and includes more than 40 relatively independent branches. Their emergence is due, firstly, to the widespread introduction of psychology into all areas of scientific and practical activity, and secondly, to the emergence of new psychological knowledge. Some branches of psychology differ from others, first of all, in the complex of problems and tasks that one or another scientific direction solves. At the same time, all branches of psychology can be conditionally divided into fundamental (general, or basic! and applied (special!)
Fundamental branches of psychological science are of general importance for understanding and explaining various mental phenomena. This is the basis that not only unites all branches of psychological science, but also serves as the basis for their development. Fundamental branches, as a rule, are united by the term “general psychology.”
General psychology– a branch of psychological science that includes theoretical and experimental research that reveals the most general psychological patterns, theoretical principles and methods of psychology, its basic concepts and categories. The basic concepts of general psychology are:
Mental processes;
Mental properties;
Mental states.
The emergence of general psychology as an independent and fundamental branch of psychological science is associated with the name of SL. Rubinstein, who prepared and published in 1942 a major general work, “Fundamentals of General Psychology,” which included the advanced achievements of both domestic and world science.
Applied are called branches of psychology, the achievements of which are used in practical activities. In most cases, with the help of applied branches of psychological science, specific problems are solved within a certain direction, for example:
¦ educational psychology studies psychological problems, patterns of personality development in the process of training and education;
¦ developmental psychology studies the patterns of stages of mental development and personality formation from birth to old age, and therefore is divided into child psychology, psychology of youth And mature age, psychology of old age (gerontopsychology);
¦ differential psychology studies differences between individuals, between groups of individuals, as well as the causes and consequences of these differences;
¦ social psychology studies the patterns of behavior and activity of people included in social groups, the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves, the socio-psychological compatibility of people;
¦ political psychology studies the psychological components of people's political life and activities, their moods, opinions, feelings, value orientations, etc.;
¦ psychology of art studies the properties and states of an individual or group of persons that determine the creation and perception of artistic values, as well as the influence of these values on the life of both an individual and society as a whole;
¦ medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, the manifestations and causes of various disorders in the psyche and behavior of a person, mental changes that occur during illnesses, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy;
¦ legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of participants in criminal proceedings, as well as psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the criminal’s personality.
In addition to those mentioned, there are other branches of psychology that are no less interesting for scientific research and no less significant for practical human activity, including: labor psychology, engineering psychology, military psychology, advertising psychology, environmental psychology, animal psychology, sports psychology, space psychology and etc.
Note that applied sectors are not isolated from each other. Most often, one branch of psychology uses knowledge or methods from other branches. For example, space psychology, which deals with the problems of psychological support for human activity in space, is closely related to engineering psychology, medical psychology, etc.
4. Main stages in the development of psychological science
Historically, the doctrine of the soul was the first to appear. Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology - the myth of Cupid and Psyche told by Apuleius, which talks about a king and his three daughters. The youngest was the most beautiful of all, her name was Psyche. The fame of her beauty spread throughout the entire earth, but Psyche suffered from the fact that she was only admired: she wanted love. Psyche's father turned to the oracle for advice, and the oracle replied that Psyche, dressed in burial clothes, should be taken to a secluded place to marry the monster. The unfortunate father fulfilled the will of the oracle. A gust of wind carried Psyche to a wonderful palace, where she became the wife of an invisible husband. Psyche's mysterious husband made her promise that she would not strive to see his face. But the evil sisters, out of envy, persuaded the trusting Psyche to look at her husband when he fell asleep. At night, Psyche lit a lamp and, seeing her husband, recognized him as the god of love, Cupid. Struck by the beauty of his face, Psyche admired Cupid, but a drop of hot oil from the lamp fell on his shoulder, and Cupid woke up. Insulted, he flew away, and Psyche went across the earth to look for her lover. After long wanderings, she found herself under the same roof with Cupid, but could not see him. Cupid's mother, Venus, forced her to do unimaginable work; Only thanks to the miraculous help of the gods did Psyche cope with the trials. When Cupid recovered from the burn, he began to beg Zeus to allow him to marry Psyche. Seeing their love and Psyche's exploits in the name of love, Zeus agreed to their marriage, and Psyche received immortality. Thus, thanks to their love, the lovers were united forever. For the Greeks, this myth is an example of true love, the highest realization of the human soul, which, only when filled with love, became immortal. Therefore, it was Psyche that became the symbol of immortality, the symbol of the soul seeking its ideal.
Written sources of knowledge that have reached us from time immemorial indicate that interest in psychological phenomena arose among people a very long time ago. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism- the most ancient view, according to which everything that exists in the world has a spirit, or soul, an entity independent of the body that controls all living and inanimate objects. The scientific treatises of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle speak about this.
Democritus (460–370 BC) developed an atomic model of the world. The soul is a material substance that consists of spherical, light, mobile atoms of fire. All mental phenomena are explained by physical and mechanical causes. For example, human sensations arise because the atoms of the soul are set in motion by atoms of air or atoms directly emanating from objects.
According to the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BC), the soul exists along with the body and independently of it. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. The body is a visible, base, transitory, perishable principle. The soul and body are in a complex relationship. By its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body. However, sometimes the body, overwhelmed by various desires and passions, takes precedence over the soul. Mental phenomena are divided into reason, courage (in the modern interpretation - will) and lust (motivation). According to Plato, a person's reason is located in the head, courage in the chest, and lust in the abdominal cavity. Their harmonious unity gives integrity to a person’s mental life.
The pinnacle of ancient psychology was the doctrine of Aristotle (384–322 BC) about the soul. His treatise “On the Soul” is the first special psychological work. He rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, Aristotle considered it impossible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (the living body1. The soul, according to Aristotle, although incorporeal, is the form of the living body, the cause and goal of all its vital functions. The driving force of human behavior is the desire, or internal activity of the body. Sensory perceptions constitute the beginning of cognition. Memory stores and reproduces sensations.
The scientific study of the soul, which began in the era of Antiquity, was partially lost in the Middle Ages and was replaced by a religious-mystical worldview, scholasticism and philosophy of spirit. Under the influence of the atmosphere characteristic of the Middle Ages (increasing church influence on all aspects of social life, including science1), the animistic interpretation of the soul began to be linked with the Christian understanding of the essence of man. The soul, according to medieval authors, is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life must be subordinated to the tasks of theology. Only the outer side of the soul, which is turned to the material world, can be amenable to the human mind, and the greatest mysteries of the soul are manifested only in religion.
During the Renaissance, interest in the natural sciences of the soul reappeared. Gradually, specific material about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the human body was accumulated. In the 17th century, a new era began in the development of psychological knowledge. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human spiritual world primarily from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental basis. This period in the development of psychological science is associated, first of all, with the names of R. Descartes, G. Leibniz, T. Hobbes, B. Spinoza, J. Locke.
R. Descartes (1596–1650) is considered the founder of rationalist philosophy. According to his ideas, knowledge should be based on obvious data and deduced from them through logical reasoning. Based on this point of view, in order for a person to find the truth, he must first question everything. In his works, R. Descartes claims that not only the work of internal organs, but also the behavior of the body in its interaction with the outside world does not need a soul. In his opinion, this interaction is carried out through a kind of nervous machine, consisting of a brain center and nerve “tubes” or “threads”. Thus, R. Descartes came to the conclusion that there is a difference between the human body and his soul, and argued that there are two substances independent of each other - matter and spirit. In the history of psychology, this doctrine was called “dualism”. Descartes laid the foundations for a deterministic (causal) concept of behavior, at the center of which lies the idea of a reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physiological stimulation.
B. Spinoza (1632–1677) made an attempt to reunite the body and soul of man, separated by the teachings of R. Descartes. The soul is one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter); soul and body are determined by the same material causes.
G. Leibniz (1646–1716) introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche. According to his theory, in the human soul there is a continuous hidden work of many mental forces - “small perceptions” (perceptions), from which conscious desires and passions arise. G. Leibniz explained the connection between the mental and the physical (physiological) in man not as a result of their interaction, but as a result of a “pre-established harmony” created thanks to divine wisdom.
In the 18th century Empirical psychology is emerging. In the books of the German philosopher H. Wolff “Rational Psychology” and “Empirical Psychology” this term first appears in scientific use to denote a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is the observation of specific mental phenomena, their classification and the establishment of an experimentally verified natural connection between them. This principle underlies the teaching of J. Locke (1632–1704), according to which the human soul is a passive, but capable of perception medium. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the soul awakens, is filled with ideas, and begins to think.
Psychology became an independent science in the 60s. XIX century It was associated with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of experiments to study mental phenomena. One of the first such laboratories was the Experimental Psychological Laboratory in Leipzig (later the Institute of Experimental Psychology1, founded by W. Wundt (1832 - 1920).
I.M. Sechenov (1829–1905) is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology. In his book “Reflexes of the Brain” (18631), the main psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G. I. Chelpanov (1862–1936), who created the first institute of psychology in Russia in 1912, and I. P. Pavlov (1849–1936), who studied conditioned reflex connections in the activity of the body, thanks to which it became possible to understand the physiological foundations of mental activity.
Significant contribution to the development of psychology in the 20th century. contributed by: B. G. Ananyev (1907–1972), who studied the problems of perception and psychology of pedagogical assessment; A. N. Leontyev (1903–1979), who created a new psychological theory - the “theory of activity”; S. L. Rubinstein (1889–1960), who published the fundamental general work “Fundamentals of General Psychology” in 1942; P. Ya. Galperin (1902–1988), who created the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.
5. Main directions of psychology
After the emergence of psychology in the middle of the 19th century. It was differentiated into several directions (or currents) into an independent scientific discipline. The main directions of development of psychology in the 20th century:
Behaviorism;
Psychoanalysis, or Freudianism;
Gestalt psychology;
Humanistic psychology;
Genetic psychology;
Individual psychology.
Behaviorism- one of the leading trends, which has become widespread in different countries and primarily in the USA. The founders of behaviorism are E. Thorndike (1874–1949) and J. Watsen (1878–1958). In this direction of psychology, the study of the subject comes down, first of all, to the analysis of behavior, which is broadly interpreted as all types of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. At the same time, the psyche itself, consciousness, is excluded from the subject of research. The main position of behaviorism: psychology should study behavior, and not consciousness and psyche, which cannot be observed directly. The main tasks were set as follows: to learn to predict a person’s behavior (reaction) based on a situation (stimulus) and, conversely, to determine or describe the stimulus that caused it based on the nature of the reaction. According to behaviorism, a person has a relatively small number of innate behavioral phenomena (breathing, swallowing, etc.), over which more complex reactions are built, up to the most complex “scenarios” of behavior. The development of new adaptive reactions occurs with the help of tests carried out until one of them gives a positive result (the “trial and error” principle). A successful option is fixed and subsequently reproduced.
Psychoanalysis, or Freudianism,– a general designation for various schools that arose on the basis of the psychological teachings of S. Freud (1856–1939). Freudianism is characterized by an explanation of mental phenomena through the unconscious. Its core is the idea of the eternal conflict between the conscious and unconscious in the human psyche. According to S. Freud, human actions are controlled by deep motivations that elude consciousness. He created a method of psychoanalysis, the basis of which is the analysis of associations, dreams, slips and slips, etc. From the point of view of S. Freud, the roots of human behavior are in his childhood. A fundamental role in the process of human formation is given to his sexual instincts and drives.
Gestalt psychology- one of the largest areas of foreign psychology, which emerged in Germany in the first half of the 20th century. and put forward a program for the study of the psyche from the point of view of its organization and dynamics in the form of special indivisible images - “gestalts”. The subject of study was the patterns of formation, structuring and transformation of the mental image. The first experimental studies of Gestalt psychology were devoted to the analysis of perception and later made it possible to identify a number of phenomena in this area (for example, the relationship between figure and ground1. The main representatives of this direction are M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka.
Humanistic psychology- a direction of foreign psychology, which has recently been rapidly developing in Russia. The main subject of humanistic psychology is personality as a unique integral system, which is not something predetermined, but an “open possibility” of self-actualization, inherent only to man. Within the framework of humanistic psychology, a prominent place is occupied by the personality theory developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow (1908–1970). According to his theory, all needs are built into a kind of “pyramid”, at the base of which lie the lower, and at the top – the highest human needs (Fig. 11. Leading representatives of this direction: G. Allport, K. Rogers, F. Barron, R. May .
Genetic psychology- a doctrine developed by the Geneva psychological school of J. Piaget (1896–1980) and his followers. The subject of study is the origin and development of intelligence in a child, the main task is to study the mechanisms of the child’s cognitive activity. Intelligence is studied as an indicator of individual development and as an object of action on the basis of which mental activity arises.
Rice. 1. Pyramid of needs according to A. Maslow
Individual psychology- one of the areas of psychology developed by A. Adler (1870–1937) and based on the concept of an individual having an inferiority complex and the desire to overcome it as the main source of motivation for individual behavior.
Psychology has come a long way in its development. Throughout the development of psychological science, different directions have developed in parallel. Teachings based on materialistic views, first of all, contributed to the development of natural scientific understanding of the nature of mental phenomena and the formation of experimental psychology. In turn, thanks to idealistic philosophical views in modern psychology, problems such as morality, ideals, personal values, etc. are considered.
When psychologists talk about the exclusivity of their science, they most often name the following distinctive features.
1. Psychology is one of the most complex sciences. Psyche, mental reality is a function of the brain. Humanity is not yet completely aware of even the structure of this organ, much less the action of its derivative.
2. Psychology as a single science does not exist. Due to the complexity of man as a subject of knowledge and the versatility of manifestations of mental reality, there is no clear agreement among scientists on what should be considered the subject of study of psychology. Some people think it's motivation; according to others, such a subject may be behavior; still others believe that personality and its unique manifestations should be studied, etc. Therefore, there is not one, but several psychologies, directions or schools that look at a person differently. This feature of psychology is called multi-/multi- or polyparadigmality (paradigm from the Greek paradigma = example, sample) and means the absence among psychologists of a generally accepted idea about the subject of science and methods of studying it.
The immensity cannot be grasped, therefore, when analyzing the manifestations of psychic reality, it is necessary to identify any specific aspect of it and select a unit of analysis. In other words, you should settle on some psychological theory. This choice acts as a kind of prism through which the psychologist looks at the subject, at mental reality. This streamlines professional thinking, but at the same time limits it. You should always remember that there are other approaches, other theories and points of view. You must be able to accept them and at least temporarily take someone else’s position, i.e. It is optimal to have a flexible position of your own. The culture of psychological thinking is to think positionally, namely: justify the choice of theory, use the conceptual apparatus of a given direction of psychology, be sure to refer to the authors, apply methods established in this tradition for obtaining psychological information, etc.
3. Personal nature of psychological knowledge. Obtaining objective, reliable knowledge about reality requires the separation of the cognizing subject and the object he studies (Latin objectus = object). In psychology, such a division is extremely difficult: how to distance myself if I examine what I myself have, if I am also a bearer of psychic reality.
The discussed feature is also called the inseparability of the object and subject of scientific psychological knowledge and gives rise to various problems, for example:
– multiple criteria of truth (“Why is this point of view correct and the other wrong?”, “Why is your experience correct, but mine is not?”);
– the possibility of distorting reality (“Everyone sees what they can and want to see”), etc.
4. Reversibility of psychological knowledge. In any profession, knowledge about a subject changes a person and distinguishes him as a professional. For example, a doctor, a teacher, a policeman... But it is not only special knowledge that makes a person different. In any profession, not all of our qualities and abilities are in demand, but only some that are important for effective work. Therefore, those aspects of individuality that are constantly trained in professional activities turn out to be better developed, and some - worse. We will discuss how knowledge of psychology and professional psychological activity influence a person in a separate topic.
5. Probabilistic nature of psychological knowledge. Psychology does not belong to the exact sciences, i.e. the laws it describes (essential, necessary, stable, repeating connections between phenomena) are not strict and apply to absolutely all people and all life situations. In other words, it sounds like this: “There are exceptions to every rule.” For example, the well-known psychological law of heterochrony of development - girls in the first years of life develop faster than boys - can meet a number of objections at the everyday level: “And I know a boy who started doing this and that much earlier than most girls.” . But this boy is precisely the exception to the rule, an accident that only more clearly illustrates the general pattern.
So, the main features of psychology as a science are considered to be:
– multi-paradigmality of psychological knowledge (you need a clear position of your own, but it is important to remember its relativity and the presence of certain limits in explaining reality; allow the existence of other positions that are not similar to the chosen one);
– personal nature of knowledge (the need for a psychologist to know himself, his capabilities and limitations; constant self-development; avoiding the status of exclusivity when believing in his own rightness, etc.).
In conclusion, a few words must be said for the rehabilitation of psychology. The named main features are not completely unique. Natural sciences are not always built on the same foundation. For example, in physics there are two theories of light - “wave” and “corpuscular”. And both of them are true. But for different cases. Even such an exact science as geometry does not exist in the singular. The geometry of Euclid, familiar to everyone from school, flawlessly describes only what happens on the plane. Under other conditions, on curved surfaces, other geometries “work” (N.I. Lobachevsky, Riemann). It’s the same in psychology, only there are more theories and the cases they describe. In all sciences, knowledge is personal in nature, because a particular scientist sometimes obtains them even at the cost of his own life and bears personal responsibility for them. It is not for nothing that discovered scientific laws and patterns bear the names of their creators. The concept of “personal knowledge”, popular today by M. Pollani (English physicist and philosopher), says that a scientist cannot be completely removed from research and cannot be absolutely impartial, since knowledge in any science is always the result of the thoughts and activities of a particular person.