E. I. Litnevskaya Russian language: a short theoretical course for schoolchildren
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology - a branch of linguistics that studies parts of speech and their grammatical features.
Morphology and syntax make up grammar.
Noun
Adjective
Numeral
Pronoun as part of speech
Adverb
Verb
Participle
Functional parts of speech
Pretext
Union
Particle
Interjection
Parts of speech in Russian
Parts of speech- these are groups of words united on the basis of the commonality of their characteristics.
The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups of words.
So, all words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections And noninterjective words. Interjections are unchangeable words that indicate emotions ( oh, alas, damn it), expression of will ( stop, that's it) or which are formulas of speech communication ( thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections is that they do not enter into any syntactic connections with other words in a sentence; they are always isolated intonationally and punctuationally.
Non-interjective words can be divided into independent And official. The difference between them is that independent words can appear in speech without function words, but function words cannot form a sentence without independent words. Function words are unchangeable and serve to convey formal semantic relationships between independent words. Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( to, after, during), unions ( and, as if, despite the fact that), particles ( exactly, only, not at all).
Independent words can be divided into significant And pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf.: table - it is, comfortable - like this, easy - like this, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - a pronoun.
Significant words are divided into parts of speech taking into account the following characteristics:
1) generalized meaning,
2) morphological characteristics,
3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic connections).
There are at least five significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral (group of nouns), adverb and verb.
Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e. classes of words identified taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.
The above can be presented in the form of the following table:
In complex 3 there are 10 parts of speech, combined into three groups:
1. Independent parts of speech:
Noun,
Adjective,
Numeral,
Pronoun,
Adverb.
2. Functional parts of speech:
Pretext,
Particle.
3. Interjection.
Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, and in a sentence performs the syntactic function of a subject or object.
However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, adjective, verb are determined for the most part by their morphological characteristics (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specially stipulated that it is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech distinguished based on meaning - pronoun and numeral.
A pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that “do not name an object or attribute, but point to it.” Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns ( who am I), adjectives ( this one, which one), numerals ( how many, several).
The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to number: they indicate the number of objects or their order when counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words like three And third are different.
Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to highlight a larger number of parts of speech. Thus, the participle and gerund are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes the words of the state are highlighted ( it's impossible, it's necessary); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In complex 3 the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the “Adverb” section. On the other hand, it is said about state words that they “are similar in form to adverbs,” from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2 the pronoun is expanded by including non-nominal words that are grammatically correlated with adverbs ( there, why, never and etc.).
The issue of parts of speech in linguistics is controversial. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. Thus, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications that use several bases. School classification is exactly this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works varies and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.
There are words in the Russian language that do not fall into any of the parts of speech identified by school grammar. These are sentence words Yes And No, introductory words not used in other syntactic functions ( so, in total) and some other words.
Noun
A noun is an independent significant part of speech, combining words that
1) have a generalized meaning of subject matter and answer questions Who? or What?;
2) are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a constant gender sign and inconsistent (for most nouns) number and case signs;
3) in a sentence they most often act as subjects or objects, but can be any other members of the sentence.
A noun is a part of speech, when highlighted, the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is , which can mean anything: subject ( table), face ( boy), animal ( cow), sign ( depth), abstract concept ( conscience), action ( singing), relation ( equality). In terms of meaning, these words are united by the fact that you can ask a question about them Who? or What?; This, in fact, is their objectivity.
Classification of nouns by meaning
Within words of different parts of speech it is customary to distinguish ranks by value- groups of words united by their lexical meaning, which influences their morphological characteristics. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the stem of this word.
Nouns have two groups of digits according to meaning:
1) ownership/name;
2) concreteness/abstractness/materiality/collectivity.
Common nouns nouns designate objects without distinguishing them from a class of the same type ( city, river, girl, newspaper).
Own nouns designate objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them ( Moscow, Volga, Masha,« News"). It is necessary to distinguish proper names from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects (“ Evening Moscow"). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name ( Moscow State University).
Specific nouns name sensory objects - things ( table), faces ( Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.
Abstract nouns denote abstract concepts ( joy), signs ( white), actions ( drawing).
Real nouns denote substances ( milk, cream, sand).
Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects ( foliage) or persons ( kids).
The meaning of the morphological identification of these particular groups of nouns by meaning is that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological attribute of the number of a given noun. Thus, both numbers have the form of common concrete nouns ( house - houses). Words of other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only a single one), for example:
Animate and inanimate nouns
Nouns have a constant morphological sign of animacy.
The sign of animacy of nouns is closely related to the concept of living / inanimate. Nevertheless, animacy is not a category of meaning, but a morphological feature itself.
All morphological features are characterized by the fact that they have a typified formal expression - they are expressed by formative morphemes (endings or formative suffixes - see morphemics). Morphological features of words can be expressed
1) intra-word - formative morphemes of the word itself ( table- - tables),
2) extra-wordly - form-building morphemes of agreed words ( new coat -new coat),
Both of these means of expression can be presented together. In this case, one grammatical meaning is expressed several times in a sentence - both intra-word and extra-word ( new table- - new tables).
Animacy as a morphological feature also has formal means of expression. Firstly, animateness/inanimateness is expressed by the endings of the noun itself:
1) animate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and R. p., and for nouns husband. This also applies to units. number;
2) inanimate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and I. p., and for nouns husband. This also applies to units. number.
Nouns are represented in the Russian language with fluctuations in animation: their V. p. can coincide with both I. p. and R. p., for example, (I see) microbes / microbes, describe characters / characters, creatures / creatures-;
In feminine and neuter nouns that have only singular forms, animation is not formally expressed ( youth, students), they are not formally characterized by their animation.
Animacy has non-verbal expression: the ending of an adjective or participle that agrees with a noun in V. p. differs depending on the animate or inanimate nature of the noun, cf.: (I see) new students, But new tables.
The extra-verbal expression of the animation of nouns is more universal than the intra-word one: it expresses animation even in the case of the immutability of the noun: (I see) beautiful madam, But beautiful coats.
The animacy of most nouns reflects a certain state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality: animate nouns are mainly called living beings, and inanimate are inanimate objects, but there are cases of violation of this pattern:
| fluctuation in animation | an object cannot be both living and non-living: (I see) microbes / microbes; |
| alive but inanimate | 1) a collection of living beings: (I see) armies, crowds, peoples; |
| 2) plants, mushrooms: (gather) chanterelles; |
|
| inanimate but animate | 1) toys in the form of a person: (I see) dolls, nesting dolls, tumblers; |
| 2) figures of some games: (play) kings, queens; |
|
| 3) deceased: (I see) dead, drowned, But dead body(inanimate); |
|
| 4) fictional creatures: (I see) mermaids, goblins, brownies. |
Animacy, as already mentioned, is a constant feature of a noun. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind that different meanings of one word can be differently framed in terms of animation, for example: I see genius(person) - I appreciate it genius- (mind).
Gender as a morphological feature of a noun
Nouns have a constant morphological gender marker and are classified as masculine, feminine or neuter.
The main expression of morphological gender is extra-verbal - the endings of adjectives, participles in the position of the attribute that agree with the noun, and words with an inconstant gender marker in the position of the predicate, primarily a verb in the past tense or conditional mood, as well as a short adjective or participle.
Masculine, feminine and neuter gender include words with the following compatibility:
Some nouns ending - A, denoting signs, properties of persons, in I. p. have a double characterization by gender depending on the gender of the designated person:
is yours-the ignoramus has come-,
your ignoramus came.
Such nouns are classified as general family
There are nouns in the Russian language that denote the name of a person by profession, which, when denoting a male person, act as words of the masculine gender, that is, they attach agreed words with masculine endings; when they denote a female person, the definition is used in the masculine gender, and the predicate is used in the feminine gender (mainly in colloquial speech):
new doctor has arrived- (man),
a new doctor has arrived(woman).
These words are “candidates” for the general gender; their gender is sometimes called transitional to the general, but in dictionaries they are characterized as words of the masculine gender.
There are about 150 words in the Russian language that vary in gender, for example: coffee- masculine/neuter gender, shampoo- masculine/feminine.
Nouns are plural only ( cream, scissors) do not belong to any of the genders, since in the plural the formal differences between nouns of different genders are not expressed (cf.: desks - tables).
Thus, the main expression of gender is non-verbal. Intra-word gender is consistently expressed only in nouns - substantivized adjectives and participles: sentry, ice cream, dining room: in singular forms these words have endings that clearly indicate their gender. For nouns of the 2nd declension masculine and 3rd declension feminine, the entire system of their endings is specific; as for the endings of individual case forms, they may not be indicative, cf. table- -night-.
For all inanimate nouns (and there are about 80% of such nouns in the language), the gender is conditional and is in no way connected with extra-linguistic reality.
Among animate nouns - names of persons or animals, gender is often associated with the gender of the designated creature, cf.: mom - dad, son - daughter, cow - bull. However, it is necessary to understand the difference between grammatical gender and ungrammatical gender. Thus, in the Russian language there are animate nouns of the neuter gender ( child, animal), in nouns - names of animals, male and female individuals are often called the same ( dragonfly, crocodile), among words - names of persons there is also not always a correspondence between gender and gender. Yes, word individual feminine, although it can mean both a woman and a man (see, for example, A.S. Pushkin: Someone wrote to him from Moscow that it was knownand I person due soonA enter into legal marriage with a young and beautiful girl).
It is somewhat difficult to determine the gender of compound words (abbreviations) and indeclinable nouns. The following rules apply to them.
Generic characteristics abbreviations depends on what type the given compound word belongs to.
A type of abbreviation formed by adding the initial parts ( caretaker), the initial part of the first word with the second unabridged ( Sberbank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and/or end of the second ( trade mission trade mission), is determined by the gender of the main word in the original phrase: good organizational work, Russian trade mission, new Sberbank.
A type of abbreviation consisting of initial sounds ( GUM) or letters ( Moscow State University), as well as mixed abbreviations in which the initial part of the first word is combined with the first letters or sounds of other words ( Glavk), is defined ambiguously. Initially, they also acquire the gender of the main word in the original phrase, for example, Bratsk hydroelectric power station. However, during the process of use, the original generic characteristic is consistently retained only by abbreviations from the first letters of the original phrase. Abbreviations consisting of the first sounds behave differently. Some of them acquire a generic characteristic in accordance with the appearance of the word. Yes, words BAM, university, MFA, NEP, registry office and some others became masculine words and acquired the ability to decline in the second declension, like nouns like house. Other abbreviations ending in a consonant with a neuter and feminine stem word may have hesitation: they may have a gender characteristic in accordance with the gender of the main word and not be inflected ( in our housing office) or, when inclined, used as masculine words ( in our housing office). Abbreviations ending in a vowel are not declined and are predominantly neuter ( our RONO - district department of public education).
Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Preface
Russian language today in middle management(grades 5-9) there are three official alternative educational complexes, certified by the Ministry of Education, recommended by it and distributed to school libraries.
Complex 1 is an educational complex (authors: M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. T. Grigoryan and others for grades 5-7 and S. G. Barkhudarov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. Yu Maksimov, L. A. Cheshko for grades 8 and 9), reprinted more than 20 times by 2000; today this complex continues to be the most widespread.
Complex 2 is an educational complex edited by V.V. Babaytseva, which appeared in the early 90s.
Complex 3, edited by M. M. Razumovskaya and P. A. Lekant, began publication in 1995.
These complexes have no conceptual differences: the material is structured at levels from phonetics to syntax and is “diluted” with spelling, punctuation and speech development. However, some discrepancies in theory (transcription system, status of formative suffixes, parts of speech system, description of phrases and types of subordinate clauses), terminology and the order of sections create tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from school to school) and for the formation programs for admission to a philological university.
It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of teaching in a number of schools using alternative and experimental curricula, which represent a significantly modified Russian language course. Unfortunately, recently a large amount of educational literature has appeared of extremely dubious quality.
A feature of this stage of development of secondary school is that after a long break the Russian language in high school introduced as a compulsory academic subject.
Existing programs and manuals intended for studying the Russian language in grades 10-11 can be divided into several groups: programs in which the practical significance of the Russian language as an academic subject is reinforced (spelling-punctuation or speech), and programs in which the main emphasis made to strengthen the theoretical base, its systematization (for the humanitarian or - already - philological profile).
There are programs and benefits for each of these types. Manuals with a practical spelling and punctuation focus include, for example, “A Manual for Russian Language Classes in High School” by V. F. Grekov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. A. Cheshko, which has already gone through about 40 reprints. The manuals by D. E. Rosenthal “Russian Language” also have a purely practical orientation. 10-11 grades. A manual for general education institutions”, “Russian language for high school students and those entering universities”, “Russian language. A collection of exercises for high school students and those entering universities.”
The second group includes programs and benefits with an enhanced speech focus. This is A.I. Vlasenkov’s program “Russian language. grades 10-11”, provided with a manual for students “Russian language: Grammar. Text. Styles of Speech” by A. I. Vlasenkova and L. M. Rybchenkova (published since 1996).
The third group includes programs and manuals with a strong theoretical orientation. The main user of these programs is the future philologist, who, due to the variety of programs and textbooks for high school, often receives conflicting information about the language. The future philologist needs a systematizing course that can become an intermediate link in a single “school-university” chain and ensure the continuity and continuity of teaching the Russian language. Especially for senior classes of gymnasiums, humanities lyceums at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov created a program for a systematizing course in the Russian language, repeating, generalizing and deepening students’ knowledge of language theory, developing students’ skills and abilities to work with language material of different levels of complexity. The program is provided with a textbook “Russian language: A textbook for in-depth study in high school” in 2 volumes, authors V. A. Bagryantseva, E. M. Bolycheva, I. V. Galaktionova, L. A. Zhdanova, E. I. Litnevskaya (M., 2000).
In addition, in high school, the Russian language course is often replaced by a course in stylistics, rhetoric, or literature.
Such a variety of textbooks and teaching aids on the Russian language acutely raises the question of the need for repeating and generalizing materials on the Russian language. The proposed materials systematize and generalize information about the Russian language as a language system, presented in three main educational complexes, if necessary, commenting on the differences between them. Spelling and punctuation are included in the proposed materials only in a theoretically generalized form; specific spelling and punctuation rules are not considered.
Linguistics as a science. Main branches of the science of language
Linguistic science is represented in school study by the following sections studying the modern Russian literary language:
Phonetics,
Lexicology (in the school course traditionally called vocabulary and including material on lexicology and phraseology),
Morphemics and word formation (called in different complexes, depending on their specificity, either morphemics or word formation),
Morphology,
Syntax.
Sections such as graphics and spelling are usually not studied independently, but are combined with other sections. Thus, graphics are traditionally studied together with phonetics, spelling - throughout the study of phonetics, word formation and morphology.
Lexicography is not studied as an independent section; Information about dictionaries is presented in the main sections.
Stylistics is studied during lessons on speech development.
Punctuation is studied in conjunction with the syntax section.
Branches of linguistics describe language from different sides, i.e. they have their own object of study:
phonetics - sounding speech,
morphemics - the composition of a word,
word formation - word derivation,
lexicology - vocabulary of a language,
morphology - words as parts of speech,
syntax - phrases and sentences.
Morphology and syntax make up grammar.
Modern Russian literary language
The object of study of all sections of the science of the Russian language at school is the modern Russian literary language.
Modern is a language that we understand without a dictionary and which we use in communication. These two aspects of language use are not the same.
It is generally accepted that without a “translator” (dictionary, reference book, commentator) we understand the language starting with the works of A. S. Pushkin, however, many expressions used by the great poet and other writers and thinkers of the 19th and early 20th centuries are not used by modern people, and some will not understand; In addition, we read the texts of the 19th century in modern spelling, and not in the one that was in force at the time of their writing. Nevertheless, most of the sentences from the works of Russian classical literature of this time correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language and can be used as illustrative material.
If we understand the term “modern language” as the language that we understand and use, then we must recognize the language as modern starting from the second half of the twentieth century. But even during this historical period, significant changes occurred in the language, especially in its vocabulary: many neologisms appeared, many words passed into the passive vocabulary (see the lexicology section).
Thus, the term “modern language” is understood in two meanings:
1) the language we understand without a dictionary is the language from Pushkin;
2) the language we use is the language from the middle of the 20th century.
Russian language is the language of the Russian people and the Russian nation. It belongs to the group of East Slavic languages and emerged in the 14th - 15th centuries, together with the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, from a common ancestor language - the Old Russian (East Slavic) language.
Literary language is the language of culture and the language of communication of cultural people. The hallmarks of a literary language are its normalization (the presence of a language norm) and codification.
A literary norm is a set of rules for the selection and use of linguistic means in a given society in a given era. It serves for uniformity in the use of linguistic means (identical and therefore understandable pronunciation, spelling and word usage), filters the flow of borrowings, jargon, dialectisms; restrains the excessively rapid development of the literary language to ensure the continuity of speech culture.
Codification is the fixation of language norms in written and oral sources (dictionaries, reference books, textbooks, speech of cultural people).
Literary language is part of the national language, which also includes dialects, professional vocabulary, jargon, and urban vernacular.
Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and
Russian language - Short theoretical course for schoolchildren - Litnevskaya E.I. - 2006.
The manual contains a systematic presentation of all sections of the Russian Language course with an overview of the material presented in three educational complexes, as well as diagrams and samples of analysis of all language units and comments on these analyzes. The purpose of the manual is to generalize and systematize students' knowledge about language and speech.
The manual is compiled in accordance with the theoretical guidelines adopted in pre-university training at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.
For high school students, applicants and teachers.
Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Preface
Linguistics as a science. Main branches of the science of language
Modern Russian literary language
Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Sound and letter
Phonetic transcription
Formation of vowels and consonants
Vowel sounds and vowel letters Stressed vowels
Unstressed vowels
Consonants and consonants
Voiceless and voiced consonants
Positional stun/voicing
Reflection of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing
Hard and soft consonants
Positional softening of consonants
Indication of hardness and softness of consonants in writing
Functions and spelling of b and b
Positional assimilation of consonants based on other characteristics. Dissociation of consonants
Simplification of consonant clusters (unpronounceable consonant)
Qualitative and quantitative relationships between letters and sounds in the Russian language
Syllable
Accent
Orthoepy
Graphic arts. Spelling
Writing morphemes (meaningful parts of a word)
Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling
Use of uppercase and lowercase letters
Transfer rules
Rules for graphic abbreviations of words
Phonetic analysis
Part 2. Morphemics and word formation
Subject of morphemics. Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes
Classification of morphemes in the Russian language
Root
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
Ending
Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications
The basis
Principles of morphemic word analysis
Algorithm for morphemic division of the stem
Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)
Zero word-forming suffix
Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)
Subject and basic concepts of word formation
Means and method of word formation
Methods of forming independent parts of speech
Noun
Adjective
Numeral
Pronoun
Verb
Adverb
Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another
Derivative analysis of the word
Reflection of the morphemic composition of a word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries
Part 3. Lexicology and lexicography
Lexicology and lexicography
The word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word
Single and polysemous words. Direct and figurative meanings of the word. Types of portable values
Homonyms
Synonyms
Antonyms
Outdated vocabulary
Neologisms
Common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
Dialectisms
Special vocabulary
Slang vocabulary
Stylistic layers of vocabulary
Original Russian vocabulary
Borrowed vocabulary
Old Slavonicisms
Phraseologisms
Speech. Text
Speech styles. Genres of speech
Scientific style
Formal business style
Journalistic style
Art style
Conversational style
Types of speech
Part 4. Morphology
Parts of speech in Russian
Noun
Classification of nouns by meaning
Animate and inanimate nouns
Gender as a morphological feature of a noun
Number as a morphological feature of a noun
Case as a morphological feature of nouns
Declension of nouns
Morphological analysis of a noun
Adjective
Classes of adjectives by meaning
Declension of adjectives
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Completeness/brevity of adjectives
Transition of adjectives from category to category
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Numeral
Places of numerals by meaning
Digits of numerals by structure
Grammatical features of cardinal numbers
Grammatical features of ordinal numbers
Morphological analysis of the numeral
Pronoun as part of speech
Places of pronouns by meaning
Classifications of pronouns according to grammatical features
Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns
Grammatical features of pronouns-adjectives
Grammatical features of numeral pronouns
Morphological analysis of pronouns
Analysis of pronouns-nouns
Analysis of pronouns-adjectives
Analysis of numeral pronouns
Adverb
Classification of adverbs by function
Classification of adverbs by meaning
Grammatical features of adverbs
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adverbs with -о/-е
comparative
Condition category
Morphological analysis of the adverb
Verb
Indefinite verb form (infinitive)
Transitivity/intransitivity of the verb
Refundability/non-refundability
Aspect as a morphological feature of a verb
Mood as a morphological feature of a verb
Tense as a morphological feature of a verb
Face as a morphological feature of a verb. Impersonal verbs
Conjugation
Genus. Number. Relationship between verb categories
Morphological analysis of conjugated forms of the verb and infinitive
Participle
Dependence of the number of participial forms on transitivity and verb type
Active participles
Passive participles
Participles and verbal adjectives
Morphological analysis of the participle
Analysis of the participle as a verb form:
Analysis of the participle as an independent part of speech:
Participle
Morphological analysis of gerunds
Scheme of morphological analysis of gerunds as a verb form:
Scheme of morphological analysis of gerunds as an independent part of speech:
Analysis of gerunds as verb forms:
Analysis of the participle as an independent part of speech:
Functional parts of speech
Pretext
Morphological analysis of the preposition
Union
Morphological analysis of the union
Particle
Morphological analysis of a particle
Interjection
Part 5. Collocation
Phrase. Connection of words in a phrase
Part 6. Offer
The sentence as a unit of syntax. Classification of sentences by purpose of utterance and intonation
Members of the sentence. Grammar basis. Classification of sentences by the number of grammatical stems
Simple sentence
Main members of the proposal
Subject, ways of expressing it
Predicate. Types of predicate
Simple verbal predicate, ways of expressing it
Compound verb predicate
Compound nominal predicate
Features of agreement between the predicate and the subject.
Inconsistent predicate
A one-part sentence, the expression of the main member in it
Definitely personal, indefinitely personal sentences, generalized personal sentences
Impersonal offers
Name sentences
Secondary members of the sentence
Types of secondary members of a sentence. Grammar and syntax question
Definition, ways of expressing it
Addition, ways of expressing it
Circumstance, ways of expressing it. Types of circumstances
Classification of simple sentences by prevalence and completeness
Complex sentences
Homogeneous members of the sentence
Separate members of the sentence
Appeal
Introductory words, phrases and sentences.
Plug-in structures
Direct and indirect speech
Quotes
Parsing a simple sentence
Sequence of operations during parsing
Ways to emphasize sentence members
Designation of words and phrases that are not parts of the sentence
Description of the complicating members of the sentence
One-part sentences
Difficult sentence
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Classification of types of subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with attributive clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Adverbial clauses
Complex sentences with clauses of time
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with comparative clauses
Complex sentences with clauses of manner of action
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of measure and degree
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Types of subordinate clauses in Russian
Complex sentence with two or more subordinate clauses
Non-union complex sentence
Complex syntactic structures (complex sentences of mixed type)
Parsing a complex sentence
Parsing order
Constructing a proposal diagram
Download the e-book for free in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Russian language - A short theoretical course for schoolchildren - Litnevskaya E.I. - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
Moscow: Moscow State University Publishing House, 2006 - 240 p.
The manual contains a systematic presentation of all sections of the Russian Language course with an overview of the material presented in three educational complexes, as well as diagrams and samples of analysis of all language units and comments on these analyzes. The purpose of the manual is to generalize and systematize students' knowledge about language and speech.
The manual is compiled in accordance with the theoretical guidelines adopted in pre-university training at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.
For high school students, applicants and teachers.
Format: doc/zip
Size: 582 KB
/Download file
Table of contents
Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Preface
Linguistics as a science. Main branches of the science of language
Modern Russian literary language
Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Sound and letter
Phonetic transcription
Formation of vowels and consonants
Vowel sounds and vowel letters Stressed vowels
Unstressed vowels
Consonants and consonants
Voiceless and voiced consonants
Positional stun/voicing
Reflection of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing
Hard and soft consonants
Positional softening of consonants
Indication of hardness and softness of consonants in writing
Functions and spelling of b and b
Positional assimilation of consonants based on other characteristics. Dissociation of consonants
Simplification of consonant clusters (unpronounceable consonant)
Qualitative and quantitative relationships between letters and sounds in the Russian language
Syllable
Accent
Orthoepy
Graphic arts. Spelling
Writing morphemes (meaningful parts of a word)
Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling
Use of uppercase and lowercase letters
Transfer rules
Rules for graphic abbreviations of words
Phonetic analysis
Part 2. Morphemics and word formation
Subject of morphemics. Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes
Classification of morphemes in the Russian language
Root
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
Ending
Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications
The basis
Principles of morphemic word analysis
Algorithm for morphemic division of the stem
Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)
Zero word-forming suffix
Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)
Subject and basic concepts of word formation
Means and method of word formation
Methods of forming independent parts of speech
Noun
Adjective
Numeral
Pronoun
Verb
Adverb
Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another
Derivative analysis of the word
Reflection of the morphemic composition of a word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries
Part 3. Lexicology and lexicography
Lexicology and lexicography
The word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word
Single and polysemous words. Direct and figurative meanings of the word. Types of portable values
Homonyms
Synonyms
Antonyms
Outdated vocabulary
Neologisms
Common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
Dialectisms
Special vocabulary
Slang vocabulary
Stylistic layers of vocabulary
Original Russian vocabulary
Borrowed vocabulary
Old Slavonicisms
Phraseologisms
Speech. Text
Speech styles. Genres of speech
Scientific style
Formal business style
Journalistic style
Art style
Conversational style
Types of speech
Part 4. Morphology
Parts of speech in Russian
Noun
Classification of nouns by meaning
Animate and inanimate nouns
Gender as a morphological feature of a noun
Number as a morphological feature of a noun
Case as a morphological feature of nouns
Declension of nouns
Morphological analysis of a noun
Adjective
Classes of adjectives by meaning
Declension of adjectives
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Completeness/brevity of adjectives
Transition of adjectives from category to category
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Numeral
Places of numerals by meaning
Digits of numerals by structure
Grammatical features of cardinal numbers
Grammatical features of ordinal numbers
Morphological analysis of the numeral
Pronoun as part of speech
Places of pronouns by meaning
Classifications of pronouns according to grammatical features
Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns
Grammatical features of pronouns-adjectives
Grammatical features of numeral pronouns
Morphological analysis of pronouns
Analysis of pronouns-nouns
Analysis of pronouns-adjectives
Analysis of numeral pronouns
Adverb
Classification of adverbs by function
Classification of adverbs by meaning
Grammatical features of adverbs
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adverbs with -о/-е
comparative
Condition category
Morphological analysis of the adverb
Verb
Indefinite verb form (infinitive)
Transitivity/intransitivity of the verb
Refundability/non-refundability
Aspect as a morphological feature of a verb
Mood as a morphological feature of a verb
Tense as a morphological feature of a verb
Face as a morphological feature of a verb. Impersonal verbs
Conjugation
Genus. Number. Relationship between verb categories
Morphological analysis of conjugated forms of the verb and infinitive
Participle
Dependence of the number of participial forms on transitivity and verb type
Active participles
Passive participles
Participles and verbal adjectives
Morphological analysis of the participle
Analysis of the participle as a verb form:
Analysis of the participle as an independent part of speech:
Participle
Morphological analysis of gerunds
Scheme of morphological analysis of gerunds as a verb form:
Scheme of morphological analysis of gerunds as an independent part of speech:
Analysis of gerunds as verb forms:
Analysis of the participle as an independent part of speech:
Functional parts of speech
Pretext
Morphological analysis of the preposition
Union
Morphological analysis of the union
Particle
Morphological analysis of a particle
Interjection
Part 5. Collocation
Phrase. Connection of words in a phrase
Part 6. Proposal
The sentence as a unit of syntax. Classification of sentences by purpose of utterance and intonation
Members of the sentence. Grammar basis. Classification of sentences by the number of grammatical stems
Simple sentence
Main members of the proposal
Subject, ways of expressing it
Predicate. Types of predicate
Simple verbal predicate, ways of expressing it
Compound verb predicate
Compound nominal predicate
Features of agreement between the predicate and the subject.
Inconsistent predicate
A one-part sentence, the expression of the main member in it
Definitely personal, indefinitely personal sentences, generalized personal sentences
Impersonal offers
Name sentences
Secondary members of the sentence
Types of secondary members of a sentence. Grammar and syntax question
Definition, ways of expressing it
Addition, ways of expressing it
Circumstance, ways of expressing it. Types of circumstances
Classification of simple sentences by prevalence and completeness
Complex sentences
Homogeneous members of the sentence
Separate members of the sentence
Appeal
Introductory words, phrases and sentences.
Plug-in structures
Direct and indirect speech
Quotes
Parsing a simple sentence
Sequence of operations during parsing
Ways to emphasize sentence members
Designation of words and phrases that are not parts of the sentence
Description of the complicating members of the sentence
One-part sentences
Difficult sentence
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Classification of types of subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with attributive clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Adverbial clauses
Complex sentences with clauses of time
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with comparative clauses
Complex sentences with clauses of manner of action
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of measure and degree
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Types of subordinate clauses in Russian
Complex sentence with two or more subordinate clauses
Non-union complex sentence
Complex syntactic structures (complex sentences of mixed type)
Parsing a complex sentence
Parsing order
Constructing a proposal diagram
Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Preface
Russian language today in middle management(grades 5-9) there are three official alternative educational complexes, certified by the Ministry of Education, recommended by it and distributed to school libraries.
Complex 1 is an educational complex (authors: M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. T. Grigoryan and others for grades 5-7 and S. G. Barkhudarov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. Yu Maksimov, L. A. Cheshko for grades 8 and 9), reprinted more than 20 times by 2000; today this complex continues to be the most widespread.
Complex 2 is an educational complex edited by V.V. Babaytseva, which appeared in the early 90s.
Complex 3, edited by M. M. Razumovskaya and P. A. Lekant, began publication in 1995.
These complexes have no conceptual differences: the material is structured at levels from phonetics to syntax and is “diluted” with spelling, punctuation and speech development. However, some discrepancies in theory (transcription system, status of formative suffixes, parts of speech system, description of phrases and types of subordinate clauses), terminology and the order of sections create tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from school to school) and for the formation programs for admission to a philological university.
It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of teaching in a number of schools using alternative and experimental curricula, which represent a significantly modified Russian language course. Unfortunately, recently a large amount of educational literature has appeared of extremely dubious quality.
A feature of this stage of development of secondary school is that after a long break the Russian language in high school introduced as a compulsory academic subject.
Existing programs and manuals intended for studying the Russian language in grades 10-11 can be divided into several groups: programs in which the practical significance of the Russian language as an academic subject is reinforced (spelling-punctuation or speech), and programs in which the main emphasis made to strengthen the theoretical base, its systematization (for the humanitarian or - already - philological profile).
There are programs and benefits for each of these types. Manuals with a practical spelling and punctuation focus include, for example, “A Manual for Russian Language Classes in High School” by V. F. Grekov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. A. Cheshko, which has already gone through about 40 reprints. The manuals by D. E. Rosenthal “Russian Language” also have a purely practical orientation. 10-11 grades. A manual for general education institutions”, “Russian language for high school students and those entering universities”, “Russian language. A collection of exercises for high school students and those entering universities.”
The second group includes programs and benefits with an enhanced speech focus. This is A.I. Vlasenkov’s program “Russian language. grades 10-11”, provided with a manual for students “Russian language: Grammar. Text. Styles of Speech” by A. I. Vlasenkova and L. M. Rybchenkova (published since 1996).
The third group includes programs and manuals with a strong theoretical orientation. The main user of these programs is the future philologist, who, due to the variety of programs and textbooks for high school, often receives conflicting information about the language. The future philologist needs a systematizing course that can become an intermediate link in a single “school-university” chain and ensure the continuity and continuity of teaching the Russian language. Especially for senior classes of gymnasiums, humanities lyceums at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov created a program for a systematizing course in the Russian language, repeating, generalizing and deepening students’ knowledge of language theory, developing students’ skills and abilities to work with language material of different levels of complexity. The program is provided with a textbook “Russian language: A textbook for in-depth study in high school” in 2 volumes, authors V. A. Bagryantseva, E. M. Bolycheva, I. V. Galaktionova, L. A. Zhdanova, E. I. Litnevskaya (M., 2000).
In addition, in high school, the Russian language course is often replaced by a course in stylistics, rhetoric, or literature.
Such a variety of textbooks and teaching aids on the Russian language acutely raises the question of the need for repeating and generalizing materials on the Russian language. The proposed materials systematize and generalize information about the Russian language as a language system, presented in three main educational complexes, if necessary, commenting on the differences between them. Spelling and punctuation are included in the proposed materials only in a theoretically generalized form; specific spelling and punctuation rules are not considered.
Linguistics as a science. Main branches of the science of language
Linguistic science is represented in school study by the following sections studying the modern Russian literary language:
Phonetics,
Lexicology (in the school course traditionally called vocabulary and including material on lexicology and phraseology),
Morphemics and word formation (called in different complexes, depending on their specificity, either morphemics or word formation),
Morphology,
Syntax.
Sections such as graphics and spelling are usually not studied independently, but are combined with other sections. Thus, graphics are traditionally studied together with phonetics, spelling - throughout the study of phonetics, word formation and morphology.
Lexicography is not studied as an independent section; Information about dictionaries is presented in the main sections.
Stylistics is studied during lessons on speech development.
Punctuation is studied in conjunction with the syntax section.
Branches of linguistics describe language from different sides, i.e. they have their own object of study:
phonetics - sounding speech,
morphemics - the composition of a word,
word formation - word derivation,
lexicology - vocabulary of a language,
morphology - words as parts of speech,
syntax - phrases and sentences.
Morphology and syntax make up grammar.
Modern Russian literary language
The object of study of all sections of the science of the Russian language at school is the modern Russian literary language.
Modern is a language that we understand without a dictionary and which we use in communication. These two aspects of language use are not the same.
It is generally accepted that without a “translator” (dictionary, reference book, commentator) we understand the language starting with the works of A. S. Pushkin, however, many expressions used by the great poet and other writers and thinkers of the 19th and early 20th centuries are not used by modern people, and some will not understand; In addition, we read the texts of the 19th century in modern spelling, and not in the one that was in force at the time of their writing. Nevertheless, most of the sentences from the works of Russian classical literature of this time correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language and can be used as illustrative material.
If we understand the term “modern language” as the language that we understand and use, then we must recognize the language as modern starting from the second half of the twentieth century. But even during this historical period, significant changes occurred in the language, especially in its vocabulary: many neologisms appeared, many words passed into the passive vocabulary (see the lexicology section).
Thus, the term “modern language” is understood in two meanings:
1) the language we understand without a dictionary is the language from Pushkin;
2) the language we use is the language from the middle of the 20th century.
Russian language is the language of the Russian people and the Russian nation. It belongs to the group of East Slavic languages and emerged in the 14th - 15th centuries, together with the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, from a common ancestor language - the Old Russian (East Slavic) language.